CANTILEVEL RETAINING WALL Total Vertical Load: W =22.5+24+ 93.6=140.

1 kN

GIVEN DATA : Height of retained earth, H=4 m STEP 4: CHECK FOR SLIDING

Unit weight of soil, γ =18 kN /m3 F resisting=μW =0.6 ×140.1=84.06 kN

84.06
Safe bearing capacity (SBC) = 200 kN /m2
F driving=48 kN FOS= =1.75 Safe (should be >
48
1.5)
Coefficient of friction μ=0.6
STEP 5: CHECK FOR OVERTURNING
Angle of repose (internal friction angle), ϕ=30∘
Overturning Moment : M o=48 ×1.33=63.84 kNm
Concrete = M20 , Steel = Fe500
Resisting Moment
STEP 1: EARTH PRESSURE (Rankine Theory)
 Stem: 22.5 ×1.2=27
1−sin ⁡ϕ
For horizontal backfill: K a =
1+ sin ⁡ϕ  Base: 24 × 1.2=28.8
1−0.5 0.5
sin ⁡30 =0.5 K a = = =0.333
∘
 Soil: 93.6 × 1.85=173.16
1+ 0.5 1.5
M r=27+28.8+173.16=228.96 kNm
1 2
Active Earth Pressure Pa= K a γ H
2 228.96
1 Factor of Safety : FOS= =3.58
Pa= × 0.333 ×18 ׿ 63.84
2 Safe (>2)
Pa=0.1665 ×18 ×16=47.95 kN /m Total lateral
force = 48 kN/m STEP 6: BEARING PRESSURE

Point of Application M r−M o 228.96−63.84

e= e= =1.18 m Check
W 140.1
H 4
Acts at: = =1.33 m above base B 2.4
3 3 Eccentricity Condition: = =0.4
6 6
STEP 2: INITIAL DIMENSIONS
e > B/6→ redesign needed (pressure uneven)
For cantilever retaining wall:
To fix: increase base width
Base width B ≈ 0.5 H to 0.7 H
REVISED DESIGN: Take: B=3.0 m
B=0.6 × 4=2.4 m(assume) Redo calculations: Toe = 1 m , Heel = 1.7 m

Divide Base: Toe = 0.8 m Now eccentricity reduces and pressure becomes safe.

 Stem thickness = 0.3 m STEP 7: STRUCTURAL DESIGN

3
 Heel = 2.4−(0.8+0.3)=1.3 m Ka γ H
(A) STEM DESIGN: Acts as cantilever: M =
6
Thickness : Base slab = 400 mm
0.333 ×18 ×64
M= =63.8 kNm
Stem = 300 mm at base → 150 mm at top 6
STEP 3: FORCES CALCULATION Required Steel: M u=1.5 ×63.8=95.7 kNm
Weight of Wall

( 0.3+0.15 )
Use: M u=0.87 f y A s d 1 − ( As f y
f ck bd )
(1) Stem Weight Volume= × 4=0.9 m3 Solve → A s ≈ 800 mm /m
2
2
W 1=0.9× 25=22.5 kN Provide: 12 mm @ 150 mm c/c
(B) HEEL SLAB: Acts as cantilever with soil load:
(2) Base Slab Volume=2.4 × 0.4=0.96 m3 2
Load=18 × 4=72 kN /m
W 2 =0.96 ×25=24 kN 2
wL
M= =72× ¿ ¿ M =104 kNm Steel: 16 mm @
(3) Soil on Heel : Volume=1.3 × 4=5.2 m 3 2
W 3 =5.2× 18=93.6 kN 150 mm c/c
 qL
2
Y-direction centroid: ý ≈ 5.7 m
(C) TOE SLAB : Upward pressure acts: M =
2 Compare with raft center:
Design similarly →Provide:
 Raft center X = 19.4 /2=9.7 m
 12 mm @ 150 mm c/c
 Raft center Y = 11.4 /2=5.7 m
RAFT FOUNDATION CG coincides with raft center → No eccentricity
STEP 1: GIVEN DATA: Column size = 400 × 400 mm
Pressure is uniform , No uplift or tension
2
SBC (Allowable soil pressure) = 80 kN /m
STEP 6: TYPE OF RAFT
Concrete = M15 , Steel = Fe415 Loads are irregular , Many columns , Moderate SBC
Assume load = 10% (self weight of raft + soil above) Use: Two-way slab raft (flat slab type)
Layout Interpretation: Columns are arranged in a 3 × 4 STEP 7: DESIGN APPROACH
Spacing: Along X-direction = 6000 mm (6 m)  Longitudinal strips (X-direction)
Along Y-direction = 5000 mm (5 m)  Transverse strips (Y-direction)
Edge projections = 700 mm STEP 8: LOAD ON STRIP
Overall Raft Size: Length (X-direction):
Soil pressure: q=69.6 kN /m2
¿ 700+6000+ 6000+6000+700=19400 mm=19.4 m
Load per meter strip:
Width (Y-direction):
¿ 700+5000+5000+700=11400 mm=11.4 m If strip width = 1 m: w=69.6 kN /m
STEP 2: TOTAL LOAD CALCULATION STEP 9: BENDING MOMENT (CRITICAL)
Row A: 600+1600+ 2000+600=4800 kN wL
2

