AKTU ENGINEERING PHYSICS

BAS101 / BAS201 / KAS101

Complete Answer Book | 2020-21 to 2024-25

CONTENTS
Section Description Page
Section 1 Unit-wise Detailed Answers (All Questions) 3
Section 2 Numerical Problems — Step-by-Step Auto
Solutions
Section 3 Repeated Questions Analysis Auto
Section 4 Formula Sheet Auto
Section 5 Quick Revision Notes Auto
Section 6 Most Expected Questions Auto

Papers Covered: 2020-21 | 2021-22 | 2022-23 | 2023-24 | 2024-25

UNIT 1: QUANTUM MECHANICS & WAVE MECHANICS

1.1 Planck's Law of Black Body Radiation

Q: Explain basic postulates of Planck's law of radiation. / State assumptions made by Planck.
[2 Marks (Short) Marks | 2023-24, 2024-25]
ANS:
Planck's Quantum Postulates (Key Assumptions):
• An oscillator (atom) can only have energies that are discrete (quantized): E = nhν, where n =
0,1,2,3... h = Planck's constant (6.626×10⁻³⁴ J·s), ν = frequency.
• An oscillator does NOT radiate energy continuously; it emits or absorbs energy ONLY in
discrete packets called QUANTA (photons).
• Energy of one quantum: E = hν
• An oscillator in the nth state has energy En = nhν (cannot have fractional quanta).
• The oscillators are in thermal equilibrium with radiation — they exchange energy with the field
only in quanta.
 E = nhν (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...)
Planck's radiation law (energy density per unit frequency):
u(ν,T) = (8πhν³/c³) × 1/(e^(hν/kT) - 1)
Result: This law successfully explained the complete black body radiation spectrum — solving the
ultraviolet catastrophe that classical physics failed to resolve.

1.2 Compton Effect

Q: What is Compton Effect? Derive an expression for Compton Shift (Δλ).
[10 Marks (Long) Marks | 2020-21, 2021-22]
ANS:
Introduction:
When X-rays are scattered by electrons in matter, the scattered X-rays have a longer wavelength than
the incident X-rays. This increase in wavelength is called the Compton Shift and the phenomenon is
called the Compton Effect (Arthur Compton, 1923).
Significance: Proves particle nature of radiation (photons).

Derivation of Compton Shift Formula

Setup:
• Incident photon: wavelength λ, energy hν, momentum hν/c (= h/λ)
• After collision: scattered photon wavelength λ', angle φ to incident direction
• Recoil electron: mass m₀, kinetic energy K, moving at angle θ
Step 1 — Conservation of Energy:
hν + m₀c² = hν' + mc²
where mc² = relativistic energy of electron = m₀c²/√(1 - v²/c²)
Step 2 — Conservation of Momentum (x-direction):
hν/c = (hν'/c)cosφ + mv·cosθ
Step 3 — Conservation of Momentum (y-direction):
0 = (hν'/c)sinφ - mv·sinθ
Step 4 — Solving the equations:
Square and add the momentum equations, then substitute into energy equation:
Δλ = λ' - λ = (h/m₀c)(1 - cosφ)
Where:
• h/m₀c = Compton wavelength = 0.0242 Å = 2.42 × 10⁻¹² m
• φ = scattering angle of photon
Special Cases:
Scattering Angle (φ) Compton Shift (Δλ)
φ = 0° (forward) Δλ = 0 (no shift)
φ = 90° Δλ = h/m₀c = 0.0242 Å (maximum for 90°)
φ = 180° (backward) Δλ = 2h/m₀c = 0.0484 Å (maximum possible)
Why Compton Effect not observed with visible light?
The Compton shift Δλ = 0.0242 Å is extremely small. For visible light (λ ≈ 5000 Å), Δλ/λ ≈ 0.000005 —
too tiny to detect. For X-rays (λ ≈ 1 Å), Δλ/λ ≈ 2.4% — detectable. So Compton effect is observable only
with X-rays, gamma rays.

1.3 Compton Effect — Numerical Solution

Q: Calculate Compton shift and kinetic energy of recoil electron when X-rays of λ=1.0 Å
scatter from carbon block at 90°.
[7 Marks (Numerical) Marks | 2023-24]
ANS:
Given Data:
• Incident wavelength: λ = 1.0 Å = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁰ m
• Scattering angle: φ = 90°
• Planck's constant: h = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s
• Rest mass of electron: m₀ = 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg
• Speed of light: c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s
Step 1 — Calculate Compton Shift:
Δλ = (h/m₀c)(1 - cosφ) = (h/m₀c)(1 - cos90°)
Δλ = (6.626×10⁻³⁴)/(9.11×10⁻³¹ × 3×10⁸) × (1 - 0)
Δλ = 0.02426 Å ≈ 0.0243 Å
Step 2 — Find scattered wavelength:
λ' = λ + Δλ = 1.0 + 0.0243 = 1.0243 Å
Step 3 — Calculate Kinetic Energy of Recoil Electron:
Energy of incident photon:
E = hc/λ = (6.626×10⁻³⁴ × 3×10⁸)/(1.0×10⁻¹⁰) = 19.878 × 10⁻¹⁶ J
Energy of scattered photon:
E' = hc/λ' = (6.626×10⁻³⁴ × 3×10⁸)/(1.0243×10⁻¹⁰) = 19.405 × 10⁻¹⁶ J
Kinetic energy of recoil electron:
K = E - E' = (19.878 - 19.405) × 10⁻¹⁶ = 0.473 × 10⁻¹⁶ J
K ≈ 4.73 × 10⁻¹⁷ J ≈ 295.6 eV
Answer: Compton Shift = 0.0243 Å | Kinetic Energy of recoil electron ≈ 4.73 × 10 ⁻¹⁷ J

1.4 Schrodinger's Wave Equation

Q: What is wave function? Derive time independent Schrodinger wave equation. Give physical
interpretation of wave function.
[10 Marks (Long) Marks | 2020-21, 2021-22, 2024-25]
ANS:
Wave Function (ψ):
A mathematical quantity associated with a de Broglie wave of a particle, whose value at a given point in
space and time describes the quantum state of the particle.
Physical Interpretation (Born's Interpretation):
• ψ itself has NO direct physical meaning.
 • |ψ|² = ψψ* = Probability density — probability of finding the particle per unit volume.
• Probability of finding particle in volume dV: P = |ψ|² dV
• Normalization condition: ∫|ψ|² dV = 1 (particle must be somewhere)
Properties of wave function:
• Must be single-valued, finite, and continuous everywhere
• Its first derivative must also be continuous
• Must be normalizable

Derivation of Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation

Step 1 — Start with de Broglie wave:
ψ(x,t) = Ae^(i(kx - ωt))
Step 2 — Total energy relation (non-relativistic):
E = KE + PE = p²/2m + V(x)
Step 3 — Express as operators:
From the wave function, we can show:
∂²ψ/∂x² = -k²ψ = -(p²/ħ²)ψ → p² = -ħ² ∂²ψ/∂x²
Step 4 — Substitute into energy equation:
Eψ = (p²/2m)ψ + V(x)ψ
Eψ = (-ħ²/2m)(∂²ψ/∂x²) + V(x)ψ
Final Form — Time Independent Schrodinger Equation:
∂²ψ/∂x² + (2m/ħ²)(E - V)ψ = 0
OR in 3D:
∇²ψ + (2m/ħ²)(E - V)ψ = 0
-ħ²/2m ∇²ψ + V(x)ψ = Eψ
Note: ħ = h/2π = 1.054 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s (reduced Planck's constant)

1.5 Particle in a 1D Infinite Potential Box

Q: Find an expression for energy eigenvalues and wave function of a particle in one
dimensional box. / Solve Schrodinger equation for a free particle in one dimensional box.
[7/10 Marks (Long) Marks | 2020-21, 2021-22, 2022-23, 2023-24]
ANS:
Problem Setup:
A particle of mass m is confined in a 1D box of length L with infinitely high walls. This is the 'particle in a
box' or 'infinite square well' problem.
Potential:
V(x) = 0 for 0 < x < L
V(x) = ∞ for x ≤ 0 or x ≥ L

Step 1: Apply Schrodinger equation inside box (V = 0)

d²ψ/dx² + (2mE/ħ²)ψ = 0
Let k² = 2mE/ħ²
d²ψ/dx² + k²ψ = 0
Step 2: General solution
ψ(x) = A·sin(kx) + B·cos(kx)

Step 3: Apply boundary conditions

• At x = 0: ψ(0) = 0 → B = 0
• At x = L: ψ(L) = 0 → A·sin(kL) = 0
Since A ≠ 0 (trivial solution), sin(kL) = 0:
kL = nπ → k = nπ/L (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)

Step 4: Energy Eigenvalues

From k² = 2mE/ħ²:
Eₙ = n²π²ħ²/(2mL²) = n²h²/(8mL²)
• n = 1 → Ground state energy E₁ = h²/(8mL²) (zero-point energy)
• n = 2 → First excited state E₂ = 4E₁
• n = 3 → Second excited state E₃ = 9E₁
Energy levels are DISCRETE (quantized) — not continuous!

