INTRODUCTION

• The revolution of the globe gives the heartbeat of a day and night which regulates
activities and reposes of natural life.
• The tilted rotation of the earth around the sun sets the rhythm of the seasons, which call
to life the dormant vegetation and donate the bounty of harvest.
• Relative distance to equator determines whether each locale is warm or cool.
• Sun- sets the pace for the patterns of humidity and wind that sweep across the earth.
• The physical environment is blanketed by a vast ocean of air, whose tides carry climatic
elements to all parts of the earth.

BASIC CONCEPT
Weather
 The set of atmospheric conditions prevailing at a given place and time.
Climate
• Defined a region with certain temperatures, dryness, wind, light..
• An integration in time of atmospheric environment of a certain geographical location.
• It plays a great part in the composition of soils, but strongly affects the character of plant
and animals in different regions and- most important from our point of view- man’s
energy.
Setting is impartial; all living species must either adapt their physiology, through selection or
mutation to find defenses against the impacts of environment.
• The open nest secures insulating qualities.
• Hanging nest utilizes the tensile strength of fibers, or grasses, and pendulum like it
avoids the wind forces.
• The nest massively built from clay and straw prevents the intrusion of direct sunlight and
rain by its steep entrance.
• The vertical mud and straw nest is similar to the apartment dwellings, where each
opening is an individual nest comprised of two chambers. The first serves as the
entrance foyer, the second an egg laying and hatching area.
• The mass of earth can effectively relieve extreme temperature differences and secures
more stable heat conditions.
Human physiology

• Climate

Temperament
The optimum climate conditions for human progress: (Ellsworth Huntington)
• Average temperature ranges from somewhat below 40 F in the coldest months to nearly
70 F in the warmest months;
• Frequent storms or winds, to keep the relative humidity quite high except in hot weather
provide rain at all seasons;
• A constant succession of cyclonic storms which bring frequent moderate changes in
temperature but are not severe enough to be harmful.

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Module 03: World Climate and Climate Classification
CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION
1. THORNTHWAITE’S SYSTEM
• Temperature efficiency and precipitation effectiveness were concepts contributed by
climatologist C. Warren Thornthwaite
• 1948 classification introduced a moisture index concept as a basis for classification
• Development of a simple method for the determination of potential evapo-transpiration
(importance on evaporation and precipitation)
• More accurate than is the Köppen system
• Complex and lack of widespread use
2. THE KÖPPEN SYSTEM
• Most widely used for classifying the world's climates
• Introduced in 1900 by the Russian-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846-1940)
• Categories are based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and
precipitation
• Recognizes five major climatic types

TROPICAL CLIMATES (A)

• Extend northward and southward from the equator to about 15° to 25° of latitude.
• All months have average temperatures greater than 18° C.
• Annual precipitation is greater than 1500 mm.

1. Am - Tropical Monsoon
Locations: Coastal areas of southwestern India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
southwestern Africa, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, and parts of northeast and southeast
Brazil.
Controlling Weather Factors: Monsoonal summer onshore and winter offshore air mass
movement related to shifting Intertropical Convergence Zone and changing surface atmospheric
pressure conditions over the landmasses and ocean areas involved.
Climate Characteristics: Climate of this category is transitional between Af and Aw. Heaviest
rainfall records in world occur in this climate type (Cherripunji, India – 12,000 mm (472 in.)).
Heavy rainfall is associated with the high-sun (summer) season. Precipitation is usually
enhanced by orographic uplift. Yearly precipitation totals range from between 1500 to 4000 mm.
Dry season is associated with low-sun (winter) period. Annual temperature range of monthly
averages is about 2 to 6°C (36 to 43°F). Highest monthly temperature often occurs just prior to
the start of the rainy season.
2. Aw - Tropical Savanna (Tropical Wet & Dry)
Locations: Northern and eastern India, central Myanmar, the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, northern
Australia, region around the Congo River basin, south-central Africa, western Central America,
parts of Venezuela, and parts of Brazil, southern tip of Florida, and the Caribbean Islands.
Controlling Weather Factors: alternating wet and dry seasons caused by the seasonal
presence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone during the high-sun season and the Subtropical
High Pressure Zone during the low-sun season.