Row B: 800+1800+ 2000+1000=5600 kN For 6 m span: M =

8
Row C: 800+1000+ 1200+600=3600 kN 2
69.6 ×6
M= =313.2 kNm
Total Column Load: 8
P=4800+5600+3600=14000 kN
STEP 10: EFFECTIVE DEPTH
Add 10% for raft + soil: 2
Ptotal=1.1 ×14000=15400 kN Using: M u=0.138 f ck b d
6 2
2
313.2 ×10 =0.138 ×15 ×1000 × d d ≈ 390 mm
STEP 3: CHECK AREA REQUIRED: q safe =80 kN /m
15400 2 Provide: d=450 mm ⇒ D=500 mm
Required area: A= =192.5 m
80 STEP 11: STEEL CALCULATION
2
Provided Area: A provided =19.4 ×11.4=221.16 m Mu
M u=1.5 ×313.2=470 kNmUse: A s= =
SAFE (Provided > Required) 0.87 f y d
6
470 ×10
STEP 4: CHECK SOIL PRESSURE: A s=
0.87 × 415× 450
15400 2
q= =69.6 kN /m 2
A s ≈ 2900 m m /m
221.16
Provide: 20 mm dia bars , Spacing ≈ 100 mm c/c
Less than SBC → Safe
STEP 12: SHEAR CHECK:
STEP 5: CHECK LOAD ECCENTRICITY
wL 69.6 ×6
V= = =208.8 kN
We must ensure uniform pressure distribution. 2 2
V
Find CG of Column Loads Check shear stress: τ v =
bd
∑(Pi x i) Safe → OK for M15
X-direction centroid: x́=
∑ Pi STEP 13: PUNCHING SHEAR (VERY IMPORTANT)
After calculation (from figure spacing): x́ ≈ 9.7 m
Around each column: STEP 7: CHECK SOIL PRESSURE:
V u=column load−soil reaction 880 2
q= =83.8 kN /m , Less than SBC → Safe
Check perimeter: u=4 (d +columnsize) 7 ×1.5
Usually: Punching governs thickness STEP 8: STRUCTURAL DESIGN

500 mm depth is adequate Now footing behaves like a beam under soil pressure.

STEP 14: REINFORCEMENT DETAILS STEP 9: LOAD DISTRIBUTION: Uniform upward

pressure: q=83.8 kN /m2
Bottom Steel (Main): In both directions : 20 mm @
Load per meter:
100 mm c/c , Top Steel (Negative moment near
w=q × B=83.8 ×1.5=125.7 kN /m
columns): 16m @ 150 mm c/c
STEP 10: BENDING MOMENT (CRITICAL): Critical
Distribution Steel: 10 mm @ 200 mm c/c
section → between columnsMax moment approx:
2 2
COMBINE FOOTING WITHOUT BEAM w L 125.7 × 7
M= = =770 kNm
8 8
STEP 1: GIVEN DATA : Column 1: Size = 250 ×250 mm
2
, Load P1=300 kN STEP 11: EFFECTIVE DEPTH: Use: M u=0.138 f ck b d
Assume M20 concrete:
Column 2:Size = 300 ×300 mm, Load P2=500 kN 6 2
770 ×10 =0.138 ×20 ×1500 × d
Spacing (c/c) = 4 m , Safe Bearing Capacity (SBC): d ≈ 450 mm
2
q safe =100 kN /m
Provide: d=500 mm ⇒ D=550 mm
STEP 2: TOTAL LOAD :
P=P1 + P2=300+500=800 kN STEP 13: STEEL CALCULATION :
M u=1.5 ×770=1155 kNm
Add self-weight of footing : Assume:10 % of load Mu 6
A s= 1155×10 2
Ptotal=1.1 ×800=880 kN A s= A s ≈ 6400 m m
0.87 f y d 0.87 × 415× 500
Ptotal 880 2
STEP 3: REQUIRED AREA: A= = =8.8 m Provide reinforcement:20mm bars Spacing ≈ 90 mm
qsafe 100 c/c
STEP 4: POSITION OF RESULTANT LOAD STEP 14: SHEAR CHECK (ONE-WAY SHEAR)
Take moment about Column 1: We already found: w=125.7 kN /m
P2 × 4 500 × 4 wL 125.7 ×7
x= = =2.5 m For worst case: V = = =440 kN
P 1+ P 2 800 2 2
Resultant is 2.5 m from column 1
V
NOMINAL SHEAR STRESS τ v =
STEP 5: FOOTING LENGTH: Let projections be a and b : b ×d
L=a+4 +b Where: b=1500 mm ,d=500 mm
Condition for uniform pressure: Resultant must pass 3
through center of footing 440 ×10 2
τ v= =0.59 N /m m PERMISSIBLE SHEAR
1500× 500
L STRESS : From IS 456 (for M20): τ c ≈ 0.62 N /m m
2
=2.5+a L=5+ 2a
2
RESULT : τ v < τ c ( SAFE in one-way shear)
Try assumption: Let a=1 m
STEP 15: PUNCHING SHEAR (TWO-WAY SHEAR)
L=5+ 2(1)=7 mThen: b=L−(4 +a)=7−5=2 m
d
Left projection = 1 m , Right projection = 2 m CRITICAL SECTION : At distance: from column face
2
Total length = 7 m
CRITICAL PERIMETER : For square column: u=4 × ¿
STEP 6: WIDTH OF FOOTING : A=L× B PUNCHING SHEAR FORCE
8.8=7 × BB=1.26 m V u=Column load−soil reaction inside perimeter
Approx: V u ≈ P
Adopt: B = 1.5 m
 Vu '
Effective Overburden Pressure: σ v =γ × L
SHEAR STRESS : τ v =
u× d
3 Bearing Capacity Factor N q
500 ×10 2
For 500 kN column: τ v = =0.31 N /m m
3200× 500 For ϕ=38∘: N q ≈ 50
PERMISSIBLE VALUE: τ c, punching =0.25 √ f ck So: q b=20 L ×50=1000 L
For M20:0.25 √ 20=1.12 N /m m 2
RESULT 0.31<1.12 (SAFE in punching shear) Area of pile: A p =π ¿ ¿

STEP 16: TRANSVERSE (DISTRIBUTION) STEEL End Bearing: Q b=0.126 ×1000 L=126 L

MINIMUM STEEL (IS 456) : A s=0.12 % × b × D STEP 5: SKIN FRICTION

'
CALCULATION: A s=0.0012 ×1500 ×550=990 m m
2 Qs =∫ ( K σ v tan ⁡δ ) dA
L
PROVIDE STEEL Using 12 mm bars:
Qs =πD ×∫ Kγz tan ⁡δ dz
Area of one bar:¿ 113 mm 2 0