Step 5: Wave Functions

From normalization condition ∫₀ᴸ |ψ|² dx = 1:
A = √(2/L)
ψₙ(x) = √(2/L) · sin(nπx/L)
Key Results:
Quantum Number n Energy Eₙ Wave Function
1 (Ground state) h²/8mL² √(2/L)·sin(πx/L)
2 (1st excited) 4h²/8mL² √(2/L)·sin(2πx/L)
3 (2nd excited) 9h²/8mL² √(2/L)·sin(3πx/L)
Important: Zero Point Energy
Even at n=1, the particle has minimum energy E₁ = h²/8mL² ≠ 0. This is the zero-point energy —
consistent with Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (the particle cannot be at rest).

1.6 Phase Velocity and Group Velocity

Q: Distinguish between phase velocity and group velocity of a wave packet and establish the
relation between them.
[7 Marks Marks | 2022-23, 2023-24]
ANS:
Phase Velocity (vₚ):
The speed at which a single point of constant phase (crest or trough) of a wave travels through space.
vₚ = ω/k = νλ
• ω = angular frequency, k = wave number
• For light in vacuum: vₚ = c
• Can be greater than c in some media (doesn't violate relativity — no energy transfer)
Group Velocity (vg):
The velocity at which the envelope (overall shape) of a wave packet travels. This is the velocity at
which energy/information is actually transmitted.
vg = dω/dk
Distinction Table:
Parameter Phase Velocity (vₚ) Group Velocity (vg)
Definition Speed of phase of monochromatic Speed of wave packet (group of
wave waves)
Formula vₚ = ω/k vg = dω/dk
Physical meaning Speed of wavefronts Speed of energy/information
In vacuum vₚ = c vg = c
In dispersive Can exceed c Always ≤ c
medium
Relates to Wavelength, frequency Envelope of wave packet

Relation Between Phase and Group Velocity

We know: vₚ = ω/k → ω = vₚ · k
Differentiating: dω/dk = vₚ + k·(dvₚ/dk)
Since k = 2π/λ, dk/dλ = -2π/λ², so k·dk⁻¹ = -λ:
vg = vₚ - λ·(dvₚ/dλ)
Special Cases:
• Non-dispersive medium: dvₚ/dλ = 0 → vg = vₚ (phase = group velocity)
• Normal dispersion: dvₚ/dλ > 0 → vg < vₚ
• Anomalous dispersion: dvₚ/dλ < 0 → vg > vₚ
Relation to de Broglie waves:
For a particle, E = hν = ħω and p = h/λ = ħk. Therefore:
vg = dω/dk = dE/dp = d(p²/2m)/dp = p/m = v (particle velocity)
This confirms that the group velocity of de Broglie wave = classical velocity of particle.

1.7 Davisson-Germer Experiment

Q: Describe the experiment of Davisson and Germer to demonstrate the wave character of
electrons.
[7 Marks Marks | 2024-25, 2022-23]
ANS:
Objective:
To experimentally verify de Broglie's hypothesis that electrons have wave nature (wave-particle
duality).
Principle:
If electrons have wave nature, they should show diffraction when scattered by a crystal lattice (whose
spacing is comparable to electron wavelength).

Experimental Setup
• Electron gun: accelerates electrons to desired energy by potential V
• Nickel target (crystal): acts as a diffraction grating (lattice spacing d ≈ 2.15 Å)
 • Movable detector (Faraday cup): measures intensity of scattered electrons at various angles
• All enclosed in evacuated chamber

Procedure
1. Electrons accelerated through potential V, gaining KE = eV
2. Electron beam hits nickel crystal surface
3. Scattered electrons collected by detector at different angles φ
4. Intensity vs. angle plotted for different accelerating voltages

Observation
At accelerating voltage V = 54 V and scattering angle φ = 50°, a sharp intensity maximum (diffraction
peak) was observed. This is called the Bragg diffraction peak.

Verification
de Broglie wavelength of electron:
λ = h/p = h/√(2meV)
λ = 6.626×10⁻³⁴/√(2 × 9.11×10⁻³¹ × 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ × 54)
λ = 1.67 Å
Bragg's law wavelength:
2d·sinθ = nλ (n=1)
For nickel d = 0.91 Å, Bragg angle θ = 65° (φ = 50° → θ = 65°):
λ = 2 × 0.91 × sin65° = 1.65 Å
Result: Experimental λ (1.65 Å) matches de Broglie λ (1.67 Å) — CONFIRMED wave nature of
electrons!
Conclusion:
Davisson-Germer experiment experimentally proved that electrons exhibit wave nature, validating de
Broglie's hypothesis and establishing wave-particle duality.

1.8 Numerical: Probability of Finding Particle in Box

Q: A particle is in a 1D box of width 20 Å. Calculate the probability of finding it within 10 Å at
centre when in ground state.
[7 Marks (Numerical) Marks | 2024-25]
ANS:
Given:
• Box width: L = 20 Å = 20 × 10⁻¹⁰ m
• Interval: from x = L/2 - 5 to x = L/2 + 5 = 5 Å to 15 Å (center ± 5 Å)
• Ground state: n = 1
Wave function for ground state:
ψ₁(x) = √(2/L) · sin(πx/L)
Probability of finding particle between x = a and x = b:
P = ∫ₐᵇ |ψ₁|² dx = (2/L) ∫ₐᵇ sin²(πx/L) dx
Using: sin²θ = (1 - cos2θ)/2
P = (2/L) ∫ₐᵇ (1 - cos(2πx/L))/2 dx
 P = (1/L)[x - (L/2π)sin(2πx/L)]ₐᵇ
Substituting a = L/4 = 5Å, b = 3L/4 = 15Å, L = 20Å:
P = (1/L)[(b-a) - (L/2π)(sin(2πb/L) - sin(2πa/L))]
P = (1/20)[(15-5) - (20/2π)(sin(3π/2) - sin(π/2))]
P = (1/20)[10 - (10/π)((-1) - (1))]
P = (1/20)[10 + 20/π]
P = 0.5 + 1/π ≈ 0.5 + 0.318 = 0.818
Answer: Probability = 0.818 ≈ 81.8% — the particle has ~82% chance of being found in the central half
of the box in ground state.

1.9 Special Theory of Relativity — Time Dilation

Q: What do you mean by time dilation? Explain with mathematical proof. Justify with
experimental evidence.
[10 Marks Marks | 2020-21, 2021-22]
ANS:
Introduction:
According to Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity (1905), time is NOT absolute. A moving clock ticks
slower than a stationary clock — this phenomenon is called TIME DILATION.
Einstein's Two Postulates of Special Relativity:
5. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference (Principle of Relativity).
6. The speed of light in vacuum (c = 3×10⁸ m/s) is the same for all inertial observers, regardless of
the motion of source or observer.

Mathematical Derivation of Time Dilation

Consider a light clock: a photon bounces between two mirrors separated by distance d₀.
In S' (moving frame — proper frame):
t₀ = 2d₀/c (proper time — time measured in rest frame of event)
In S (stationary frame):
The photon travels a diagonal path. If S' moves with velocity v:
Horizontal distance in time t: x = vt
Total path = 2√(d₀² + (vt/2)²)
ct = 2√(d₀² + v²t²/4)
Solving:
c²t² = 4d₀² + v²t²
t²(c² - v²) = 4d₀² = c²t₀²
t = t₀/√(1 - v²/c²) = γt₀
Time Dilation Formula:
t = γt₀ where γ = 1/√(1 - v²/c²) ≥ 1
Since γ ≥ 1, t ≥ t₀. The moving clock runs SLOWER. The stationary observer measures a longer time
interval.
Experimental Evidence — Muon Decay:
Cosmic ray muons are created at ~10 km altitude traveling at v ≈ 0.998c. Their half-life is t₀ = 2.2 μs.
Classical calculation: they should travel only ~660 m before decay. But they are detected at Earth's
surface (~10 km). Why?
t = t₀/√(1 - (0.998c)²/c²) = 2.2 μs/0.063 ≈ 34.9 μs
In this dilated time, they travel: 0.998c × 34.9 μs ≈ 10.4 km — consistent with observations! This is
experimental proof of time dilation.