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Module 03: World Climate and Climate Classification
Climate Characteristics: Monthly precipitation data shows distinct high-sun wet and low-sun
dry seasons. Annual rainfall averages between 750 and 1800 mm (30 and 71 in.). This climate
has the highest monthly temperature ranges of the A climate category.
3. Af - Tropical Rainforest (Tropical Wet)
Locations: Amazon River Basin (South America), Congo River Basin (Africa), eastern coast of
Central America, eastern coast of Brazil, the Philippines, coast of Madagascar, eastern India,
southern Bangladesh, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
Controlling Weather Factors: High year round input of high quantities of solar radiation
(insolation). High and constant monthly precipitation because of the presence of thunderstorm
activity associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone.
Climate Characteristics: Constant high temperatures throughout the year. Average monthly
temperatures are very similar - yearly range is about 2 to 3°C (36 to 37°F). Monthly precipitation
is evenly distributed and annual amounts are usually greater than 1500 mm (59 in.). These
climates also have frequent cumulus cloud development with some of these clouds becoming
air mass thunderstorms. Humidity tends to be high.

DRY, ARID, AND SEMIARID CLIMATES (B)

• Climatic feature: potential evaporation and transpiration
exceed precipitation.
• Extend from 20 - 35° North and South of the equator and in large continental regions of
the mid-latitudes often surrounded by mountains
BW or Dry Arid (Desert)
It covers 12% of the Earth's land surface and is dominated by xerophytic vegetation. The
additional letters h and k are used generally to distinguish whether the dry arid climate is found
in the subtropics or in the mid-latitudes, respectively.
1. BWh – Dry Arid Low Latitudes
Locations: Northern Mexico, southwestern United States, northern Africa Saudi Arabia, Iran,
western India, central and western Australia, and southern and western Africa.
2. BWk – Dry Arid Mid-Latitudes
Locations: From the Caspian Sea eastward to northern China, Mongolia, and parts of southern
South America.
Controlling Weather Factors (both BWh and BWk): Dominance of the Subtropical High
Pressure Zone during most of the year. Locations are often far inland (continentality) and
influenced by rainshadow effect.
Climate Characteristics (both BWh and BWk): Climate is very arid and air has low relative
humidity. Rainfall is very irregular and unreliable. Annual rainfall totals less than 250 mm (10
in.). BWh/k has the highest percentage of sunshine of all climate types. Diurnal (day to night)
temperature ranges are the greatest of all climate types. Daily maximum temperatures are very
high. Generally, windy conditions persist during the day.

BS or Semiarid (Steppe)
This is a grassland climate that covers 14% of the Earth's land surface. It receives more
precipitation than the BW either from short incursions of the Intertropical Convergence Zone or
from occasional mid-latitude cyclones. Once again, the additional letters h and k are used

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Module 03: World Climate and Climate Classification
generally to distinguish whether the dry semiarid climate is found in the subtropics or in the mid-
latitudes, respectively.
1. BSh – Semiarid Low Latitudes
Locations: About 13 to 15° North latitude in Africa, about 20° South latitude southern Africa,
border areas around Australian desert, parts of southern South America, parts of India, and
areas marginal to BWh climates of northwestern Africa, Saudi Arabia, and western India.
2. BSk – Semiarid Mid-Latitudes
Locations: Western plains of the United States, south-central Canada, and
borders BWh climate areas from the Caspian Sea eastward to China and Mongolia.
Controlling Weather Factors (both BSh and BSk): Weather is transitional between deserts
and humid climates. Dominance of the Subtropical High Pressure Zone occurs during most of
the year. Precipitation comes from brief incursions of the Intertropical Convergence Zone or
from sporadic mid-latitude cyclones. Locations are often far inland (continentality) and
influenced by rain shadow effect.
Climate Characteristics (both BSh and BSk): Climate is arid and air has low relative humidity.
Rainfall is sporadic. Annual rainfall totals between 250 and 500 mm (10 and 20 in.). Air
temperatures vary greatly because of the effects of latitude, elevation, and continentality.

MESO-THERMAL CLIMATES (C)

• Climatic feature: potential evaporation and transpiration
exceed precipitation.
• Extend from 20 - 35° North and South of the equator and in large continental regions of
the mid-latitudes often surrounded by mountains

Csa/Csb – Mediterranean
1. Csa: Interior Mediterranean
2. Csb: Coastal Mediterranean
Locations (both Csa and Csb): Interior and coastal areas of California, interior and coastal
areas of Chile, area around the Mediterranean Sea, Iranian highlands, southwest tip of South
Africa, and southern and southwestern regions of Australia.
Controlling Weather Factors (both Csa and Csb): Climate is influenced by subtropical highs
in fall, summer, and spring and mid-latitude cyclones in winter.
Climate Characteristics (both Csa and Csb): Climate switches from mild, wet winters to hot,
arid summers. This climate has a high percentage of sunshine. Diurnal range between
maximum and minimum daily temperatures is quite large. Has some danger of frost during
winter season. Coastal locations can often experience low clouds and fog.

