PROJECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES:
2. Waterfall Project Management
Taking traditional project management to the next level, the waterfall approach assumes that
individual team members rely on each other to complete tasks in sequence. As contributions to the
common goal build, they enable more team members to take on larger tasks. In some cases, teams
can actually get larger over the course of the project as more and more opportunities to complete
tasks are created. Many waterfall style projects can be tracked using Gantt chartsthat symbolize
project timelines and dependencies.
3. Rational Unified Process
Named for the company where it was first developed, the Rational Unified Process matches
the iterative style of software development projects. RUP style projects work well with cyclical projects
that integrate feedback from end users for future production cycles. Although RUP projects can often
resemble waterfall projects, RUP places more emphasis on the “transition" phase at the end of a cycle,
where products enter the hands of end users for evaluation and future evolution.
4. PERT Project Management
Challenges of the Cold War spurred defense contractors to collaborate with the armed forces on a new
model for large-scale project management. Dubbed the Program Evaluation and Review Technique,
this style of project management works very well for one-time manufacturing or development
processes that may evolve or expand over time. Using this technique, project managers differentiate
between events (that measure progress) and activities (that get things done). Carefully estimating the
amount of time between events forms the basis of both timelines and budgets. Project managers track
their progress using a PERT chart.
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5. Critical Path Project Management
Popular among scientists and manufacturers since its development in the 1950s, critical path project
management relies heavily on task duration estimates and dependencies. Based on similar principles
as the PERT method, Critical Path focuses on speeding up tasks through measurement and
prioritization. By analyzing the amount of time it should take to complete a task, project managers can
develop a clear picture of the overall timeframe for a project. By charting paths between tasks that
rely on the completion of earlier tasks, managers can compress a project into the shortest possible
amount of time.
6. Critical Chain Project Management
An evolution of both PERT and Critical Path methodologies, the Critical Chain method helps project
managers reshape their teams and goals around budgets and other constraints. Instead of using
Critical Path projections to determine the shortest possible project length, project managers can use
the data to model potential cost savings and benefits of changing or eliminating project
elements. Critical Chain management styles have become popular among managers in highly
competitive industries, such as auto manufacturing and consumer electronics.
7. Extreme Project Management
Internet distribution changed project management for many companies, especially firms that focus on
developing web-enabled software. Extreme project management techniques speed up the iterative
cycles of Rational project management into weekly or daily processes. In some instances, project
managers assign a name or number to the product at the end of each cycle, regardless of its
completeness or functionality. “Nightly builds" and regular updates are hallmarks of extreme projects,
which often handle user requests as prompts for future cycles. Agile programming and Scrum
programming are two examples of extreme project management techniques.
. [Link]
Although there are whole books and training courses explaining the details of Crystal, I found one
area particularly interesting: the 7 principles of Crystal. The first 3 properties are compulsory for all of
the Crystal family’s approaches; but only the first 3 are compulsory for Crystal Clear – with the
others being optional (but advisable?). In short, they are:
IMPORTANCE OF PROJ. MANAGEMENT:
(1) Frequent Delivery
The most important property in every project is to frequently deliver working, tested code to real
users. If you don’t do this, then you risk finding out too late that you have produced a product that
nobody needs.
(2) Reflective Improvement
However bad it is right now, there is hope. And however good a team thinks it is, it can always
improve. Teams should work together to find out how they can improve their future working
practices.
(3) Osmotic Communication
Osmosis is a way of learning that is passive and subtle – a gradual absorption of information.
Cockburn believes that by being co-located, information flows around team members so they pick up
valuable and relevant information even when not actively involved. He believes that, with this,
projects can operate with very little structure. However, he does acknowledge that sometimes
people need a bit of space and suggests co-located teams also have a private area that people can
go.
(4) Personal Safety
Every member of the team should be able to speak without fear of ridicule or reprisal, whether it be a
new idea, a concern or a problem they are encountering. The key tenet to this is trust. If we trust
people, then we are more open and will share information more freely. This kind of environment
enables teams to work through their problems and improve performance. As Lencioni’s 5
Dysfunctions of a Team tells us, politeness is not the same as safety/trust: showing disagreement is
healthy when done in the correct way.