1.10 Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation

Q: Derive Einstein's mass-energy relation E = mc². Show relativistic kinetic energy formula.
[10 Marks Marks | 2020-21, 2021-22]
ANS:
Derivation:
The relativistic momentum is: p = mv = m₀v/√(1-v²/c²) = γm₀v
Work done in accelerating particle from rest to velocity v equals kinetic energy K:
K = ∫F·dv = ∫v·dp
Using integration by parts and relativistic momentum:
K = mc² - m₀c²
Where: m = γm₀ = m₀/√(1-v²/c²) is relativistic mass.
Total Energy:
E = K + m₀c² = mc²
Einstein's Mass-Energy Equivalence:
E = mc² (Total energy = relativistic mass × c²)
• Rest energy: E₀ = m₀c²
• Kinetic energy: K = mc² - m₀c² = (γ-1)m₀c² = m₀c²[1/√(1-v²/c²) - 1]
Energy-Momentum Relation:
E² = (pc)² + (m₀c²)²
For massless particles (photons): E = pc

UNIT 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

2.1 Maxwell's Equations

Q: Write Maxwell's equations in free space. Show electric and magnetic vectors are normal to
direction of propagation.
[10 Marks Marks | 2020-21, 2021-22]
ANS:
Maxwell's Four Equations (in differential form):
Equation 1 — Gauss's Law for Electric Field:
∇·E = ρ/ε₀ (free space: ρ=0 → ∇·E = 0)
Meaning: Electric flux through closed surface = enclosed charge/ε₀. Electric field lines originate and
terminate on charges.
Equation 2 — Gauss's Law for Magnetic Field:
∇·B = 0
Meaning: Magnetic monopoles do not exist. Magnetic field lines always form closed loops.
Equation 3 — Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:
∇×E = -∂B/∂t
Meaning: A changing magnetic field induces an electric field (curl of E equals negative rate of change
of B).
Equation 4 — Modified Ampere's Law (Maxwell's Addition):
∇×B = μ₀J + μ₀ε₀(∂E/∂t)
Meaning: A magnetic field is produced by both conduction current (J) AND displacement current
(ε₀∂E/∂t). In free space (J=0):
∇×B = μ₀ε₀(∂E/∂t)
Summary Table:
Equation Differential Form Physical Meaning
Gauss (E) ∇·E = ρ/ε₀ Electric charges create E field
Gauss (B) ∇·B = 0 No magnetic monopoles
Faraday ∇×E = -∂B/∂t Changing B creates E
Ampere-Maxwell ∇×B = μ₀J + μ₀ε₀∂E/∂t Current + changing E creates B

2.2 Displacement Current and Maxwell's 4th Equation

Q: What is Maxwell's 4th equation modifying on the basis of displacement current? Explain
capacitor charging with DC and AC.
[7 Marks Marks | 2023-24]
ANS:
Problem with original Ampere's Law:
Original Ampere's Law: ∇×B = μ₀J. This fails for a circuit with a capacitor — no conduction current
flows between capacitor plates, yet a magnetic field exists there. Maxwell resolved this contradiction.
Displacement Current (Maxwell's addition):
Even in the absence of conduction current, a changing electric field between capacitor plates can
produce a magnetic field. Maxwell defined displacement current density:
Jd = ε₀ · ∂E/∂t
Id = ε₀ · dΦE/dt (Displacement Current)
Modified Maxwell's 4th Equation:
∇×B = μ₀(J + Jd) = μ₀J + μ₀ε₀(∂E/∂t)

Capacitor Charging — DC vs AC Explanation

DC Battery Charging:
• When capacitor is fully charged, conduction current (Ic) → 0
• But electric field between plates is changing DURING charging
• Displacement current Id = ε₀·dE/dt provides continuity of current
 • At steady state: E = constant, so Id = 0. No current flows at all — correct!
AC Source:
• AC continuously changes direction → electric field between plates continuously changes
• Displacement current Id = ε₀·dΦE/dt is continuously non-zero
• This displacement current 'completes' the circuit between the plates
• So current flows 'continuously' — AC can pass through a capacitor!
Key Insight: Displacement current is not actual electron flow but is a changing electric flux. It ensures
continuity of current in circuits with capacitors.

2.3 Electromagnetic Wave Equation

Q: Derive electromagnetic wave equation in free space. Prove EM waves propagate at speed
of light.
[10 Marks Marks | 2021-22, 2024-25]
ANS:
Starting from Maxwell's equations in free space (ρ=0, J=0):
∇·E = 0 ....(1)
∇·B = 0 ....(2)
∇×E = -∂B/∂t ....(3)
∇×B = μ₀ε₀(∂E/∂t) ....(4)

Derivation of Wave Equation for E

Take curl of equation (3):
∇×(∇×E) = -∂/∂t(∇×B)
Using vector identity: ∇×(∇×E) = ∇(∇·E) - ∇²E
Since ∇·E = 0 (from eq.1):
∇×(∇×E) = -∇²E
Substituting equation (4):
-∇²E = -μ₀ε₀(∂²E/∂t²)
Wave Equation for Electric Field:
∇²E = μ₀ε₀(∂²E/∂t²)
Similarly, Wave Equation for Magnetic Field:
∇²B = μ₀ε₀(∂²B/∂t²)

Speed of EM Waves
Standard wave equation: ∇²ψ = (1/v²)(∂²ψ/∂t²). Comparing:
1/v² = μ₀ε₀
v = 1/√(μ₀ε₀)
Substituting: μ₀ = 4π×10⁻⁷ H/m, ε₀ = 8.85×10⁻¹² F/m:
v = 1/√(4π×10⁻⁷ × 8.85×10⁻¹²) = 3×10⁸ m/s = c
Conclusion: EM waves travel at the speed of light! Maxwell identified light as an EM wave.
Transverse Nature:
From ∇·E = 0 for plane wave E = E₀e^(i(k·r - ωt)), we get k·E₀ = 0, meaning E is perpendicular to
direction of propagation k. Similarly B is perpendicular to k. Also E ⊥ B. So EM waves are transverse.

2.4 Poynting Theorem

Q: Derive the Poynting or work-energy theorem for the flow of energy in an electromagnetic
field. Give physical interpretation.
[7/10 Marks Marks | 2020-21, 2021-22, 2023-24]
ANS:
Statement:
The rate of decrease of electromagnetic energy stored in a volume equals the rate at which work is
done by the EM field on charges plus the rate at which energy flows out through the surface.

Derivation
Work done by EM field on a charge q in time dt:
dW/dt = F·v = q(E + v×B)·v = qE·v = J·E
From Maxwell's 4th equation: J = (1/μ₀)∇×B - ε₀∂E/∂t
Substituting and using vector identity ∇·(E×B) = B·(∇×E) - E·(∇×B):
J·E = -∂/∂t[ε₀E²/2 + B²/2μ₀] - ∇·(E×B)/μ₀
Poynting Theorem (Differential Form):
-∂U/∂t = J·E + ∇·S
Where:
• U = (ε₀E²/2 + B²/2μ₀) = EM energy density
• S = (E×B)/μ₀ = Poynting vector [W/m²]
Integral Form:
-d/dt ∫U dV = ∫J·E dV + ∮S·dA

Poynting Vector
S = (E×B)/μ₀ [W/m²]
• Direction of S = direction of EM energy propagation
• Magnitude |S| = intensity of EM wave (power per unit area)
Physical Interpretation:
• Left side: rate of decrease of stored EM energy in volume V
• First term on right: rate of work done on charges (energy dissipated as heat)
• Second term: rate of energy flowing out through surface (energy flux)
This is the work-energy theorem for EM fields — energy is conserved.
Memory Trick: S = Poynting vector POINTS in direction energy flows (away from source)

2.5 Skin Depth

Q: Define skin depth. Write necessary formula for skin depth in conducting and non-
conducting media. Calculate skin depth for silver at 10⁸ Hz.
[7/10 Marks Marks | 2021-22, 2022-23]
ANS:
Definition:
The distance from the surface of a conductor into which an EM wave penetrates before its amplitude
falls to 1/e (≈ 37%) of its surface value is called the SKIN DEPTH (δ).
Physical Meaning:
In a good conductor, currents concentrate near the surface. The depth at which current density falls to
1/e of surface value is skin depth.
Formula for Conducting Media:
δ = √(2/ωμσ) = 1/√(πfμσ)
Where:
• ω = 2πf = angular frequency
• μ = permeability of medium
• σ = electrical conductivity
For Non-conducting (dielectric) Media:
The wave penetrates without much attenuation (σ ≈ 0, δ → ∞).

Numerical: Skin depth for Silver at f = 10⁸ Hz

Given:
• f = 10⁸ Hz, so ω = 2π × 10⁸
• μ = μ₀ = 4π × 10⁻⁷ H/m (silver)
• σ = 3 × 10⁷ S/m (mhos/m)
Calculation:
δ = √(2/(ωμσ)) = √(2/(2π×10⁸ × 4π×10⁻⁷ × 3×10⁷))
δ = √(2/(2π×10⁸ × 4π×10⁻⁷ × 3×10⁷))
Denominator = 2π × 4π × 3 × 10⁸⁻⁷⁺⁷ = 24π² × 10⁸
δ = √(2/(24π² × 10⁸)) = √(1/(12π² × 10⁸))
δ = 1/(π√(12) × 10⁴) = 1/(3.464π × 10⁴)
δ ≈ 1/(1.088 × 10⁵) ≈ 9.19 × 10⁻⁶ m ≈ 9.19 μm
Answer: Skin depth of silver at 10⁸ Hz ≈ 9.19 μm. Very thin — explains why silver coating works well
for shielding at high frequencies.