Cfa – Humid Subtropical

Locations: Southeastern United States, northern Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil, southern
Japan, and southern China.
Controlling Weather Factors: Mid-latitude cyclones in winter. Summer dominated by frequent
thunderstorms because of the presence of Maritime Tropical air masses and intense surface
heating.

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Module 03: World Climate and Climate Classification
Climate Characteristics: High humidity occurs in summer months. Summer climate is much
like humid tropics. Frost can occasionally occur with the presence of Continental Polar air
masses in winter. Precipitation varies from 650 to 2500 mm (26 and 98 in.).
Cwa/Cwb/Cwc – Dry Winter, Wet Summer
Locations (Cwa/Cwb/Cwc): Interior of central Mexico, northwestern Argentina, parts of Bolivia,
Nepal, northern India, northern Bangladesh, northern Myanmar, parts of China, Angola, Zambia,
Zimbabwe, and eastern South Africa.
Controlling Weather Factors (Cwa/Cwb/Cwc): Climate is influenced by hot and unstable
humid air masses that dominate generally in late spring, summer, and early fall. Relatively dry
winter season is often due to the presence dry continental polar air masses.
Climate Characteristics (Cwa/Cwb/Cwc): High humidity occurs in summer months. Summer
climate can be very similar to the humid tropics. Winters tend to be dry and cool.

Cfb/Cfc – Marine
1. Cfb: Marine - Mild Winter
2. Cfc: Marine - Cool Winter
Locations: Coastal Oregon, Washington, west coast of Canada and southern west coast of
Alaska, central and northwest Europe, southern Chile, southern coast of South Africa, southeast
Australia and New Zealand.
Controlling Weather Factors (both Cfb and Cfc): Mid-latitude cyclones influence weather for
most of the year. Warm ocean currents keep these climates mild in winter and cool in the
summer.
Climate Characteristics (both Cfb and Cfc): These climates have mild winters and cool
summers with low annual temperature range. Frontal activity produces heavy cloud cover and
high humidity during fall, winter, and spring. Long periods of rain and drizzle from frequent
occurrence of mid-latitude cyclones. Frost can sometimes occur during the winter season.

MICRO-THERMAL CLIMATES (D)

• Moist continental mid-latitude climates have warm to cool summers and cold winters.
• Winters are severe with snowstorms, strong winds, and bitter cold from Continental
Polar or Arctic air masses.

Dfa/Dwa
1. Dfa: Humid Continental Hot Summer, Wet All Year
2. Dwa: Humid Continental Hot Summer, Dry Winter
Locations (both Dfa and Dwa): northeastern and mid-western United States, east-central
Europe, northern China, and northern Korea.
Controlling Weather Factors (both Dfa and Dwa): Weather influenced by mid-latitude
cyclones that form along the polar front in fall, winter, and spring. Winter weather can be clear
and cold when Continental Polar air dominates. Occasional thunderstorms during summer
months.a
Climate Characteristics (both Dfa and Dwa): Climate has hot, often humid summers.
Occasional winter spells with very cold temperatures and clear skies. Immense weather

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Module 03: World Climate and Climate Classification
variability on yearly basis and quite large annual temperature ranges. Yearly precipitation total is
between 500 to 1150 mm (20 and 45 in.).

Dfb/Dwb
1. Dfb: Humid Continental Mild Summer, Wet All Year
2. Dwb: Humid Continental Mild Summer, Dry Winter
Locations (both Dfb and Dwb): New England and around the Great Lakes in the United
States, south-central and southeastern Canada, southeastern Scandinavia, eastern Europe,
west-central Asia, and north-eastern China.
Controlling Weather Factors (both Dfb and Dwb): Weather influenced by mid-latitude
cyclones that form along the polar front in fall, winter, and spring. Winter weather can be clear
and cold when Continental Polar and Arctic air masses are present. Occasional thunderstorms
during summer months.
Climate Characteristics (both Dfb and Dwb): Climate has mild summers. Long winters with
frequent periods of very cold temperatures and clear skies. Immense weather variability on
yearly basis and quite large annual temperature ranges. Yearly precipitation total is less than
Dfa or Dwa climates.