1000 ×113 Assume: δ=0.75 ϕ=0.75 ×38=28.5∘

Spacing: s= ≈ 114 mm
990 2
L
tan ⁡δ ≈ 0.54 So: Q s =πD × Kγ tan ⁡δ ×
ADOPT: 12 mm @ 150 mm c/c 2
2
PILE FOUNDATION L
Substitute: Q s =π × 0.4 × 0.95× 20 ×0.54 ×
2
2
STEP 1: GIVEN L 2
Q s =12.88 × Qs =6.44 L
 Load on pile P=350 kN 2

 Soil type: Medium dense to dense sand STEP 6: TOTAL ULTIMATE CAPACITY
2
 Unit weight γ =20 kN /m3 Qu=Q b+ Qs=126 L+6.44 L

 Angle of internal friction ϕ=38∘ STEP 7: SAFE LOAD CONDITION

 Coefficient of lateral earth pressure K=0.95 Qu

Qsafe = Given: Q safe =350 kN
2
 Factor of safety = 2
2
126 L+6.44 L
STEP 2: HOW PILE CARRIES LOAD So: 350=
2
2
Pile transfers load by: 700=126 L+ 6.44 L
1. End Bearing Resistance: Q b Rearranged: 6.44 L2 +126 L−700=0
2. Skin Friction (Shaft Resistance): Q s
Solve quadratic:
Total Capacity: Q u=Q b+ Q s
Qu −126 ± √ 126 2+ 4 × 6.44 ×700
L=
Safe load: Q safe = 2× 6.44
FOS
−126 ± √ 15876+18032 −126 ± √33908
STEP 3: ASSUME PILE SIZE ¿ ¿
12.88 12.88
Since not given, assume: √ 33908 ≈ 184
 Diameter D=400 mm=0.4 m −126+184
Final: L= =4.5 m
12.88
Typical for RCC driven pile
STEP 8: FINAL PILE LENGTH: L ≈ 4.5 m
STEP 4: END BEARING CAPACITY
Provide: L=5 m( safe rounding)
Formula: Q b= A p × q b
πD
2
'
STEP 9: CHECK CAPACITY
Where: A p = , q b=σ v × N q
4 End Bearing: Q b=126× 5=630 kN
Skin Friction: Q s =6.44 ×25=161 kN Total: Adopt: 2.0 ×2.0 m
Qu=630+161=791 kN
STEP 7: CHECK SOIL PRESSURE:
791 750 2
Safe: Q safe = =395 kN q= =187.5 kN /m
2 2× 2

Greater than 350 kN → SAFE Less than SBC → SAFE

STEP 8: ECCENTRICITY CONDITION
Edge footing may be near boundary → load is
eccentric. Strap beam balances this.
STEP 9: STRAP BEAM DESIGN: Carries moment only ,
No soil contact
Moment in strap beam: M =P × e
Assume eccentricity e=0.5 m
M =750 × 0.5=375 kNm
STEP 10: STRAP BEAM SIZE
Assume: Width = 300 mm , Depth = 600 mm
Effective depth: d=550 mm
STEP 11: STEEL IN STRAP BEAM
COMBINE FOOTING WITH BEAM
6
Mu
STEP 1: GIVEN DATA M u=375 ×10 Nmm A s=
0.87 f y d
Column size = 300 ×300 mm 375× 10
6
2
A s= =1880 m m
Loads (factored) = P1=P2=750 kN 0.87 × 415× 550
Provide: 4 bars of 20 mm dia
Spacing (c/c) = 4 m ,SBC (safe) = 225 kN /m2
2
Concrete = M20 , Steel = Fe415
A s=2512 m m (safe)

STEP 2: WHY STRAP FOOTING? STEP 12: FOOTING DESIGN (BENDING)

Prevents eccentric loading on edge footing Transfers Critical section at column face
moment between footings , Ensures uniform soil 2−0.3
pressure Projection: =0.85 m
2
STEP 3: TOTAL LOAD : P=750+ 750=1500 kN Load: w=187.5 ×2=375 kN /m
Add 10% for self weight: 2 2
Ptotal=1.1 ×1500=1650 kN w L 375× 0.85
Moment: M = = =135.4 kNm
2 2
STEP 4: REQUIRED AREA
STEP 13: DEPTH OF FOOTING
Ptotal 1650
A= = =7.33 m
2
M u=1.5 ×135.4=203 kNm
qsafe 225 6 2
203 ×10 =0.138 ×20 ×2000 × d d ≈ 270 mm
STEP 5: FOOTING ARRANGEMENT
Provide: d=350 mm ⇒ D=400 mm
Two separate footings , Connected by beam
STEP 14: STEEL IN FOOTING
Divide Area: Since loads equal → equal footing areas: 6
7.33 203× 10 2
A 1= A 2= =3.67 m
2 A s= ≈ 1600 m m
2 0.87 × 415× 350

STEP 6: SIZE OF EACH FOOTING Provide: 16 mm @ 150 mm c/c

Assume square footing: B=√ 3.67=1.92 m STEP 15: SHEAR CHECK

 V =wL=375 ×0.85=319 kN 2
Area: A p =9 ×6=54 m ; Safe (>40.33)
3
V 319 ×10 2
τ v= = =0.45 N /m m 4840 2
bd 2000 ×350 STEP 5: SOIL PRESSURE q= =89.6 kN /m
54
Safe (< 0.62)
Less than SBC (120) Safe.
STEP 16: PUNCHING SHEAR
STEP 6: WHY INVERTED T RAFT?
u=4 (d +columnsize)=4 (350+300)=2600 mm
3 Purpose: Increase stiffness , Reduce bending moment
750 ×10 2
τ v= =0.82 N /m m Permissible: Resist differential settlement
2600× 350
0.25 √ 20=1.12 … . . SAFE STEP 7: LOAD ON RAFT SLAB

STEP 17: FINAL DESIGN Uniform pressure: q=89.6 kN /m2

Component Size Steel STEP 8: RAFT SLAB DESIGN

Footing 2m × 2m × 0.4m 16 mm @150 c/c Treat slab panel between beams.