2.6 Numerical: Electric and Magnetic Field of Radiation

Q: A 1000W lamp radiates uniformly. Calculate average E and B fields at distance 2m (or 5m).
[7 Marks (Numerical) Marks | 2023-24, 2024-25]
ANS:
Given (at 2m):
• Power P = 1000 W, Distance r = 2 m
Step 1 — Intensity at distance r:
I = P/(4πr²) = 1000/(4π × 4) = 1000/50.27 = 19.89 W/m²
Step 2 — Using Poynting vector magnitude:
I = |S| = E₀B₀/(2μ₀) = E₀²/(2μ₀c) = cε₀E₀²/2
Step 3 — Electric field:
E₀ = √(2I/cε₀) = √(2 × 19.89/(3×10⁸ × 8.85×10⁻¹²))
 E₀ = √(39.78/2.655×10⁻³) = √(14984) ≈ 122.4 V/m
Step 4 — Magnetic field:
B₀ = E₀/c = 122.4/3×10⁸ = 4.08 × 10⁻⁷ T
Answers: E₀ ≈ 122.4 V/m | B₀ ≈ 4.08 × 10⁻⁷ T (at 2m)
For 5m: I = 1000/(4π×25) = 3.18 W/m², E₀ ≈ 48.9 V/m, B₀ ≈ 1.63 × 10 ⁻⁷ T

UNIT 3: OPTICS — INTERFERENCE & DIFFRACTION

3.1 Thin Film Interference — Parallel Films

Q: Discuss the phenomenon of interference due to parallel thin films. Find conditions for
maxima and minima. Show reflected and transmitted patterns are complementary.
[7 Marks Marks | 2023-24, 2024-25]
ANS:
Introduction:
When white light falls on a thin transparent film (soap bubble, oil slick), colorful patterns appear due to
interference of light reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the film.
Setup:
• Thin film of thickness t and refractive index μ
• Light of wavelength λ incident at angle i, refracted at angle r

Path Difference in Reflected Light

The path difference between ray reflected from top surface (with phase change of π due to denser
medium) and ray reflected from bottom surface is:
Δ = 2μt·cosr (+ λ/2 phase change from top reflection)
Net optical path difference including phase change:
Effective Δ = 2μt·cosr + λ/2 (for reflection from denser medium)
Conditions for Reflected Light:
• Bright (Maxima): 2μt·cosr = (2n-1)λ/2 [n = 1, 2, 3, ...]
• Dark (Minima): 2μt·cosr = nλ [n = 0, 1, 2, ...]
Conditions for Transmitted Light:
No phase change in transmission, so:
• Bright (Maxima): 2μt·cosr = nλ
• Dark (Minima): 2μt·cosr = (2n-1)λ/2

Complementary Nature
The conditions for maxima in reflected light are the conditions for minima in transmitted light, and vice
versa. Energy is conserved: energy not reflected is transmitted. So:
I_reflected + I_transmitted = I_incident
When reflected is bright, transmitted is dark. They are COMPLEMENTARY — the interference patterns
are complementary to each other.
Special case — Normal incidence (r = 0, cosr = 1):
 • Bright reflected: 2μt = (2n-1)λ/2
• Dark reflected: 2μt = nλ

3.2 Newton's Rings

Q: Describe formation of Newton's rings in monochromatic light. Show that diameters of dark
rings are proportional to square roots of natural numbers.
[10 Marks Marks | 2020-21, 2021-22]
ANS:
Introduction:
Newton's rings are circular interference fringes formed in an air wedge created between a plano-convex
lens and a flat glass plate. First observed by Newton, explained by wave theory of light.
Formation:
• A plano-convex lens (radius R) is placed on a flat glass plate
• An air film of varying thickness t is trapped between them
• Light reflected from lower surface of lens and upper surface of plate interfere
• At contact point (t=0): destructive interference (dark centre)
• Moving outward: alternating dark and bright rings

Why Centre is Dark?

At the point of contact, air film thickness t = 0. Optical path difference = 0 + λ/2 (phase change at
denser glass plate) = λ/2 → destructive interference → DARK centre.

Derivation of Ring Diameters

For a ring at radius r_n from centre, the air film thickness is t.
From geometry: r²_n = R·t (for t << R)
t = r²_n/(2R) → r²_n = 2Rt
For dark rings in reflected light: 2t = nλ → t = nλ/2
r²_n = 2R × nλ/2 = nλR
Diameter: Dₙ² = 4r²_n = 4nλR
Dₙ = 2√(nλR) → Dₙ ∝ √n
This proves dark ring diameters ∝ √n (square roots of natural numbers).
For bright rings:
D²_n = 2(2n-1)λR (Dₙ ∝ √(2n-1))
Key Formulas:
Parameter Formula
Dark ring radius r²_n = nλR
Dark ring diameter Dₙ = 2√(nλR)
Bright ring radius r²_n = (2n-1)λR/2
Radius of curvature R = D²_n/(4nλ)
Refractive index μ = D²_n(air)/D²_n(liquid)

Newton's Rings Numerical

 Q: Newton's rings in reflected light (λ=6000 Å), diameter of 10th dark ring = 0.50 cm. Find R
and film thickness.
[7 Marks (Numerical) Marks | 2023-24]
Given: n=10, λ=6000 Å = 6×10⁻⁷ m, D₁₀ = 0.50 cm = 0.005 m
R = D²_n/(4nλ) = (0.005)²/(4×10×6×10⁻⁷)
R = 2.5×10⁻⁵/(24×10⁻⁶) = 2.5/2.4 ≈ 1.042 m
Film thickness: t = nλ/2 = 10×6×10⁻⁷/2 = 3×10⁻⁶ m = 3 μm
Answers: R ≈ 1.042 m | Thickness of film = 3 μm

3.3 Single Slit Fraunhofer Diffraction

Q: Discuss single slit Fraunhofer diffraction. Show relative intensities of successive maxima
are 1 : 1/22 : 1/62 : 1/121.
[7/10 Marks Marks | 2023-24, 2024-25]
ANS:
Fraunhofer vs Fresnel Diffraction:
Feature Fraunhofer Fresnel
Source distance Infinite (parallel rays) Finite (spherical waves)
Observation screen Infinity (or focal plane) Finite distance
Mathematical Simpler (Fourier transform) Complex
treatment

Intensity Distribution — Single Slit

Consider a single slit of width 'a'. Divide it into N elements, each acting as a secondary source.
Phase difference between extreme rays:
δ = (2π/λ) · a·sinθ
Let α = πa·sinθ/λ (half-phase difference)
Resultant Intensity:
I = I₀ · (sinα/α)² = I₀ · sinc²(α)

Positions of Maxima and Minima

Minima (dark fringes): sinα = 0 → α = mπ (m ≠ 0)
a·sinθ = mλ m = ±1, ±2, ±3, ...
Principal Maximum: α = 0 (θ = 0), I = I₀
Secondary Maxima: dI/dα = 0 → tanα = α
Solutions: α ≈ ±3π/2, ±5π/2, ±7π/2, ... (approximately odd multiples of π/2)

Relative Intensities
Maximum Position (α) Intensity I/I₀ Approximate Value
Principal (m=0) α=0 1 1
1st secondary α ≈ 3π/2 (2/3π)² = 4/9π² 1/22 ≈ 0.045
2nd secondary α ≈ 5π/2 (2/5π)² = 4/25π² 1/61 ≈ 0.016
 3rd secondary α ≈ 7π/2 (2/7π)² = 4/49π² 1/121 ≈ 0.008
Intensities ratio ≈ 1 : 1/22 : 1/62 : 1/121 ✓
When slit width < wavelength:
If a < λ, then sinθ = λ/a > 1 — no minima exist! The diffraction pattern becomes a broad illuminated
region with no fringes.

Numerical: Single Slit

Q: Slit width 0.5cm, focal length 40cm, λ=4890Å. Find distance between first dark and next
bright fringe.
[7 Marks (Numerical) Marks | 2023-24]
Given: a = 0.5 cm = 5×10⁻³ m, f = 40 cm = 0.4 m, λ = 4890 Å = 4.89×10 ⁻⁷ m
Position of first dark fringe (m=1):
sinθ₁ ≈ tanθ₁ = λ/a = 4.89×10⁻⁷/5×10⁻³ = 9.78×10⁻⁵
y₁(dark) = f·tanθ₁ = 0.4 × 9.78×10⁻⁵ = 3.912×10⁻⁵ m
Position of 1st secondary maximum (α = 3π/2):
a·sinθ = 3λ/2 → sinθ = 3λ/2a = 3×4.89×10⁻⁷/(2×5×10⁻³)
sinθ = 1.467×10⁻⁴
y₁(bright) = 0.4 × 1.467×10⁻⁴ = 5.868×10⁻⁵ m
Distance between first dark and next bright:
Δy = 5.868×10⁻⁵ - 3.912×10⁻⁵ = 1.956×10⁻⁵ m ≈ 0.0196 mm
Answer: Distance ≈ 1.96 × 10⁻⁵ m ≈ 0.0196 mm

3.4 Diffraction Grating

Q: What is a diffraction grating? Discuss the phenomenon of diffraction due to plane
diffraction grating.
[10 Marks Marks | 2020-21]
ANS:
Diffraction Grating:
An optical element with a large number of equally spaced parallel slits (or rulings) that disperses light
into its component wavelengths. A typical grating has 500-15000 lines per inch.
Grating equation:
(a + b)sinθ = nλ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Where: (a+b) = grating element = d (spacing between slits), n = order of diffraction
Principal maxima condition:
When path difference between adjacent slits = nλ
Resolving Power:
R = λ/dλ = nN
Where N = total number of slits, n = order of diffraction
Dispersive Power:
D = dθ/dλ = n/(d·cosθ)

