1

Geography Maps & Facts for UPSC CSE Prelims 2026

●​ NCERT Physical (India & World): Basics, Islands, River mapping, Mountains
of India and World.
●​ Resources: Distribution of Soils, Forest types, Vegetation, Water Resources,
Minerals, and Crop zones.
●​ Environment Mapping: Locations of National Parks, WLS, Biosphere
Reserves, and Ramsar Sites.

n
Measurement Value

ee
General
Measurement

sl
MAP

Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl

1 Nautical Mile 1.8 km

m

Territorial Waters 12 NM / 21.6 km

Si

Territorial Sea
●​ Allowed: Coastal states have full sovereignty; foreign ships have the
C

right of "innocent passage."

●​ Prohibited: Foreign aircraft cannot fly over without permission, and
PS

ships cannot stop or fish.

Contiguous Zone
●​ Allowed: Coastal states can police the area for customs, tax, and
immigration violations.
U

●​ Prohibited: States cannot block foreign ships or planes from passing

through as long as laws aren't broken.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
●​ Allowed: Coastal states have exclusive rights to fish, drill for oil, and
manage resources.
●​ Prohibited: States cannot stop foreign ships from sailing through or
foreign planes from flying over.
High Seas
●​ Allowed: All nations have total freedom of navigation and overflight in
these international waters.
 2

●​ Prohibited: No country can claim ownership or stop any foreign vessel

or aircraft from passing.

India's Longitude & Latitude

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si

Direction Coordinate Location

C

Southernmost 6.45° N Indira Point (Pygmalion Point, Parsons Point)

PS

Northernmost 37.6° N Indira Col (Kol to Punjab)

North-South Extent 3200 km

U

Westernmost 68.34° E Guhar Moti, Gujarat

Easternmost 97.25° E Kibithu, Arunachal Pradesh

East-West Extent 2900 km

IST 82.30 E (5.5 1 degree= 4 mins; 60 mins= 15 degrees;

hours ahead Eastern most and western point diff= 2 hours difference
of Japan is the land of the rising sun.
greenwich)
 3

In time, East is always ahead of west because sun rises in

east. (Due to Earth’s rotation- West to East)

At the equator, 1° of longitude spans about 111 km (4

minutes time difference), but near the poles, it covers only a
few meters, causing rapid time changes with minimal
movement (more time zones)
France (12), USA (11), Russia (11), UK (9), and Australia (8),
Canada (6); Denmark (5); New zealand (5) have the most
time zones.

Food for thought

n
While Mainland france uses only 1 time zone but has 12 time

ee
zones because its and territories are scattered across the
Atlantic (Guiana, Caribbean), Indian (Réunion, Mayotte), and
Pacific (Polynesia, New Caledonia) oceans.

sl
Antarctica technically spans all 24 time zones since every line

Ja
of longitude converges at the South Pole, but it is not ranked
as having the most time zones because it has no official
by government to set them
A split into IST-I (UTC+5:30) and IST-II (UTC+6:30) could
save 2.7 billion units of electricity annually, boost productivity,
and align northeastern lifestyles with natural circadian
ed
rhythms, yet the debate continues as these benefits must be
weighed against national concerns regarding railway safety
and administrative unity.
ifi

India’s Location
pl

●​ Northeast in world
●​ South central part of Asia
m
Si

Area & Boundaries

C

India's Area 2.4% of the world’s area (3.28 million sq km)

7th largest
PS

Russia> Canada> USA > China > Brazil > Australia > India > argentina (
RuCa UChi BAI )

Mainland Border Length 15,106 km

U

Coastline 1. As of 2025-2026, the updated total coastline of India (Mainland & Islands) is
11,098.81 km, consisting of 7,870.51 km of mainland and 3,228.30 km of
island [Link] to lowest coastline (State/UT): Andaman & Nicobar
(3,083) km) > Gujarat (2,340) km) > Tamil Nadu (1,068) km) > Andhra
Pradesh (1,053 km) > Maharashtra (877km) > West Bengal (721 km) > Kerala
(600 km) > Odisha (574 km) > Karnataka (343 km) > Goa (193 km) >
Lakshadweep (144 km) > Daman & Diu (54 km) > Puducherry (42 km).
 4

Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) - 8 States

n
MaGaRaMaCh JhaPaTa

ee
MP> Guj has largest length; Rj has shortest

Tropic of Cancer Passes Through

sl
●​ Kutch
●​ Baghelkhand

Ja
●​ Chotanagpur
●​ Mizo Hills
It divides India into tropical and subtropical climatic zones, significantly influencing the
by
country's monsoon patterns and solar intensity.