Dfc/Dwc/Dfd/Dwd
1. Dfc: Subarctic With Cool Summer, Wet All Year
2. Dfd: Subarctic With Cold Winter, Wet All Year
3. Dwc: Subarctic With Cool Summer, Dry Winter
4. Dwd: Subarctic With Cold Winter, Dry Winter
Locations (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd and Dwd): Northern North America and northern Eurasia.
Controlling Weather Factors (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd and Dwd): Weather influenced by occasional
mid-latitude cyclones in spring, summer, and fall. Continental Polar and Arctic air masses are
dominant during much of the year.
Climate Characteristics (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd and Dwd): Climate has brief cool summer. Winters
are very long with extended periods of extremely cold temperatures and clear skies. Immense
weather variability on yearly basis and quite large annual temperature ranges. Permafrost
common. Yearly precipitation total is between 250 to 500 mm (10 and 20 in.).

POLAR CLIMATES (E)

• Polar climates have year-round cold temperatures with the warmest month less than 10°
Celsius.
• Polar climates are found on the northern coastal areas of North America, Europe, Asia,
and on the landmasses of Greenland and Antarctica.

ET - Polar Tundra
Locations: Regions in North America, Greenland, and Eurasia that border the Arctic Ocean,
Antarctic Peninsula, and many polar islands.
Controlling Weather Factors: Continual presence of Arctic and Antarctic air masses, polar
vortex, and closeness to oceans.

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Module 03: World Climate and Climate Classification
Climate Characteristics: This climate essentially has no summer. At least 9 months have
average temperatures below freezing. Very low evaporation because of cold temperatures.
Precipitation is normally less than 250 mm (10 in.). Winds tend to be strong and cold.

EF - Polar Ice Cap

Locations: Interior Greenland, most of Antarctica, and most Arctic Islands.
Controlling Weather Factors: Continual presence of Arctic and Antarctic air masses and polar
vortex produce the planet’s coldest temperatures. Permanent ice cover and high elevations
enhance the coldness of this climate.
Climate Characteristics: No summer and all average monthly temperatures are below
freezing. Very low evaporation because of cold temperatures. Very small amounts of
precipitation occur, mainly falling as snow.

HIGHLAND CLIMATES (H)

 Climates are defined by the effect of the altitude on a location’s climate. These climates
are located from the tropics to the poles.

Controlling Weather Factors: A drier atmosphere decreases the amount of heat energy that
can be generated by surface absorption of long wave counter-radiation from the atmosphere.
This process also enhances nighttime cooling making diurnal temperature ranges quite
extreme. Precipitation of highland climates can sometimes be enhanced because of orographic
lifting. More commonly, H climates tend to have lower quantities of precipitation than adjacent
low elevation sites because cold high altitude air holds less water vapor and the rainshadow
effect.
Climate Characteristic: The most obvious climate characteristic that is altered in
these climates is temperature. Annual and monthly temperatures are lower because of adiabatic
cooling, and due to the fact that the atmosphere at high altitudes contains less moisture.

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 SIMPLIFIED KÖPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
5 MAJOR CLIMATE CATEGORIES
First Letter Second Letter Third Letter
A Coolest month greater than 18°C (64.4°F) f Driest month has at least 6cm NO THIRD LETTER (with
TROPICAL (MOIST) CLIMATES (2.4 in.) of precipitation tropical climates)
Am – Tropical monsoon m Seasonally, excessively moist WINTERLESS
Aw – Tropical savanna w Dry winter, wet summer
Af – Tropical rainforest
C Coldest month between 18°C (64.4°F) and s (DRY SUMMER) Driest month in a Warmest month above 22°C
0°C (32°F); at least 1 month over 10°C (50°F) the summer half of the year, (71.6°F)
MESO-THERMAL CLIMATES with less than 3cm (1.2 in.) of b Warmest month below 22°C
(MOIST MID-LATITUDE CLIMATES WITH MILD WINTERS) precipitation and less than one (71.6°F) with at least 4
Csa, Csb – Mediterranean third of the wettest winter months above 10°C (50°F)
Cfa, – Humid Subtropical month
Cwa, Cwb, Cwc – Dry winter, Wet Summer
Cfb, Cfc – Marine west coast
D Coldest Month less than 0°C (32°F); at least 1 w (DRY WINTER) Driest month in c Warmest month below 22°C
month over 10°C (50°F) the winter half of the year, with (71.6°F) with 1 – 3 months
MICRO-THERMAL CLIMATES less than one tenth the wettest above 10°C (50°F)
(MOIST MID-LATITUDE CLIMATES WITH COLD WINTERS) summer month d Same as c, but coldest month
Dfa, Dwa – Humid continental, hot summer f (ALWAYS MOIST) Does not meet is below -38°C (-36.4°F)
Dfb, Dwb – Humid continental, mild summer conditions for s or w above
Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd - Subarctic
B Arid or semiarid climates S Semiarid climate h Mean annual temperature
ARID CLIMATES (DRY CLIMATES) W Arid climate greater than 18°C (64.4°F)
BSh, BSk – Steppe k Mean annual temperature
BWh, BWk – Desert less than 18°C (64.4°F)
E Warmest month less than 10°C (50°F) T Warmest month between 10°C NO THIRD LETTER (with polar
POLAR CLIMATES (EXTREME WINTER/SUMMER) (50°F) and 0°C (32°F) climates) SUMMERLESS
ET – Tundra F Warmest month below 0°C
EF – Ice Sheet (32°F)
GENERAL TYPES OF CLIMATE
1. Hot Humid (Tropical)
2. Hot Arid
3. Temperate
4. Cold