Grating Numerical
 Q: Grating has 16,000 lines per inch over 5 inches. Find smallest wavelength difference
resolvable near 6000 Å in 2nd order.
[7 Marks (Numerical) Marks | 2022-23]
Given: 16,000 lines/inch, total 5 inches → N = 16000 × 5 = 80,000 slits
Order n = 2, λ = 6000 Å
Resolving Power: R = nN = 2 × 80,000 = 160,000
R = λ/dλ → dλ = λ/R = 6000/160000 = 0.0375 Å
Answer: Smallest resolvable wavelength difference = 0.0375 Å

Thin Film Numerical — Sodium Light

Q: Sodium light (5880Å) on glass plate (μ=1.5, refraction angle=60°). Find smallest thickness
for dark reflection.
[7 Marks (Numerical) Marks | 2024-25]
Given: λ = 5880 Å, μ = 1.5, r = 60°
For dark ring in reflected light (minima): 2μt·cosr = nλ
For smallest thickness, n = 1:
t = λ/(2μ·cosr) = 5880×10⁻¹⁰/(2 × 1.5 × cos60°)
t = 5880×10⁻¹⁰/(2 × 1.5 × 0.5) = 5880×10⁻¹⁰/1.5
t = 3920 Å = 3.92 × 10⁻⁷ m
Answer: Minimum thickness = 3920 Å = 392 nm

UNIT 4: LASERS & OPTICAL FIBERS

4.1 Einstein Coefficients & Laser Fundamentals

Q: Explain absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission. Show A₂₁/B₂₁ =
8πhν³/c³
[7/10 Marks Marks | 2024-25, 2021-22]
ANS:
Three Processes of Radiation:
1. Absorption:
An atom in lower energy state E₁ absorbs a photon of energy hν = E₂ - E₁ and jumps to higher state
E₂.
Rate of absorption = B₁₂ · ρ(ν) · N₁
where ρ(ν) = radiation density, N₁ = population of lower state, B₁₂ = Einstein's B coefficient
2. Spontaneous Emission:
An atom in excited state E₂ spontaneously falls to lower state E₁ and emits a photon hν — WITHOUT
any triggering radiation. Random process (like radioactive decay). Produces INCOHERENT light.
Rate of spontaneous emission = A₂₁ · N₂
• Follows exponential decay: N₂(t) = N₂(0)e^(-A₂₁t)
• Lifetime: τ = 1/A₂₁
3. Stimulated Emission:
An atom in excited state E₂ is triggered by an incoming photon to emit an identical photon. The emitted
photon is COHERENT (same phase, frequency, direction) with the incident photon — this is the basis
of LASER!
Rate of stimulated emission = B₂₁ · ρ(ν) · N₂
Summary Table:
Property Spontaneous Stimulated
Trigger None (random) Incident photon
Coherence Incoherent Coherent
Phase Random Same as incident
Direction Random Same as incident
Used in LED, tube lights LASER, amplifiers

Einstein's Relation: A₂₁/B₂₁ = 8πhν³/c³

At thermal equilibrium, rate of absorption = rate of emission:
B₁₂ · ρ(ν) · N₁ = A₂₁ · N₂ + B₂₁ · ρ(ν) · N₂
Using Boltzmann distribution: N₁/N₂ = e^(hν/kT) and B₁₂ = B₂₁:
ρ(ν) = A₂₁/B₂₁ × 1/(e^(hν/kT) - 1)
Comparing with Planck's radiation law: ρ(ν) = (8πhν³/c³)/(e^(hν/kT) - 1):
A₂₁/B₂₁ = 8πhν³/c³ ✓

4.2 Metastable State and Laser Action

Q: What is metastable state? Discuss their role in laser action.
[2 Marks Marks | 2023-24]
ANS:
Metastable State:
• An excited energy state where the atom remains for a relatively longer time (≈ 10 ⁻³ s) compared
to ordinary excited states (≈ 10⁻⁸ s).
• Transitions from metastable state to ground state are 'forbidden' by selection rules — atoms get
'stuck' here.
Role in Laser Action:
• Population inversion (N₂ > N₁) is essential for lasing — more atoms in upper state than lower.
• Metastable states make population inversion achievable by acting as 'storage' levels.
• Atoms accumulate in the metastable state faster than they decay → population inversion builds
up.
• When stimulated emission starts, all accumulated atoms emit coherently → laser action.
Key Point: Without metastable states, atoms would decay too quickly for population inversion to
develop.
4.3 He-Ne Laser
Q: Draw a neat diagram of He-Ne laser and describe its working. How is it superior to Ruby
laser?
[7/10 Marks Marks | 2023-24, 2021-22]
ANS:
Introduction:
He-Ne laser is a gas laser (invented 1960 by Ali Javan). It uses a mixture of helium and neon gases
(10:1 ratio) and produces a continuous beam of laser light.
Construction:
• Long cylindrical discharge tube (30-50 cm) filled with He:Ne gas (ratio 10:1) at low pressure (~1
torr)
• High voltage electrodes for electrical excitation
• Two mirrors: one fully reflective, one partially transmitting (~1%) as output coupler
• Mirrors form the optical cavity (resonator)

Working Mechanism
7. Electrical discharge excites He atoms to metastable states F₁ (20.61 eV) and F₂ (19.82 eV)
8. Excited He atoms collide with Ne atoms — resonant energy transfer (He* + Ne → He + Ne*)
9. Ne atoms are excited to states E₆ (20.66 eV) and E₄ (19.78 eV) close to He metastable states
10. Population inversion established in Ne between E₆→E₅ and E₄→E₃ transitions
11. Stimulated emission occurs: E₆→E₅ gives λ = 3.39 μm (infrared), E₄→E₃ gives λ = 1.15 μm
12. Most important: E₃→E₂ gives λ = 632.8 nm (RED laser light)
13. Ne atoms return to ground state via collision with tube walls
Main output: λ = 632.8 nm (red) — continuous wave (CW)

He-Ne vs Ruby Laser Comparison

Property He-Ne Laser Ruby Laser
Type Gas laser Solid state laser
Output Continuous Wave (CW) Pulsed
Wavelength 632.8 nm (red) 694.3 nm (red)
Efficiency ~0.1% (higher) ~0.1% (lower)
Beam quality Highly coherent, monochromatic Less coherent
Power Low power (mW) High peak power (MW)
Excitation Electrical discharge Optical pumping (xenon flash)
Cooling Not required Required (water cooling)
Applications Holography, alignment, barcode Drilling, welding, surgery
He-Ne is Superior because:
• Continuous (CW) output vs pulsed — more versatile
• Better beam quality and coherence
• No cooling required
• Longer operating life
• Less expensive to operate
4.4 Ruby Laser
Q: What are solid state lasers? Explain construction and working of Ruby laser with diagrams.
[7/10 Marks Marks | 2022-23]
ANS:
Solid State Lasers:
Lasers in which the lasing medium is a solid material (crystal or glass doped with active ions).
Examples: Ruby, Nd:YAG, Nd:glass.
Ruby Laser — Construction:
• Ruby rod: Al₂O₃ (sapphire) crystal doped with 0.05% Cr³⁺ (chromium ions) — the active
medium
• Rod dimensions: ~1 cm diameter, 5-20 cm long
• Xenon flash lamp: coiled around the ruby rod for optical pumping (4000-5000 K light)
• Elliptical reflector: focuses flash lamp light onto rod
• Fully silvered mirror at one end, partially silvered at other (output coupler)

Working (3-level laser system):

14. Xenon flash lamp emits white light — pumps Cr³⁺ ions from ground state (E₁) to absorption
bands E₃ (blue, ~550 nm) and E₄ (green, ~400 nm)
15. Rapid non-radiative decay (10⁻⁷ s): ions fall from E₃, E₄ to metastable state E₂ (54.4 μs
lifetime)
16. Population inversion: when >50% of Cr³⁺ ions are in E₂ state
17. Stimulated emission: E₂ → E₁, emitting λ = 694.3 nm (deep red)
18. Laser output: intense pulsed red light (~1 MW peak power)
Three-level disadvantage: Need to excite >50% of atoms (inefficient). He-Ne is 4-level (more
efficient).

4.5 Optical Fiber — Acceptance Angle & Numerical Aperture

Q: Explain acceptance angle and acceptance cone of optical fiber. Derive expression for
numerical aperture.
[7/10 Marks Marks | 2023-24, 2024-25, 2020-21]
ANS:
Optical Fiber Structure:
• Core: high refractive index n₁
• Cladding: lower refractive index n₂ (n₂ < n₁)
• Light propagates by Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
Acceptance Angle (θₐ):
The maximum angle at which light can enter the fiber (at the input end) and still undergo TIR inside the
fiber. Light entering at angle greater than θₐ is refracted out and lost.
Acceptance Cone:
The cone of acceptance is a three-dimensional cone with half-angle equal to the acceptance angle. Any
light entering within this cone will propagate through the fiber.