(5) Focus
Knowing what to work on and being able to get on and do it. This suggests clear communication,
prioritisation of requirements, goal setting, etc. It also means reducing context switching.
(6) Easy Access to Expert Users
In short, getting feedback from real users. He doesn’t state how frequently or for how long.
(7) Technical Environment with Automated Tests, Configuration Management & Frequent
Integration
These are very specific tools for software teams which are still not common place across all teams.
Even in the 90s he was talking about continuous integration so that errors could be caught within
minutes.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES:
1. Agile
Agile project management method is most suitable for projects that call for extreme
flexibility and speed. It reduces complexity as it involves breaking down of milestones
into short delivery cycles or “sprints”. This project management method is often used
for in-house teams, and was created for managing projects that don’t necessarily
require extensive control over the deliverables.
Agile project management is a value-driven approach that allows Project Managers to
deliver high-priority, high-quality work and look like rock stars to their stakeholders.
Agile project management continuously evaluates time and cost as primary constraints.
2. Traditional
This project management method is largely a classical approach. It simply evaluates the
various tasks needed for a project’s completion, and offers a process to manage and
monitor the completion of the tasks.
. During the course of the project, managers provide coaching, feedback,
and assessment of team members, on the way to an agreed outcome. This
kind of simple project management strategy works best with small groups
when members do not necessarily need to wait on each other’s completed
tasks to move forward.
3. Waterfall
The waterfall management method is built upon the framework of the traditional project
method. It is built on the assumption that team members rely upon the completion of
other members’ tasks before they can complete their own tasks. There is a sequence
for task completion among members that must be followed, and team members must
correspond with each other. Each team member must play their part by completing
their tasks.
In some cases, teams can actually get larger over the course of the project
as more and more opportunities to complete tasks are created. Many
waterfall style projects can be tracked using Gantt charts that symbolize
project timelines and dependencies.
4. Adaptive
Just like the name suggests, this project management method involves making the
project adapt to any necessary requirements. While the cost and time needed to
complete the project might remain constant, the project scope can vary. The project
scope can be adjusted while being executed. This is usually done to get maximum value
out of a project.
5. Critical Path
This is a step-by-step method that is more effective on projects with tasks that depend
on each other. This project management style allow for easy management of
interdependent activities. Work is broken down into segments using a structure that
can track the timeline needed to complete these dependencies, their deliverables, and
their milestones.
6. Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
This method is usually used with the interdependent management method. It is usually
used in developmental processes and manufacturing. Program evaluation is especially
used by businesses that plan to expand in immediate future. A project manager is
expected to differentiate between events, and then measure the progress of various
activities and tasks being completed.
7. Rational Unified Process (RUP)
This process is often used in projects involving software development. It features
iterative style that allows for cyclical projects requiring feedback from users or beta
testing. This can have effects on the product and in turn change production. Users test
and evaluate performance at the end of every cycle.
8. Critical Chain
This method builds upon the PERT method and the critical path style. This method helps
the project managers to create goals and assemble their teams based around their
budget and other project constraints. Project managers can use their data to determine
areas where benefits such as cost savings can be had.
9. Extreme
This project management method is designed to cut down the total time for each
repetitive cycle within a project cutting it down into weekly or daily processes. Whether
a cycle is already completed or reached functionality, the project manager will assign a
number or a name to it. In addition, such projects are updated regularly and user
requests are taken into account for future cycles.
10. Scrum
Scrum project management style is derived from the agile project management
method. It is an interactive management style that features various “sprints” that often
last for 30 days. Sprints are used to prioritize several project tasks, and to ensure they
are completed within the specified time. The process is facilitated by a Scrum Master
who assembles teams and overlooks the meetings.
11. Six Sigma
This is a data-driven project management style featuring 3 essential components. The
first is DMAIC that involves defining, measuring, analyzing, improving, and controlling.
The second is DMADV that involves defining, measuring, analyzing, designing, and
verifying. Lastly, there is DFSS that involves design for six sigma and can include the
previous processes mentioned.
12. Crystal
This method emphasizes on team communication. It lowers priorities on tasks and
project processes. The project is centered on skills and interaction between team
members. It is a method that is often used in businesses with creative talents.