Strap beam 300 × 600 mm 4–20 mm bars Critical span: 6 m in long direction , 3 m in short
direction , Moment in short span: Approximate:
Soil pressure 187.5 kN/m² Safe 2
w L 89.6 ×3
2
M= = =100.8 kNm /m
8 8
Factored moment :
M u=1.5 ×100.8=151.2 kNm /m
INVERTED RAFT FOUNDATION STEP 9: DEPTH OF SLAB: Use: M u=0.138 f ck b d
2

GIVEN DATA : Number of columns = 4 6

151.2 ×10 =0.138 ×25 ×1000 × d d =43826
2 2

Arrangement = rectangle d=209 mm

Spacing: Along X = 6 m , Along Y = 3 m Provide: d=250 mm, Overall: D=300 mm

Column details:Column size = Mu

STEP 10: SLAB STEEL: A s=
750 ×750 mm=0.75 × 0.75 m 0.87 f y d
Load per column = 1100 kN 151.2 ×10
6
A s= = 1390 m m 2 /m
Soil: SBC = 120 kN/m² 0.87 ×500 ×250

Material: Concrete: f ck =25 MPa Provide:16 mm bars , Area: 201 mm2

Steel: f y =500 MPa 1000 ×201
Spacing: s= =145 mm
1390
STEP 2: TOTAL LOAD : Total column load:
P=4 ×1100=4400 kN Adopt:16 mm @140 mmc /c

Add self weight of raft: Assume:10 % STEP 11: DESIGN OF INVERTED T BEAM
Pt =1.1× 4400=4840 kN Beam runs under columns: Assume beam size
Pt Width:b=750 mm , Depth: D=900 mm
STEP 3: REQUIRED AREA OF RAFT: A= =
qsafe
Effective depth:d=850 mm
4840 2
=40.33 m
120 STEP 12: LOAD ON BEAM

STEP 4: PLAN DIMENSIONS OF RAFT Beam tributary width: For central beam:¿ 3 m
Load:w=q × tributary
Need area ≥ 40.33 m²., Since column grid:6 m × 3 m w=89.6 × 3=268.8 kN /m
Assume projections:1.5 m all around STEP 13: BEAM MOMENT: Span = 6 m
Raft dimensions: Length: L=6 +1.5+1.5=9 m 2 2
w L 268.8× 6
Width: B=3+1.5+ 1.5=6 m M= = =1209.6 kNm
8 8
Factored: M u=1.5 ×1209.6=1814 kNm STEP 4: ASSUME PILE CAPACITY

STEP 14: BEAM STEEL For 300 mm dia pile in medium soil, typical safe
1814 × 10
6
2
capacity:
A s= =4905 m m
0.87 ×500 ×850 Assume: Q safe =250 kN
Provide: 8 bars of 28 mm , Area:8 ×616=4928 mm2 Effect of negative skin friction = Q ¬¿=45 ×πDL ¿
wL Assume pile length: L=10 m
🔷 STEP 15: SHEAR CHECK V = Q¬¿=45 ×π ×0.3 × 10=424 kN ¿
2
268.8 ×6 V
V= =806.4 kN Shear stress:τ v = Net safe load per pile=Q net =250−424 ≈−174 kN
2 bd
806400 Use higher capacity pile (dense layer)Assume:
¿ ¿ 1.26 N /m m
2
750× 850 Qsafe =600 kN
Provide shear reinforcement: Revised net capacity: Q net =600−424=176 kN
10 mm 2-legged stirrups @150 mm c/c 1500
STEP 5: NUMBER OF PILES = n= ≈ 8.5
STEP 16: PUNCHING SHEARCritical around column. 176

Perimeter:u=4 (c +d ) ¿ 4 (750+250) ¿ 4000 mm Provide:n=9 piles

STEP 6: PILE ARRANGEMENT: Use 3 × 3 grid
3
1100×10 2
Spacing: s=3 D=3 ×0.3=0.9 m
Punching stress:τ v = ¿ 1.1 N /m m
4000 ×250 Adopt: s=1.0 m
Allowable: τ c =0.25 √ 25=1.25 STEP 7: CHECK FOR MOMENT
1.1<1.25( SAFE)
M 225
STEP 17: REINFORCEMENT DETAILS Eccentricity: e= = =0.15 m
P 1500
Slab bottom steel: 16 mm @140 mm c/c both ways
Top steel over beams: 16 mm @150 mm c/c
P
Load variation: Pmax =
n
1+
6e
B ( )
Assume group width: B=2 m
Beam main steel: 8–28 mm bottom , 4–25 mm top 1500 6 × 0.15
Pmax = (1+ )
Stirrups:10 mm 2-legged @150 mm 9 2
¿ 166.7 ×(1+0.45)=241 kN Less than pile capacity
DESIGN OF PILE AND PILE CAP (600 kN) Safe.