Derivation of Numerical Aperture

Let light enter fiber at angle θᵢ at the input face. By Snell's law at the input face:
n₀·sinθᵢ = n₁·sinθᵣ (n₀ = 1 for air)
At the core-cladding interface, for TIR: angle of incidence must ≥ critical angle θc:
sinθc = n₂/n₁
From geometry: θᵣ + φ = 90°, where φ is angle at core-cladding interface:
sinθᵣ = cosφ = √(1 - sin²φ) = √(1 - n₂²/n₁²)
So: sinθᵢ = n₁·sinθᵣ = n₁√(1 - n₂²/n₁²) = √(n₁² - n₂²)
Numerical Aperture (NA):
NA = sinθₐ = √(n₁² - n₂²)
In terms of Relative Refractive Index Difference (Δ):
Δ = (n₁ - n₂)/n₁ → NA = n₁√(2Δ)
Physical Meaning: NA represents the 'light-gathering ability' of the fiber. Higher NA = more light
collected = better for short-distance, high-bandwidth applications.

4.6 V-Number and Number of Modes

Q: Calculate V-number for a fiber of core diameter 40μm, n_core=1.55, n_cladding=1.50,
λ=1400nm. Find number of modes.
[7 Marks (Numerical) Marks | 2023-24]
ANS:
Given:
• Core diameter = 40 μm → radius a = 20 μm = 20 × 10⁻⁶ m
• n₁ = 1.55 (core), n₂ = 1.50 (cladding)
• λ = 1400 nm = 1400 × 10⁻⁹ m
Step 1 — Numerical Aperture:
NA = √(n₁² - n₂²) = √(1.55² - 1.50²) = √(2.4025 - 2.25) = √0.1525 = 0.3905
Step 2 — V-Number (Normalized Frequency):
V = (2πa/λ) × NA = (2π × 20×10⁻⁶)/(1400×10⁻⁹) × 0.3905
V = (2π × 20)/(1400×10⁻³) × 0.3905
V = (125.66/1.4) × 0.3905 = 89.76 × 0.3905 ≈ 35.06
Step 3 — Number of Modes:
For multimode fiber: N ≈ V²/2 (step index fiber)
N ≈ (35.06)²/2 = 1229/2 ≈ 614 modes
Answers: V-number ≈ 35.06 | Number of modes ≈ 614
Note: Since V >> 2.405, this is a multimode fiber. For single-mode operation, V < 2.405.

4.7 Scattering Loss in Optical Fiber

Q: What do you mean by scattering loss in optical fiber?
[2 Marks Marks | 2023-24]
ANS:
• Scattering loss is the loss of light signal in optical fibers due to random scattering of photons by
microscopic variations in the density and composition of the fiber material.
 • Main cause: Rayleigh scattering — due to density fluctuations in glass during manufacturing
(unavoidable).
• Rayleigh scattering ∝ 1/λ⁴ — much greater at shorter wavelengths.
• Other sources: waveguide imperfections, refractive index fluctuations.
• This is why optical fibers operate best in near-infrared region (850-1550 nm) where Rayleigh
scattering is minimized.

UNIT 5: SUPERCONDUCTIVITY & NANOMATERIALS

5.1 Meissner Effect & Properties of Superconductors

Q: Discuss Meissner effect. Show that perfect diamagnetism and zero resistivity are two
independent and essential properties.
[7 Marks Marks | 2024-25]
ANS:
Superconductivity:
The phenomenon where certain materials lose all electrical resistance (ρ → 0) and expel magnetic
fields when cooled below a critical temperature Tc.
Meissner Effect (1933):
When a superconductor is cooled below Tc in the presence of a magnetic field, it EXPELS the
magnetic flux completely from its interior (B = 0 inside the superconductor). This is the Meissner Effect
— NOT explained by just zero resistance.

Zero Resistivity vs Perfect Diamagnetism — Independent Properties

Property 1 — Zero Electrical Resistivity (ρ = 0):
• Below Tc: R = 0, so current flows indefinitely without any voltage
• This does NOT automatically mean B = 0 inside
• If we imagine a 'perfect conductor' (ρ = 0 by some other mechanism): if B was present before
cooling, by Lenz's law, currents would maintain that B inside (flux freezing)
Property 2 — Perfect Diamagnetism (B = 0 — Meissner Effect):
• A real superconductor ACTIVELY expels B field, regardless of whether field existed before
cooling
• This requires an active mechanism (surface currents called Meissner currents/London currents)
• This cannot be derived from just ρ = 0
Why they are independent:
A perfect conductor would not expel a pre-existing B field — it would freeze it. But a superconductor
always has B = 0 inside, whether it was cooled in field or not. This proves Meissner effect is NOT a
consequence of zero resistivity but an independent, additional property.
Surface currents (Meissner currents):
Superconductors develop surface currents that create a magnetic field exactly opposing the applied
field, resulting in B = 0 inside. χₘ = -1, μᵣ = 0 (perfect diamagnet).
5.2 Type I and Type II Superconductors
Q: What is the difference between Type I and Type II superconductors? Why are Type II more
important?
[7 Marks Marks | 2023-24, 2024-25]
ANS:
Type I Superconductors (Soft Superconductors):
• Single critical field Hc — abrupt transition from superconducting to normal state
• Perfect Meissner effect up to Hc (complete flux exclusion)
• Examples: Pure metals — Pb (Tc=7.2K), Sn (Tc=3.7K), Hg (Tc=4.15K), Al, In
• Low critical fields (~10²-10⁴ A/m) — NOT suitable for practical magnets
Type II Superconductors (Hard Superconductors):
• Two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2
• For H < Hc1: complete Meissner effect (like Type I)
• For Hc1 < H < Hc2: MIXED STATE (Vortex state) — partial flux penetration as quantized
vortices
• For H > Hc2: normal conducting state
• Examples: Alloys and compounds — Nb₃Sn (Tc=18K), NbTi, YBa₂Cu₃O₇ (YBCO, Tc=90K —
high temp!
Comparison Table:
Property Type I Type II
Critical fields Single Hc Two: Hc1 and Hc2
Meissner effect Complete below Hc Complete below Hc1, partial Hc1-Hc2
Vortex state No Yes (Hc1 < H < Hc2)
Hc values Low (~few × 10⁴ A/m) Very high (up to 10⁷ A/m for Hc2)
Examples Pure metals (Pb, Sn, Hg) Alloys (Nb₃Sn, YBCO)
Practical use Limited MRI, particle accelerators, power lines
Vortex State (Mixed State):
In the mixed state, magnetic flux penetrates the superconductor as thin quantized flux tubes called
VORTICES, each carrying a single flux quantum Φ₀ = h/2e = 2.07 × 10⁻¹⁵ Wb. The surrounding
superconducting matrix still carries zero-resistance currents.
Why Type II is More Important:
19. Hc2 can be extremely large (up to 50 T for some compounds)
20. Can carry much larger currents in strong magnetic fields
21. Practical applications: MRI machines, MAGLEV trains, particle accelerators (LHC at CERN)
22. High-temperature superconductors (YBCO, Tc > 77K) are Type II — work with liquid nitrogen,
not expensive liquid helium
23. Form the basis of all technological superconductor applications

5.3 Critical Magnetic Field & Numerical

Q: Effect of magnetic field on superconductors. For Pb (Tc=7.2K), at 5K, Hc=3.3×10⁴ A/m. Find
H at 0K.
[7 Marks Marks | 2022-23]
ANS:
Temperature Dependence of Critical Field:
Hc(T) = Hc(0)[1 - (T/Tc)²]
Given: Tc = 7.2 K, T = 5 K, Hc(5K) = 3.3 × 10⁴ A/m
Find Hc(0):
3.3×10⁴ = Hc(0)[1 - (5/7.2)²] = Hc(0)[1 - 0.4822]
3.3×10⁴ = Hc(0) × 0.5178
Hc(0) = 3.3×10⁴/0.5178 = 6.375 × 10⁴ A/m
Answer: Hc(0) = 6.375 × 10⁴ A/m

Superconductor Numerical 2 (from 2024-25)

Q: Critical fields are 1.4×10⁵ and 4.2×10⁵ A/m at 14K and 13K. Find Tc, Hc(0), Hc(4.2K).
Using: Hc(T) = Hc(0)[1 - (T/Tc)²]
At T₁=14K: 1.4×10⁵ = Hc(0)[1-(14/Tc)²] ...(1)
At T₂=13K: 4.2×10⁵ = Hc(0)[1-(13/Tc)²] ...(2)
Dividing (2)÷(1):
3 = [1-(13/Tc)²]/[1-(14/Tc)²]
3[1-(196/Tc²)] = 1-(169/Tc²)
3 - 588/Tc² = 1 - 169/Tc²
2 = 419/Tc² → Tc² = 209.5 → Tc ≈ 14.47 K
From equation (1): Hc(0) = 1.4×10⁵/[1-(14/14.47)²] = 1.4×10⁵/[1-0.935] = 1.4×10⁵/0.065 ≈ 21.5×10⁵
A/m
Hc(4.2K) = 21.5×10⁵ × [1-(4.2/14.47)²] = 21.5×10⁵ × [1-0.0844] = 21.5×10⁵ × 0.9156 ≈ 19.68×10⁵ A/m
Answers: Tc ≈ 14.47 K | Hc(0) ≈ 21.5×10⁵ A/m | Hc(4.2K) ≈ 19.68×10⁵ A/m