Gujarat Gandhinagar (60 km); Ahmedabad (23 km)

ed
Rajasthan Jaipur (110 km)
ifi

Madhya Bhopal (80 km); Ratlam (20 km)

Pradesh
pl

Chhattisgarh Raipur (120 km)

m

Jharkhand Ranchi (40 km)

Si

West Bengal Kolkata (50 km)

C

Tripura Agartala (5 km); Udaipur (almost on Tropic of Cancer)

PS

Mizoram Aizawl (10 km)

U

Indian Standard Meridian (82.5° E) - 5 States

 5

Map (UP in
COMA)

n
Uttar Pradesh Mirzapur (almost on standard), Prayagraj (10 km west)

ee
Madhya Pradesh Rewa (1 km)

sl
Chhattisgarh Bilaspur (20 km)- passes through centre

Ja
Odisha

Andhra Pradesh
by
Minimum States Required Between Routes Major Cities
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U

Srinagar → Kanyakumari JK → PB → RJ → GJ → MH → KT → TN (1+ 5+1)

 6

Guhar Moti → Kibithu GJ → RJ → UP → BR → WB → ASSAM → Arunachal (1+ 5+1)

Delhi → Mumbai Delhi→ HR → RJ → GJ → MH (1+ 3+ 1)

Kolkata → Delhi UP → BR (1+2+1)

Kolkata → Mumbai Chhattisgarh → JH (1+2+1)

Mumbai → Bangalore Adjacent

Mumbai → Telangana Adjacent

n
Mumbai → Chennai MH → KT → TN (1+1+1)

ee
International Borders (7 Land + 2 Water)- BaChPaN Mya Bhua Aagye

sl
Country Length States/UTs Sharing Border Forces

Ja
Bangladesh 4,096 km 5- West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura,Mizoram BSF

China
by3,488 km 4+1= Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh
ITBP
ed
Pakistan 3,323 km 3+1= J&K (PoK), Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat BSF

Nepal 1,751 km 5= Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Bihar, West SSB

ifi

Bengal
pl

Myanmar 1,643 km 4= Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram Assam Rifles

m

Bhutan 699 km 4= Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh SSB

(Doklam= sikkim+ china+ bhutan)
Si

Afghanistan 106 km (PoK region) BSF

C

Trivia ●​ Countries bordering the most Indian states: Bangladesh, Nepal (5 states
each).
PS

●​ Indian states bordering 3 countries: SAW

○​ Sikkim → China, Nepal, Bhutan
○​ Arunachal Pradesh → China, Bhutan, Myanmar
○​ West Bengal → Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh
U

●​ West Bengal has the longest international border.

●​ Sikkim has the shortest international border.

Important Border Lines

 7

n
ee
Ladakh is associated with both the Radcliffe and Johnson Lines.

sl
Johnson Line 1865 to secure British India's northern frontier against potential Chinese and Russian

Ja
threats.
It extends the border to the Kunlun Mountains, putting Aksai Chin within India's
territory, which India holds as its rightful border against China.

Durand Line
by 1893 Afghanistan & Pakistan (British India)- to create Afghanistan as a buffer against
Russian expansion.
ed
McMahon Line 1914 India (Arunachal Pradesh) & China (Tibet)- was not accepted by China after
1949, with China claiming parts of Arunachal Pradesh.
This led to the Sino-Indian War of 1962, where China advanced into Indian
ifi

territory along the disputed border.

pl

Radcliffe Line 1947 India & Pakistan (including Bangladesh)

m

38th parallel North & south Korea

Si

49th parallel Canada- USA (Longest border

C

Domestic Borders
PS

No. of bordering states States

8 States + 1 UT Uttar Pradesh

U

7 States Assam, Chhattisgarh

6 States Maharashtra, Karnataka (Sister States)

5 States Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Andhra

Pradesh.

1 State Meghalaya, Sikkim

 8

Trivia on Borders &

Coastal Areas ●​ India-Bangladesh is the fifth-longest land border in the
world.
●​ Teen Bigha Corridor: Small land passage leased to
Bangladesh inside Indian territory.
●​ Siliguri Corridor: A narrow stretch in West Bengal connecting
the northeast.

n
Coastline- 9 Alphabets (9 States + 3 UTs)-
GTAM West KrOKt G

ee
Rank State/UT Coastline Length

sl
1 Gujarat 2300 km

Ja
2 Tamil Nadu 1,068 km

3 Andhra Pradesh
by 1,053 km

4 Maharashtra
ed
5 West Bengal 700 km roughly as islands
included now
ifi

6 Kerala
pl

7 Odisha
m

8 Karnataka

9 Goa
Si

UTs A&N Islands (Largest overall- 3000 km),

C

Lakshadweep (132 km), Puducherry (Smallest

overall)
PS

Related - Wind Power

●​ Offshore Potential: Gujarat > Tamil Nadu > Maharashtra
●​ Highest Installed: Gujarat (15 GW/ 15000 mw) > Tamil Nadu (12 GW) > Karnataka (9
U