WORLD CLIMATES
1. Arctic
Iceland, Greenland, Northern Russia and China
2. Cool Temperate
N.W. Europe, Canada, and parts of North America
3. Warm Temperate
Mediterranean Countries
4. Tropical And Sub-Tropical
Middle East, Northern India, parts of Turkey
5. Equatorial
Those countries lying just above or below the equator, Southeast Asian Countries,
Central Africa and the Amazon Basin in South America

REGIONAL ADAPTATION - an essential principle in architecture

HOUSING FORMS
Varying housing forms were developed by a similar ethnic background that is encountered by
widely varying climatic regions.

Eg. Eskimo igloo - a well known solution to the problem of survival in the extreme cold.
- These low hemispherical shelters deflect the winds and take advantage
of the insulating value of the snow that surrounds them.
1. Cool area
• Conservation of heat is essential
2. Temperate area
• Offering a natural favorable climate
• Fewer thermal demands on its inhabitants
• Freedom of structures
3. Hot- arid area
• Characterized by excessive heat and glaring sun
• Shelter-designed to reduce heat impacts and provide shade
• Constructed of massive adobe roofs and walls- good insulative value and capacity to
delay heat impacts
• Very small windows-amount of exposed surface was reduced
• Pueblo structures- extend on east- west axis, reducing morning and afternoon heat
impacts
-receiving maximum amount of south sun in the winter months when heat is welcome.

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4. Hot- humid area
• Two major problems
1. The excessive solar radiation
2. Evaporation of moisture by breezes.
• Villages are built to allow free air movement
• Scattered individual units were mixed into the shade of surrounding flora.
• Raised gable roofs coved with grass to insulate against the sun and throw large areas
for shadow over dwelling that has no walls.
• Roof- steep slope and extensive overhang- protection against rainfall.
Floors- elevated to keep them dry and allow air circulation underneath

ROOF- is a determining element in the general form and appearance or regional house types.
Hot Zones - Flat Roof
Dry Areas - Vaulted Roof
Temperate Areas - Inclined Roof
Wet-Temperate &
Cooler Territories - Steep/ High Roofs

MICRO-CLIMATE
Many factors contribute to micro-climate, for instance, the location of hills, rivers, streams and
lakes, the position of buildings and trees, whether the site is on coast or inland, in a town or in
the rural areas, whether the location is above sea level, etc.

Some micro-climate phenomena are:

• land/sea breeze
• Courtyards
• Evaporative cooling
• Orientation
• Slope of land height in relation to air movement, rainfall and temperature

URBAN CLIMATE
Almost every city in the world today is hotter - usually between 1 to 4 deg C hotter - than its
surrounding area. This difference between urban and rural temperatures is called the "urban-
heat-island" effect", and it has been intensifying throughout this century.

References:
Ahrens, C. D. 2006. Meteorology Today. An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and the Environment. Eighth Edition. Thompson,
Brooks/Cole. USA.
Petersen, J. F. 2011. Physical Geography. 2nd Edition. Cengage Learning
Pidwirny, M. 2006. Climate Classification and Climatic Regions of the World.
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition. Online: Physical Geography, accessed 05 December 2012.

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Module 03: World Climate and Climate Classification