5.4 Quantum Confinement & Nanomaterials

Q: Explain quantum confinement effect in nanomaterials. Discuss Quantum Well and
Quantum Wire.
[2/7 Marks Marks | 2023-24, 2024-25]
ANS:
Nanomaterials:
Materials with at least one dimension in the 1-100 nm range. At nanoscale, materials exhibit
dramatically different properties from their bulk counterparts due to quantum effects and large surface-
to-volume ratio.
Quantum Confinement Effect:
When the dimensions of a material become comparable to or smaller than the de Broglie wavelength of
electrons (typically 1-10 nm), electrons cannot move freely — they become confined. This causes their
energy levels to become DISCRETE (quantized) rather than continuous bands as in bulk materials.
• Energy gap increases as size decreases (blue shift in optical properties)
• Density of states changes dramatically
• Properties depend on size — can be tuned by controlling size
Classification by Dimensions of Confinement:
Structure Confinement Free Dimensions Example
 Quantum Well 1D (one direction) 2D (plane) GaAs/AlGaAs thin layer
Quantum Wire 2D (two directions) 1D (line) Carbon nanotubes, nanowires
Quantum Dot 3D (all directions) 0D (point) CdSe dots, semiconductor crystals
Bulk 0D (none) 3D Normal crystal
Quantum Well:
• Thin layer (~2-20 nm) of narrow-bandgap semiconductor sandwiched between wider-bandgap
materials
• Electrons confined in one direction → discrete energy levels in that direction
• Used in: semiconductor lasers (CD/DVD players), high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs)
Quantum Wire:
• Nanoscale wire (~1-10 nm diameter) — electrons confined in 2 directions, free along wire length
• Examples: carbon nanotubes, semiconductor nanowires
• Applications: interconnects in nanoelectronics, field-effect transistors
Quantum Dot:
• Nanocrystal with all 3 dimensions confined — 'artificial atom'
• Completely discrete energy spectrum (like an atom)
• Size-tunable optical properties — used in LED displays (QLED), solar cells, bioimaging

5.5 CVD Method for Nanomaterial Synthesis

Q: What is the purpose of Nanoscience? Discuss CVD/Sol-Gel method for synthesis of
nanomaterials.
[7 Marks Marks | 2023-24, 2024-25]
ANS:
Purpose of Nanoscience:
• To understand, create, and utilize materials at the nanoscale (1-100 nm)
• To exploit unique size-dependent physical, chemical, and biological properties
• Applications: medicine (drug delivery), electronics (nano-transistors), energy (nano-solar cells),
materials (strong nanocomposites)
Top-Down vs Bottom-Up Approaches:
Approach Method Example
Top-Down Breaking bulk material into nano- Ball milling, Lithography, Etching
size
Bottom-Up Building from atoms/molecules CVD, Sol-Gel, Molecular beam epitaxy

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) — Bottom-Up

Principle:
Chemical reactions of gaseous precursors on or near a heated substrate surface to deposit a thin film
or nanostructure.
Steps:
24. Gaseous precursor (e.g., SiH₄ for Si, or hydrocarbon for carbon nanotubes) is introduced into a
reaction chamber
25. Substrate (e.g., metal catalyst like Fe, Co, Ni) is heated to high temperature (700-1000°C)
26. Precursor molecules decompose on/near the hot substrate
 27. Atoms/molecules diffuse and form nuclei on the surface
28. Nuclei grow into nanoparticles, nanowires, or thin films
29. Exhaust gases are removed
Advantages of CVD:
• Can deposit a wide variety of materials
• Excellent uniformity and conformity over complex shapes
• High purity films possible
• Scalable for industrial production
• Can grow carbon nanotubes, graphene
Disadvantages:
• High processing temperatures
• Precursor gases may be toxic/explosive
• Complex equipment required

Sol-Gel Method — Bottom-Up

Principle:
Synthesis of solid nanomaterials from liquid phase through formation of a colloidal suspension (sol) that
is then gelled and dried.
Steps:
30. Precursor (metal alkoxide, e.g., TEOS for SiO₂) dissolved in solvent
31. HYDROLYSIS: Alkoxide reacts with water → metal hydroxide (colloidal SOL)
32. CONDENSATION: Hydroxide groups link together → 3D network forms (GEL)
33. Aging: Gel structure strengthens
34. Drying: Remove solvent → XEROGEL (dense) or AEROGEL (porous)
35. Optional sintering: heat treatment to densify
Advantages:
• Low temperature processing (room temp to ~500°C)
• Excellent homogeneity at molecular level
• Easy composition control
• Can make complex oxide ceramics
Applications of Nanomaterials:
• Medicine: Targeted drug delivery (liposomes, dendrimers), cancer treatment
• Electronics: Nano-transistors, quantum computing, OLED displays
• Energy: Nano-enhanced solar cells, fuel cells, Li-ion batteries
• Structural: Carbon nanotube reinforced composites (aerospace)
• Environment: Nano-filtration membranes for water purification

SECTION 3: REPEATED QUESTIONS ANALYSIS

Based on analysis of all 5 AKTU question papers (2020-21 to 2024-25), the following questions are
most frequently repeated:
Most Frequently Repeated Questions
Topic Times Papers Priority
Asked
He-Ne Laser — working, diagram, 5/5 All papers VERY HIGH
comparison with Ruby
Particle in 1D box — energy 5/5 All papers VERY HIGH
eigenvalues, wave function
Newton's Rings — formation, dark 5/5 All papers VERY HIGH
ring diameter proof
Poynting Theorem — derivation + 4/5 2020-23-24 all VERY HIGH
physical interpretation
Acceptance angle & Numerical 5/5 All papers VERY HIGH
Aperture of optical fiber
Schrodinger wave equation — 4/5 Most papers VERY HIGH
derivation + interpretation
Single slit Fraunhofer diffraction — 4/5 Most papers HIGH
intensity pattern
Compton Effect — derivation of 4/5 Most papers HIGH
Compton shift
Maxwell's equations — derivation + 4/5 Most papers HIGH
wave equation
Type I vs Type II Superconductors 4/5 Most papers HIGH
Planck's law — 5/5 All papers HIGH
postulates/assumptions
Phase velocity vs Group velocity 3/5 2022-23, 2023-24 MEDIUM
Einstein coefficients — A₂₁/B₂₁ 3/5 Multiple MEDIUM
derivation
CVD/Sol-Gel for nanomaterial 3/5 Multiple MEDIUM
synthesis
Quantum confinement — quantum 4/5 Most papers HIGH
well, wire, dot
Time dilation — derivation + 2/5 2020-21, 2021-22 MEDIUM
experimental evidence
Davisson-Germer experiment 3/5 Multiple MEDIUM
Meissner effect 2/5 2024-25, 2022-23 MEDIUM
Thin film interference — conditions 4/5 Most papers HIGH
for maxima/minima
Displacement current — Maxwell's 3/5 Multiple MEDIUM
4th equation

Unit-wise Question Distribution

Unit Topic Avg Questions per Max Marks
Paper
Unit 1 Quantum Mechanics 2-3 questions 14-21
Unit 2 EM Theory 2 questions 14-17
Unit 3 Optics 2-3 questions 14-17
Unit 4 Lasers & Optical Fibers 2 questions 14
Unit 5 Superconductivity & Nano 2 questions 14

SECTION 4: FORMULA SHEET

Unit 1 — Quantum Mechanics

Formula Name Variables
E = nhν Planck's quantum n=quantum number, h=6.626×10⁻³⁴ J·s,
energy ν=frequency
Δλ = (h/m₀c)(1-cosφ) Compton shift φ=scattering angle, h/m₀c=0.0242 Å
λ = h/mv = h/p de Broglie p=momentum, m=mass, v=velocity
wavelength
ψₙ = √(2/L)·sin(nπx/L) Particle in box L=box length, n=quantum number
wave function
Eₙ = n²h²/8mL² Particle in box n=1,2,3..., m=mass, L=length
energy
vg = vₚ - λ(dvₚ/dλ) Group velocity vg=group vel, vₚ=phase vel, λ=wavelength
relation
t = t₀/√(1-v²/c²) Time dilation t₀=proper time, v=velocity, c=light speed
E = mc² = γm₀c² Mass-energy m₀=rest mass, γ=Lorentz factor
relation

Unit 2 — Electromagnetic Theory

Formula Name Variables
∇·E = ρ/ε₀ Gauss's law (E ε₀=8.85×10⁻¹² F/m
field)
∇·B = 0 Gauss's law (B No magnetic monopoles
field)
∇×E = -∂B/∂t Faraday's law
∇×B = μ₀J + μ₀ε₀∂E/∂t Ampere-Maxwell μ₀=4π×10⁻⁷ H/m
law
c = 1/√(μ₀ε₀) = 3×10⁸ Speed of EM wave
m/s
S = (E×B)/μ₀ Poynting vector S=energy flux density
(W/m²)
I = E₀²/(2μ₀c) = cε₀E₀²/2 Intensity from E E₀=amplitude of E
field
δ = √(2/ωμσ) Skin depth ω=angular freq, σ=conductivity