STEP 1: GIVEN DATA: Column size = 800 × 800 mm STEP 8: PILE CAP SIZE

Axial load = 1000 kN , Moment = 150 kNm Edge distance:¿ 150 mm

Total size:¿ 2.0+0.3=2.3 m
SBC = 110 kN /m 2(not directly used for piles, but Adopt:2.5 ×2.5 m
indicates weak soil)
STEP 9: DEPTH OF PILE CAP
Negative skin friction = 45 kN /m 2
Use:d=500 to 700 mm
Pile diameter = 300 mm=0.3 m Adopt:d=600 mm , D=700 mm
Concrete = M20 , Steel = Fe500 STEP 10: PILE CAP DESIGN (TRUSS ACTION)
STEP 2: WHY PILE FOUNDATION? Pile cap behaves like: Deep beam / truss
Reasons: SBC is low , Column carries moment Bending moment Approx: M =P × spacing
M =1500 ×1=1500 kNm
Need deep foundation
M
STEP 3: LOAD ON FOUNDATION STEP 11: STEEL CALCULATION A s=
0.87 f y d
Include factor for design: Pu=1.5 × 1000=1500 kN 1500 ×10
6
2
Moment: M u=1.5 ×150=225 kNm A s= =5747 mm
0.87 ×500 ×600
Provide:10 bars of 28 mm 1−sin ⁡ϕ 1−0.5
Ka= = =0.333
2 1+ sin ⁡ϕ 1+ 0.5
A s=10 ×616=6160 m m
Active pressure:
V 1 1
STEP 12: SHEAR CHECK: τ v = 2 2
Pa= K a γ H = ×0.333 × 17.5× 5 =72.9 kN /m
bd 2 2
Pile caps are deep → shear safe.
Acts at: H /3=1.67 m
STEP 13: PUNCHING SHEAR
STEP 4: PRELIMINARY DIMENSIONS
Around column:
u=4 (c +d )=4 (800+ 600)=5600 mm Base width: B=0.6 H ≈ 3.0 m
3
1500 ×10 2 Divide base: Toe = 1.0 m , Stem = 0.3 m , Heel = 1.7 m
τ v= =0.45 N /m m
5600× 600
Thickness: Base slab = 500 mm
Allowable: 0.25 √ 20=1.12 (SAFE)
Stem = 300 mm (base) → 150 mm (top)
STEP 14: PILE REINFORCEMENT: Longitudinal steel
Counterfort spacing: ¿ 0.3 H ≈ 1.5 m
Minimum: 0.4 % of area Adopt:2.0 m
π
A= ¿ A s=0.004 × 70685=283 mm2 STEP 5: STABILITY CHECKS: Weight calculations
4
Provide: 6 bars of 12 mm ( 0.3+ 0.15 )
(1) Stem: V = ×5=1.125 m3
2
Lateral ties: 8 mm @ 150 mm c/c W 1=1.125× 25=28.1 kN
STEP 15: PILE CAP REINFORCEMENT (2) Base slab: V =3× 0.5=1.5 m3
Bottom steel: 28 mm bars (main) W 2 =37.5 kN
Top steel: 16 mm bars (3) Soil on heel: V =1.7 × 5=8.5 m3
W 3 =148.75 kN
Distribution:12 mm @ 150 mm
STEP 16: FINAL DESIGN SUMMARY Total weight: W =214.35 kN
STEP 6: SLIDING CHECK
Component Value

No. of piles 9
F r=μW =0.6 ×214.35=128.6 kN F d=72.9 kN
FOS=1.76>1.5 SAFE
Pile dia 300 mm
STEP 7: OVERTURNING CHECK
M o=72.9 ×1.67=121.7 kNm
COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL Resisting moment: ≈ 350 kNm (after summation)
STEP 1: GIVEN DATA: Height of retained soil H=5 m FOS ≈ 2.8 SAFE
3 ∘
Unit weight γ =17.5 kN/m ,Angle of repose ϕ=30 STEP 8: BEARING PRESSURE
SBC ¿ 150 kN/m 2
W 214.35 2
q= = =71.4 kN /m ¿ 150 SAFE ¿ ¿
B 3
Foundation soil angle ¿ 31∘→ friction ≈ μ ≈ 0.6
STEP 9: STEM DESIGN (BETWEEN COUNTERFORTS)
Concrete f ck =25 MPa , Steel f y =500 MPa (Fe500)
Stem acts as horizontal slab spanning between
STEP 2: WHY COUNTERFORT WALL? counterforts

Use when: H > 4 – 5 m Span = 2 m Load:

2
w=K a γH =0.333 × 17.5× 5=29.2 kN /m
Cantilever becomes uneconomical , Counterforts tie
stem and base → reduce bending moments 2
w L 29.2× 2
2
Moment: M = = =14.6 kNm /m
STEP 3: EARTH PRESSURE (Rankine) 8 8
Factored: M u=21.9 kNm
Steel: A s ≈ 250 m m /m
2
Qf = side (mantle) friction
Provide: 10 mm @ 200 mm c/c
STEP 3: ASSUME WELL SHAPE
STEP 10: HEEL SLAB DESIGN
Assume circular well : Let diameter = D
2
Load: ¿ 17.5 ×5=87.5 kN /m 2
πD
2 2
STEP 4: BASE RESISTANCE: Q b= ×q allow
w L 87.5× 1.7 4
Moment: M = = =126.4 kNm
2 2 STEP 5: SIDE FRICTION:
Steel: A s ≈ 1800 m m /m
2 Qf =πD× H × f =πD× 40 ×30 ¿ 1200 πD
Provide: 16 mm @ 150 mm c/c STEP 6: TOTAL LOAD EQUATION
STEP 11: TOE SLAB DESIGN πD
2
50,000= ×2000+1200 πD
Upward pressure acts. M ≈ 60 kNm 4
Provide: 12 mm @ 150 mm 2
50,000=500 π D +1200 πD Divide by π :
2
STEP 12: COUNTERFORT DESIGN 15,915=500 D +1200 D
Acts as TENSION TIE Solve quadratic : 500 D 2 +1200 D−15915=0
P a × spacing 72.9 ×2 −1200+ √12002 + 4 ×500 ×15915
Force: T = = =72.9 kN D=
2 2 1000
72.9 ×10
3 −1200+ √ 1,440,000+31,830,000
Steel: A s= ≈170 mm
2 ¿
0.87 ×500 1000
Provide: 12 mm bars (2–3 nos) −1200+ √ 33,270,000
¿
1000
√ 33,270,000 ≈ 5770
STEP 13: COUNTERFORT SPACING : 2 m c/c −1200+5770
D= =4.57 m
STEP 14: SHEAR CHECK : Safe due to large thickness. 1000

STEP 15: PUNCHING : Not critical in retaining walls. STEP 7: ADOPT DIAMETER : D=5.0 m