13. Joint Application Development
It allows the project to have joint development processes by involving clients right from
the beginning of the project. The clients must have meetings and sessions with the
team in order to be able to collaborate freely. The client provides ideas and feedback,
and participates throughout the entire project lifecycle.
How To Choose the Right Method
There is no hard-and-fast rule to choose one from the many project management
methodologies, and the selection varies from project to project. After learning how each
of these styles work, some factors can be considered to help in choosing the right one,
such as organizational goals, project constraints, project size, core values, stakeholders,
project cost and risks, and the need for flexibility. A suitable project management
methodology is very important for the successful completion of a project as it
transforms the ways that your team collaborates, accomplishes milestones, and delivers
the project.
The Difference Between Six Sigma and Project
Management
What Is Six Sigma?
Six Sigma is the method of choice for reducing variance and eliminating the number of defects that a
process produces. Six Sigma relies heavily on statistical analysis and offers an arsenal of tools that
analyze current performance and help identify the root causes of problems. Six Sigma can provide
the data to justify where and how to make changes to a process. The highly-structured and data-
driven nature of Six Sigma helps teams test their solution after they’ve implemented it.
Six Sigma makes a long-term commitment to a process, and it requires commitment from the project
teams that practice it. This commitment begins when the team works together to write a charter that
defines the objective of the project. It continues as the team sets milestones that will mark progress
toward improvement. In the final stages of the project, the team ensures that its influence will be felt
long after it is dissolved by creating detailed documentation that explains how users can keep its
improvements in place.
What Is Project Management?
Project management is more concerned with getting the project up and running than with fine tuning
its performance. It uses tools like the critical path method to ensure that the project is completed
quickly and efficiently.
Project management works better for a one-time implementation of a new process rather than
continually improving an existing process. Project management lacks the tools to measure
performance and implement solutions for permanent improvement. Instead it looks at how different
components of the project are performing, and seeks to improve those that are lagging, rather than
focusing on the entire process.
Understanding the difference between Six Sigma and project management helps you discern
between the projects that need the long-term guidance of Six Sigma and those that need the quick
shot of project management to get them on their feet.
Project management is a challenging task with many complex responsibilities.
Fortunately, there are many tools available to assist with accomplishing the tasks and
executing the responsibilities. Some require a computer with supporting software,
while others can be used manually. Project managers should choose a project
management tool that best suits their management style. No one tool addresses all
project management needs. Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) and Gantt
Charts are two of the most commonly used project management tools and are
described below. Both of these project management tools can be produced manually
or with commercially available project management software.[4]
PERT
PERT is a planning and control tool used for defining and controlling the tasks
necessary to complete a project. PERT charts and Critical Path Method (CPM) charts
are often used interchangeably; the only difference is how task times are computed.
Both charts display the total project with all scheduled tasks shown in sequence. The
displayed tasks show which ones are in parallel, those tasks that can be performed at
the same time.[3] A graphic representation called a "Project Network" or "CPM
Diagram" is used to portray graphically the interrelationships of the elements of a
project and to show the order in which the activities must be performed.[2]
PERT planning involves the following steps:[7]
1. Identify the specific activities and milestones. The activities are the tasks of the
project. The milestones are the events that mark the beginning and the end of
one or more activities.
2. Determine the proper sequence of activities. This step may be combined with
#1 above since the activity sequence is evident for some tasks. Other tasks may
require some analysis to determine the exact order in which they should be
performed.
3. Construct a network diagram. Using the activity sequence information, a
network diagram can be drawn showing the sequence of the successive and
parallel activities. Arrowed lines represent the activities and circles or
"bubbles" represent milestones.
4. Estimate the time required for each activity. Weeks are a commonly used unit
of time for activity completion, but any consistent unit of time can be used. A
distinguishing feature of PERT is it's ability to deal with uncertainty in activity
completion times. For each activity, the model usually includes three time
estimates:
o Optimistic time - the shortest time in which the activity can be
completed.
o Most likely time - the completion time having the highest probability.
o Pessimistic time - the longest time that an activity may take.