Unit 3 — Optics
Formula Name Condition
2μt·cosr = nλ (dark, Thin film dark fringe n=0,1,2...
reflected)
2μt·cosr = (2n-1)λ/2 Thin film bright n=1,2,3...
(bright) fringe
Dₙ = 2√(nλR) Newton's dark ring n=ring number, R=radius of curvature,
diameter λ=wavelength
R = D²ₙ/(4nλ) Radius of curvature
from rings
I = I₀(sinα/α)² Single slit intensity α = πa·sinθ/λ
a·sinθ = mλ (minima) Single slit dark m=±1,±2...
fringes
(a+b)sinθ = nλ Grating equation n=order, (a+b)=grating spacing
R = nN Resolving power of N=total slits, n=order
grating

Unit 4 — Lasers & Optical Fibers

Formula Name Variables
A₂₁/B₂₁ = 8πhν³/c³ Einstein A=spontaneous, B=stimulated coeff
coefficients ratio
NA = √(n₁² - n₂²) = Numerical aperture n₁,n₂=core,cladding RI, Δ=rel. diff.
n₁√(2Δ)
sinθₐ = NA Acceptance angle θₐ=acceptance angle
V = (2πa/λ)·NA V-number a=core radius, λ=wavelength
(normalized freq.)
N ≈ V²/2 (step-index) Number of modes Single mode: V < 2.405
L(dB) = 10log(Pout/Pin) Fiber loss in dB P=optical power

Unit 5 — Superconductivity & Nanomaterials

Formula Name Variables
Hc(T) = Hc(0)[1-(T/Tc)²] Critical field vs Tc=transition temp
temperature
Φ₀ = h/2e = 2.07×10⁻¹⁵ Flux quantum Single vortex in Type II
Wb
Eₙ = n²h²/8mL² (1D), etc. Quantum L=confinement dimension
confinement energy
λ_dB = h/√(2mE) de Broglie E=kinetic energy
wavelength in box
Important Constants
Constant Symbol Value
Planck's constant h 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s
Reduced Planck's ħ 1.054 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s
constant
Speed of light c 3 × 10⁸ m/s
Electron rest mass m₀ 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg
Electron charge e 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
Boltzmann constant k_B 1.38 × 10⁻²³ J/K
Permittivity of free ε₀ 8.85 × 10⁻¹² F/m
space
Permeability of free μ₀ 4π × 10⁻⁷ H/m
space
Compton h/m₀c 2.42 × 10⁻¹² m = 0.0242 Å
wavelength

SECTION 5: MOST EXPECTED QUESTIONS FOR UPCOMING

EXAMS

Based on 5-Year PYQ Analysis — High Probability Topics

UNIT 1 — Quantum Mechanics (MUST PREPARE)
Question Probabi Marks
lity
Particle in 1D box — eigenstates, energy, wave 95% 7-10
function
Schrodinger time-independent equation derivation 90% 7-10
Compton Effect derivation + numerical 85% 7-10
Phase velocity vs Group velocity + relation 80% 7
Davisson-Germer experiment 75% 7
de Broglie hypothesis + uncertainty principle 70% 5-7
Planck's law postulates (short) 90% 2
Wave packet — what is it? 70% 2

UNIT 2 — EM Theory (MUST PREPARE)

Question Probabi Marks
lity
Poynting theorem derivation + physical meaning 95% 7-10
EM wave equation from Maxwell's equations 90% 7-10
Displacement current + Maxwell's 4th equation 85% 7
Skin depth — definition + numerical for silver/copper 75% 5-7
Electric/magnetic field of radiating source (numerical) 80% 7

UNIT 3 — Optics (MUST PREPARE)

Question Probabi Marks
lity
Newton's Rings — formation + dark ring diameter 95% 7-10
proof + numerical
Single slit Fraunhofer diffraction + intensity ratio proof 90% 7-10
Thin film interference — conditions for 85% 7
maxima/minima
Diffraction grating — resolving power + numerical 75% 5-7
Wedge-shaped film + fringe width 65% 7

UNIT 4 — Lasers & Optical Fibers (MUST PREPARE)

Question Probabi Marks
lity
He-Ne laser — diagram, working, comparison with 95% 7-10
Ruby
Acceptance angle + Numerical Aperture derivation + 95% 7-10
numerical
Einstein coefficients + A₂₁/B₂₁ = 8πhν³/c³ 85% 7
V-number and number of modes — numerical 80% 7
Ruby laser — construction and working 75% 7
Metastable state — role in laser 70% 2
Types of optical fibers (classification) 65% 5-7

UNIT 5 — Superconductivity & Nanomaterials (MUST PREPARE)

Question Probabi Marks
lity
Type I vs Type II superconductors + vortex state 90% 7
Meissner effect + why diamagnetism ≠ just zero 85% 7
resistance
Hc(T) formula + numerical 80% 7
Quantum confinement + quantum well/wire/dot 85% 5-7
CVD method for nanomaterial synthesis 80% 7
Sol-Gel method 65% 7
Properties and applications of nanomaterials 70% 5-7
SECTION 6: QUICK REVISION NOTES

One-Line Definitions (For 2-Mark Questions)

Term Definition
Photon A quantum of electromagnetic radiation with energy E = hν
de Broglie hypothesis Every moving particle has an associated wavelength λ = h/mv
Wave function (ψ) Mathematical function whose |ψ|² gives probability density of finding a
particle
Tunneling Quantum phenomenon where particle crosses a potential barrier it
classically cannot
Metastable state Excited state with unusually long lifetime (~10⁻³s), essential for population
inversion in lasers
Population inversion State where more atoms in excited state than ground state (N₂ > N₁) —
necessary for lasing
Coherent light Light with all photons having same phase, frequency, and direction
Numerical aperture (NA) Measure of light-gathering ability of optical fiber: NA = √(n₁²-n₂²)
Skin depth Depth into conductor at which EM wave amplitude falls to 1/e of surface
value
Meissner effect Expulsion of magnetic field from interior of superconductor when cooled
below Tc
Quantum well Thin layer (~nm) where electrons are confined in one direction, having
discrete energy levels
Compton shift Increase in wavelength of X-rays scattered by electrons: Δλ = (h/m₀c)(1-
cosφ)
Displacement current Current due to changing electric field: Id = ε₀·dΦE/dt (Maxwell's addition)
Vortex state Mixed state in Type II superconductor (Hc1<H<Hc2) with quantized flux
tubes
Zero-point energy Minimum energy E₁ = h²/8mL² of a particle in a box even at lowest
quantum state

Memory Tricks & Mnemonics

Maxwell's Equations Order:
• GG FA = Gauss (E), Gauss (B), Faraday, Ampere-Maxwell
Compton Shift Max Cases:
• 0° → No shift | 90° → Compton wavelength | 180° → Double Compton wavelength
Newton's Rings:
• Centre DARK in REFLECTED light (phase change of π at denser medium)
• Centre BRIGHT in TRANSMITTED light (no phase change)
Laser levels:
• Ruby = 3-level = PULSED | He-Ne = 4-level = CONTINUOUS (CW)
Type I vs II:
• I = one Hc, complete Meissner | II = two Hc's, partial + vortex state
Optical fiber:
• NA = √(n₁²-n₂²) | V < 2.405 = single mode | V > 2.405 = multimode

Common Mistakes to Avoid

36. Compton: φ is the scattering angle of PHOTON, not electron
37. Newton's Rings: Centre is dark in REFLECTED, bright in TRANSMITTED
38. Particle in box: n starts from 1 (not 0) for physical states
39. EM waves: Use E₀ (peak value) in intensity; I = E₀²/(2μ₀c)
40. Numerical aperture: Use n₁ (core) and n₂ (cladding); n₁ > n₂ always
41. Thin film: Phase change of π occurs ONLY at reflection from denser medium
42. V-number: use core RADIUS (a = d/2), NOT diameter
43. Superconductors: Hc2 > Hc1 always for Type II

Viva / Oral Questions

Question Quick Answer
Why does center appear dark in Newton's Phase change of π at dense medium gives λ/2 path diff
rings? → destructive interference
What proves EM waves are transverse? E·k = 0 and B·k = 0 from Maxwell's equations
Why is He-Ne laser better than Ruby? CW output, better coherence, no cooling needed, 4-level
(more efficient)
What is the Compton wavelength? h/m₀c = 0.0242 Å — characteristic length for Compton
scattering
Why can't Compton effect be seen with Δλ (0.0242 Å) << λ_visible (5000 Å), shift too tiny to
visible light? measure
What is zero-point energy? Minimum energy of confined particle = h²/8mL² even at
n=1 (can't be zero by uncertainty principle)
Why Type II SC more useful? Very high Hc2 allows use in strong magnetic fields (MRI,
particle accelerators)
What is NA physically? Sine of acceptance angle = measure of light collecting
ability of fiber
Why quantum dots are colorful? Quantum confinement makes energy gap size-dependent
→ different color emission
What does V-number tell us? V < 2.405: single mode; V >> 2.405: multimode; N ≈ V²/2
modes total