STEP 16: REINFORCEMENT SUMMARY STEP 8: CHECK LOAD CAPACITY

Component Steel π
Base resistance: Q b= ¿
4
Stem 10 mm @200
Friction: Q f =π ×5 × 40× 30=18,850 kN
Heel 16 mm @150
Total: Q=58,120 kN (Greater than 50,000 → SAFE)
Toe 12 mm @150
STEP 9: CHECK FEASIBILITY OF SINKING
Counterfort 12 mm bars
Weight of well: Assume: Thickness = 0.5 m
Unit weight concrete = 25 kN/m³
2 2
Volume of steining: V =π (R o−R i )× H

WELL CASSION
Outer radius = 2.5 m
STEP 1: GIVEN DATA: Depth of sinking = 40 m Inner radius = 2.0 m
Load from superstructure = P=50,000 kN V =π ( 6.25−4)× 40=π × 2.25 ×40=282.7 m
3

2
Allowable bearing capacity = q allow =2000 kN /m Weight: W =282.7 ×25=7068 kN
Skin friction (mantle friction) = f =30 kN /m2 Add curb + cutting edge: W ≈ 8000 kN

STEP 2: LOAD CARRIED BY WELL Skin resistance during sinking:

F=πDHf =18,850 kN
Total load is resisted by: P=Q b+ Q f
Where: Q b = base resistance
 Condition for sinking W > F Safe Bearing Capacity (SBC) = 28 t/m² = 280
8000<18850 kN/m²
NOT SAFE → SINKING DIFFICULT Width of footing (restricted) = 1.8 m
Solution: Add kentledge ,Use water jetting Concrete = M20 , Steel = Fe415
Increase thickness
STEP 1: TOTAL LOAD ON FOOTING
STEP 10: DESIGN OF BOTTOM SEAL (PLUG)
P=1000+ 1500=2500 kNAdd self-weight of
Purpose: Prevent water ingress footing ≈ 10%:
Provide base support Ptotal=2500+ 250=2750 kN STEP 2: REQUIRED
2 AREA OF FOOTING
Uplift pressure: p=γ w × H =10 ×40=400 kN /m
P 2750 2
pD A= = =9.82 m STEP 3: LENGTH OF
Thickness formula: t= SBC 280
4τ
FOOTING
Assume: τ =0.3 N /m m =300 kN /m2
2

400 ×5 A 9.82
t= =1.67 m Given width = 1.8 m: L= = ≈ 5.46 m
4 × 300 B 1.8
Adopt: L=5.5 m
Adopt:t=1.8 m
STEP 4: LOCATION OF RESULTANT LOAD
🔷 STEP 11: FINAL DESIGN SUMMARY

Parameter Value
Take moments about column 1:
1500 ×3.6
Diameter 5m x= =2.16 m Resultant is 2.16 m from
2500
Depth 40 m column 1
Capacity 58,120 kN STEP 5: CHECK CENTER OF FOOTING
Load 50,000 kN 5.5
Center of footing: =2.75 m
2
Seal thickness 1.8 m Since: Resultant ≠ center → footing will be
Sinking Difficult eccentrically loaded
So we shift footing such that centroid coincides
with resultant.
STEP 6: PROJECTIONS BEYOND COLUMNS
Let left projection = a
Then: a+ 3.6+b=5.5
Centroid condition: a+ 2.16=2.75
a=0.59 m b=5.5−(0.59+3.6)=1.31 m STEP 7:
2750 2
SOIL PRESSURE q= =278 kN/m
5.5× 1.8
RECTANGULAR FOOTING Safe (≈ SBC)
GIVEN DATA : Column 1: Size = 400 mm × 400 mm STEP 8: BENDING MOMENT CALCULATION
Load = 100 tonnes = 1000 kN
Critical section is between columns.
Column 2: Size = 600 mm × 600 mm
Load = 150 tonnes = 1500 kN Treat footing as beam under uniform pressure.

Center-to-center spacing = 3.6 m Maximum bending occurs near larger column.

 L
2
transmits static and dynamic loads safely to the
Approximate moment: M =q ×
8 soil without causing: Excessive vibration ,
5.5
2
Resonance , Structural damage , Discomfort to
M =278 × =1050 kNm ( approx ) surroundings
8
STEP 9: DEPTH OF FOOTING
OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN
Using limit state design:
The general criteria aim to achieve the following:
M u=1.5 ×1050=1575 kNm

√ Mu 1. Structural Safety : Foundation must withstand

For M20:d= all loads without failure.
0.138 fckb

√
6
1575× 10 d ≈ 600 mm Adopt: 2. Vibration Control : Amplitude must be within
d=
0.138 ×20 ×1800 permissible limits.
D=650 mm
3. Avoidance of Resonance : Natural frequency
STEP 10: CHECK FOR SHEAR must not match machine frequency.
V 4. Stability: No sliding, overturning, or excessive
1. One-way shear: τ v =
bd settlement.
Check < permissible → SAFE
5. Operational Efficiency : Machine must function
2. Two-way shear (punching) smoothly without misalignment.
Critical around column τ v < 0.25 √ fck TYPES OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
SAFE for adopted depth
1. Block Type : Solid RCC block
STEP 11: STEEL DESIGN
 Used for small to medium machines
M
Using: A s= 2. Box Type : Hollow inside ,Reduces material cost
0.87 f y jd
6 3. Frame Type : Beam-column system
1575 ×10 2
A s= A s ≈ 8000 mm
0.87 × 415× 0.9 ×600  Used for turbo-generators
Provide reinforcement: Use 20 mm bars 4. Pile Type : For weak soils
8000 TYPES OF MACHINE LOADS
Area per bar = 314 mm² , No. of bars= ≈ 26
314
Provide: 26 bars @ bottom (longitudinal) 1. Static Loads : Machine weight , Foundation
weight
Distribution steel: 0.12 % of gross area
Provide:12 mm @ 200 mm c/c 2. Dynamic Loads : Rotating unbalanced forces