From this, the expected time for each activity can be calculated using the
following weighted average:
Expected Time = (Optimistic + 4 x Most Likely + Pessimistic) / 6
This helps to bias time estimates away from the unrealistically short timescales
normally assumed.
5. Determine the critical path. The critical path is determined by adding the times
for the activities in each sequence and determining the longest path in the
project. The critical path determines the total calendar time required for the
project. The amount of time that a non-critical path activity can be delayed
without delaying the project is referred to as slack time.
If the critical path is not immediately obvious, it may be helpful to determine
the following four times for each activity:
o ES - Earliest Start time
o EF - Earliest Finish time
o LS - Latest Start time
o LF - Latest Finish time
These times are calculated using the expected time for the relevant activities.
The earliest start and finish times of each activity are determined by working
forward through the network and determining the earliest time at which an
activity can start and finish considering its predecessor activities. The latest
start and finish times are the latest times that an activity can start and finish
without delaying the project. LS and LF are found by working backward
through the network. The difference in the latest and earliest finish of each
activity is that activity's slack. The critical path then is the path through the
network in which none of the activities have slack.
The variance in the project completion time can be calculated by summing the
variances in the completion times of the activities in the critical path. Given this
variance, one can calculate the probability that the project will be completed by
a certain date assuming a normal probability distribution for the critical path.
The normal distribution assumption holds if the number of activities in the path
is large enough for the central limit theorem to be applied.
6. Update the PERT chart as the project progresses. As the project unfolds, the
estimated times can be replaced with actual times. In cases where there are
delays, additional resources may be needed to stay on schedule and the PERT
chart may be modified to reflect the new situation. An example of a PERT
chart is provided below:
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Benefits to using a PERT chart or the Critical Path Method include:[6],[7]
Improved planning and scheduling of activities.
Improved forecasting of resource requirements.
Identification of repetitive planning patterns which can be followed in other
projects, thus simplifying the planning process.
Ability to see and thus reschedule activities to reflect interproject dependencies
and resource limitations following know priority rules.
It also provides the following: expected project completion time, probability of
completion before a specified date, the critical path activities that impact
completion time, the activities that have slack time and that can lend resources
to critical path activities, and activity start and end dates.
GANTT CHART
Gantt charts are used to show calendar time task assignments in days, weeks or
months. The tool uses graphic representations to show start, elapsed, and completion
times of each task within a project. Gantt charts are ideal for tracking progress. The
number of days actually required to complete a task that reaches a milestone can be
compared with the planned or estimated number. The actual workdays, from actual
start to actual finish, are plotted below the scheduled days. This information helps
target potential timeline slippage or failure points. These charts serve as a valuable
budgeting tool and can show dollars allocated versus dollars spent.[4]
To draw up a Gantt chart, follow these steps:[1]
1. List all activities in the plan. For each task, show the earliest start date,
estimated length of time it will take, and whether it is parallel or sequential. If
tasks are sequential, show which stages they depend on.
2. Head up graph paper with the days or weeks through completion.
3. Plot tasks onto graph paper. Show each task starting on the earliest possible
date. Draw it as a bar, with the length of the bar being the length of the task.
Above the task bars, mark the time taken to complete them.
4. Schedule activities. Schedule them in such a way that sequential actions are
carried out in the required sequence. Ensure that dependent activities do not
start until the activities they depend on have been completed. Where possible,
schedule parallel tasks so that they do not interfere with sequential actions on
the critical path. While scheduling, ensure that you make best use of the
resources you have available, and do not over-commit resources. Also, allow
some slack time in the schedule for holdups, overruns, failures, etc.
5. Presenting the analysis. In the final version of your Gantt chart, combine your
draft analysis (#3 above) with your scheduling and analysis of resources (#4
above). This chart will show when you anticipate that jobs should start and
finish. An example of a Gantt chart is provided below:
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Benefits of using a Gantt chart include:[8]
Gives an easy to understand visual display of the scheduled time of a task or
activity.
Makes it easy to develop "what if" scenarios.
Enables better project control by promoting clearer communication.
Becomes a tool for negotiations.
Shows the actual progress against the planned schedule.
Can report results at appropriate levels.
Allows comparison of multiple projects to determine risk or resource
allocation.
Rewards the project manager with more visibility and control over the project.