STEP 12 : FINAL DESIGN SUMMARY  Harmonic forces

Footing size = 5.5 m × 1.8 m , Depth = 650 mm 3. Impact Loads : Sudden shocks (e.g., hammer
machines)
Soil pressure = 278 kN/m² (SAFE)
BASIC DESIGN THEORY
Reinforcement:
Machine foundation behaves like a mass-spring-
Main steel: 20 mm dia (26 bars) , Distribution: 12 damper system : m ẍ+ c ẋ +kx=F (t)
mm @ 200 mm c/c
Where: m = mass of machine + foundation
c = damping coefficient , k = soil stiffness
Explain in detail the general criterion for
F (t)= dynamic force
the design of machine foundation.
NATURAL FREQUENCY CRITERION
A machine foundation is a specially designed
structural system that supports machines and
Natural frequency: f n=
√
1 k
2π m
Theory of sub grade reaction, beam
on elastic foundation.
Design Requirement : Avoid resonance: f n ≠ f
In many geotechnical and structural problems (railway
Safe Range: f n <0.8 f OR f n >1.2 f tracks, pavements, raft foundations, pipelines), the
This is the most important design criterion. supporting soil is not perfectly rigid. Instead, it
deforms under load, and this interaction must be
RESONANCE AND AMPLITUDE modeled.

Resonance Occurs when: f n=f Two classical approaches are: 1. Theory of Subgrade
Amplitude Control Reaction (Winkler Model)

Amplitude depends on: Force 2. Beam on Elastic Foundation Theory

magnitude , ,Damping , Frequency ratio THEORY OF SUBGRADE REACTION (WINKLER MODEL)
Design must ensure: The Winkler hypothesis assumes: Soil behaves like a
Actual amplitude< Permissible system of independent, closely spaced springs
SOIL AND BEARING CRITERIA  Each spring reacts independently of others

🔹 Soil Requirements : High stiffness , Uniform Fundamental Relation: q=k s y

strata , Good damping
Where: q = soil reaction (kN/m²) , k s= modulus of
W subgrade reaction (kN/m³) , y = deflection (m)
🔹 Bearing Pressure : q=
A
This means: Soil pressure is proportional to deflection
🔹 Settlement Criteria : Must be uniform
MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION
 Differential settlement must be avoided
Definition: The modulus of subgrade reaction (kₛ) is
OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS the pressure required to produce unit settlement.
1. Damping : Reduces vibration amplitude q
k s=
 Provided by soil + material y
Units: kN/m³
2. Eccentricity : CG of loads must coincide with
centroid , Avoids tilting and torsion Determination: Plate load test , Empirical correlations
3. Isolation: Prevent vibration transmission Important Points: Depends on soil type

Methods: Trenches , Pads , Springs Depends on footing size , Not a true soil property
(scale-dependent)
4. Modes of Vibration
LIMITATIONS OF WINKLER MODEL
Foundation may vibrate in: Vertical , Horizontal
No Continuity : Soil springs act independently
Rocking , Torsional
 Real soil is continuous
.REINFORCEMENT & CODAL PROVISIONS
No Shear Interaction : Adjacent points do not
🔹 Reinforcement Criteria: Designed like RCC influence each other
structure Scale Effect : Value of k schanges with footing size
Must resist: Dynamic stresses , Fatigue BEAM ON ELASTIC FOUNDATION
🔹 Fatigue Consideration This theory combines: Beam theory (structural
 Repeated loading reduces strength behavior)
 Winkler soil model (soil behavior)
 Stress must be within fatigue limits
Used for: Strip footings , Raft foundations , Railway
tracks
Basic Concept: A beam rests on an elastic medium
that provides reaction proportional to deflection.
Explain the critical load conditions
GOVERNING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
for a beam on elastic foundation.
The equation of beam on elastic foundation is:
d y
4
A beam on elastic foundation represents
EI 4
+ k s y=q(x ) structural members (like strip footings,
dx
pavements, rails) resting on deformable soil.
Where: E = modulus of elasticity , I = moment of Unlike ordinary beams, the support is continuous
inertia , y = deflection , k s= subgrade reaction and elastic, not discrete.
q (x)= applied load Deflect safely, OR Become unstable (buckling /
excessive deformation) The load at which
( 4kEI )
1/ 4
s
CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH : Define: β= instability occurs is called the critical load.
This parameter controls: Rate of decay of deflection BASIC CONCEPT OF CRITICAL LOAD : The critical
load is the minimum load at which the beam
Influence zone of load
loses stability and undergoes large deformation
Interpretation: Higher k s→ stiffer soil without increase in load.
 Higher EI → stiffer beam GOVERNING EQUATION
TYPES OF LOADING CASES For a beam on elastic foundation under axial load
4 2
Beam on elastic foundation can be analyzed for: d y d y
P: EI 4
+ k s y−P 2
=0
dx dx
1. Point Load: Concentrated load at a point
Where: EI = flexural rigidity , k s= modulus of
2. Uniform Load: Distributed load
3. Moment Load : Applied moment
INTERPRETATION OF TERMS
4
DEFLECTION AND BENDING BEHAVIOR : Deflection is d y
 EI 4
→ beam stiffness resistance
maximum at load point dx
Deflection reduces exponentially away from load  k s y→ soil reaction
Soil reaction follows deflection pattern 2
d y
 P 2
→ destabilizing axial force
APPLICATIONS AND PRACTICAL USE dx
Applications: CRITICAL LOAD CONDITION
 Pavement design For buckling:
y ≠ 0 without external transverse load
 Railway track analysis
SOLUTION FORM Assume: y=e λx
 Raft foundations Substitute into governing equation →
 Buried pipelines
characteristic equation.

Advantages: This leads to relation between: Load P, Soil

stiffness k s, Beam stiffness EI
 Simple
EXPRESSION FOR CRITICAL LOAD
 Practical
For an infinitely long beam: Pcr =2 √ EI k s
 Widely used
This is the critical load for beam on elastic
Limitations: foundation
 Oversimplified soil behavior INTERPRETATION OF CRITICAL LOAD
 Ignores soil continuity [Link] on: Beam stiffness (EI) , Soil stiffness
(kₛ)
[Link] of: ,Beam length (for infinite
beam)
DIFFERENT CRITICAL CONDITIONS
Explain in details design of deep
1. Local Buckling: Small region affected foundation such as pile and well
2. Global Buckling: Entire beam deforms foundation.
3. Surface Instability: Occurs near soil surface Deep foundations are used when: Surface soil is
weak , Loads are heavy , Settlement must be
EFFECT OF PARAMETERS controlled
Effect of Soil Stiffness : Higher k s→ more support Types: Pile Foundations , Well Foundations
→ higher Pcr (Caissons)
Effect of Beam Rigidity: Higher EI → more PILE FOUNDATION: A pile is a long slender
resistance member driven or cast into the ground.
Effect of Boundary Conditions: Fixed ends → Functions: Transfer load to deeper soil , Resist
higher critical load uplift and lateral loads , Reduce settlement
Free ends → lower critical load TYPES OF PILES
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Buried pipelines Based on Load Transfer: End Bearing Piles →
Railway tracks , Strip foundations , Pavements Transfer load to hard strata

LIMITATIONS Friction Piles → Transfer load through skin

friction
 Based on Winkler model
Based on Construction: Driven piles
 Ignores soil continuity
 Bored cast-in-situ piles
 Simplified assumptions
LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF PILES
FAILURE MODES: Buckling , Excessive deflection
Total Capacity: Q=Q b+ Qs
Cracking , Soil yielding Where:Qb = end bearing , Qs = skin friction
DESIGN IMPLICATIONS End Bearing:Qb= A b ×q b
Design must ensure: P< Pcr Skin Friction: Qs =∑( A s ×f s )
WAVE LENGTH OF BUCKLING Q
Safe load: Q safe =
Buckling occurs in wave form. FOS
DESIGN OF SINGLE PILE

( )
1/ 4
EI
Characteristic length: Lc =π Steps:1 Determine load on pile 2. Select pile type
ks
[Link] length [Link] capacity [Link]
ENERGY APPROACH
settlement
Critical load can also be obtained using:
Structural Design:Designed as column
 Energy methods
Check: Compression ,Buckling ,Reinforcement
 Minimum potential energy
PILE GROUP DESIGN
ADVANCED METHODS
Group Capacity: Q g=n ×Q single
 Elastic continuum models But due to interaction:Efficiency < 100%
 Finite element analysis Qg
Group Efficiency:η=
n× Q
 Nonlinear soil behavior
Settlement: Must be checked for entire group  Passive resistance
PILE CAP DESIGN
Pile cap: Connects piles , Distributes load
Design: Acts as deep beam Explain various stages in construction of
Designed for: Bending , Shear under reamed pile foundation.
WELL FOUNDATION: INTRODUCTION An under-reamed pile is a bored cast-in-situ pile
having one or more bulb-shaped enlargements
A well foundation (caisson) is a hollow structure (under-reams) along its [Link] uplift
sunk into the ground.
Reduce settlement , Improve load capacity
Used for: Bridges , Marine structures
NEED AND APPLICATIONS
COMPONENTS OF WELL FOUNDATION
🔹 Need: Expansive soils undergo swelling and
Parts: Cutting edge 2. Well curb [Link] shrinkage , Ordinary foundations crack
Bottom plug [Link] plug 🔹 Advantages: High uplift resistance
LOADS ON WELL FOUNDATION  Economical
Dead load ,Live load ,Water pressure ,Earth  Easy construction
pressure , Scour forces
🔹 Applications: Residential buildings
Must resist: Vertical loads , Horizontal loads
Moments  Transmission towers

BEARING CAPACITY OF WELL: Q= A × q  Light structures

Where: A = base area , q = bearing capacity GENERAL FEATURES Key Components:
STABILITY ANALYSIS Shaft , Under-ream (bulb) , Reinforcement cage
Check: Sliding: Resisting force >Driving force Concrete
Overturning: M resisting > M overturning Diameter of bulb: Usually 2 to 3 times shaft
Tilting: Must be within limits diameter
DEPTH OF FOUNDATION STAGE 1: SITE INVESTIGATION
Depends on: Scour depth ,Soil strata 🔹 Objectives: Determine soil type
DESIGN OF STEINING  Identify depth of active zone
Steining: Vertical wall  Find water table
Designed for: Compression , Hoop stress 🔹 Tests: Borehole investigation
SINKING OF WELL  Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Process:1 Excavation inside well [Link]-weight STAGE 2: SETTING OUT
causes sinking [Link] loads if required
🔹 Process: Mark pile locations as per layout
LATERAL LOAD ANALYSIS
 Ensure proper spacing
Well acts like:
🔹 Spacing: Usually 2 to 3 times pile diameter
 Rigid body
STAGE 3: BORING OF PILE HOLE
Resists:
🔹 Method: Manual auger
 Soil pressure
 Mechanical drilling
🔹 Steps: 1 Drill vertical hole Function: Connect piles Distribute loads
1. Maintain required diameter
2. Continue up to design depth
🔹 Precautions: Prevent collapse of sides
 Use casing if needed
STAGE 4: FORMATION OF UNDER-REAM (BULB)
🔹 Process:Special under-reaming tool used
 Expanded at required depth
👉 Bulb is formed by rotating blades outward.
🔹 Requirements: Proper size and shape
 Clean surface
STAGE 5: CLEANING OF BOREHOLE
🔹 Purpose: Remove loose soil
 Ensure proper bonding
🔹 Methods: Air flushing , Water jet
STAGE 6: PLACING REINFORCEMENT
🔹 Reinforcement Cage: Longitudinal bars
 Lateral ties
🔹 Placement: Lowered carefully into borehole
 Centralized using spacers
STAGE 7: CONCRETING
🔹 Method: Direct pouring (dry bore)
 Tremie method (water present)
🔹 Concrete: Usually M20 or higher
🔹 Important: Continuous pouring
 Avoid segregation
STAGE 8: COMPACTION AND FINISHING
🔹 Compaction: Rodding or vibration
🔹 Finishing: Top leveled
 Excess concrete removed
STAGE 9: CURING
🔹 Process: Keep pile head moist
 Cure for at least 7–14 days
STAGE 10: PILE CAP CONSTRUCTION