GW)
●​ Highest Potential: Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Karnataka
 9

6. The Islands
Map of Islands
of India

n
ee
Andaman and A&N Islands proximity (In My Thai Maincourse)
Nicobar (north ○​ Indonesia (~215 km from Great Nicobar to Sumatra)

sl
to south)- ○​ Myanmar (~280 km from Landfall Island)
572 islands ○​ Thailand (~500 km from Phuket to Andaman Islands)

Ja
○​ Mainland India (~1,200 km from Chennai to Port Blair)
Coco Island (Myanmar) - Note: Cocos keeling Island belong to Australia (My Coco)
Cocos Channel
by
1.​ Great Andaman Islands
○​ North Andaman
ed
■​ Saddle Peak (Highest Peak)
■​ Narcondam Island (Dormant volcano)
■​ Barren Island (Only known Active Volcano in India)
ifi

○​ Middle Andaman
■​ Mount Diavolo
pl

■​ Ritchie’s Archipelago
○​ South Andaman
m

■​ Port Blair (Capital)- (Ports are usually in South Ands)

■​ Mount Koyob
Si

■​ Rutland Island
■​ West of South Andaman
1.​ Ross Island (Now Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Island)
C

■​ East of South Andaman

1.​ Havelock Island (Now Swaraj Dweep)- World’s largest
PS

underwater Indian flag

2.​ Neil Island (Now Shaheed Dweep)
○​ Duncan Passage (Between Great Andaman and Little Andaman)
○​ Little Andaman
U

2.​ Ten Degree Channel (Separates Andaman and Nicobar Islands)- named after 10 deg
north latitude
3.​ Nicobar Islands (ChaLi Gyi)
○​ Car Nicobar
○​ Somber’s Channel
○​ Little Nicobar
○​ Great Nicobar
■​ Mount Thuillier (Highest Peak in Nicobar)
■​ Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve
■​ Indira Point (Southernmost Point of India)
○​ Great Channel (Between Great Nicobar and Sumatra, Indonesia)
 10

○​ Sumatra Island (Indonesia)

Lakshadweep ●​ Amindivi Islands Group (Northern Lakshadweep)

(36 islands) ○​ Kiltan Island
○​ Amini Island
○​ Chetlat Island
○​ Bitra Island (Farthest from India to the west)- birha
●​ Laccadive Islands Group (Central Lakshadweep)
○​ Andrott Island (Closest to India - Kerala)- android
○​ Agatti Island (Has an airport, westward location)
○​ Cannanore Is and Kavaratti (Capital of Lakshadweep)
●​ 9 Degree Channel (Separates Minicoy from Lakshadweep)

n
●​ Minicoy Island Group (Southern Lakshadweep)
○​ Largest Island in Lakshadweep)

ee
●​ 8 Degree Channel (Between Minicoy and Maldives)

sl
Ja
Mountain Ranges
by
1.​ Hindu Kush – Pakistan, Afghanistan,
ed
Tajikistan.​

2.​ Pamir Knot – "Roof of the World b/c of

ifi

high altitude." Primarily in Tajikistan, with

extensions into Afghanistan, China, and
pl

Kyrgyzstan; the Hindu Kush, Karakoram,

Kunlun, and Tien Shan - converge like a
m

knot. ​

3.​ Kunlun Mountains – Located in Western

Si

China​
C

4.​ Sulaiman Range – Primarily in Pakistan,

extending into Afghanistan.​
PS

5.​ Kirthar Range – boundary between

Balochistan and Sindh in Pakistan.
U

Kaza Kyrg
Uzbe Tajik- Taji Hawa
Turk
 11

Mountain Ranges in India​

●​ Fold= Himalayas, arravalis, eastern ghats (mostly).

●​ Fault/ Block= Vindhyas, Satpuras and Western ghats

Trans (Tibetan) Himalayas:

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
Older than the main Himalayas. Located north of the Great Himalayas/Yarlung Tsangpo River. Includes
the Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, and Kailash ranges and the Lahaul-Spiti valleys.
ed
Rivers originating from Trans-Himalayas/ Tibet Himalayan region:
While these rivers are centered around the Mansarovar/Kailash region, their precise origins are as
ifi

follows:
pl

●​ Indus (Sengge Zangbo): Starts from the Bokar Chu glacier near Mt. Kailash. It flows through
Ladakh(India) and Pakistan.
m

●​ Brahmaputra (Yarlung Tsangpo): Starts from the Chemayungdung glacier (or Angsi glacier). It
enters India at Arunachal Pradesh.
Si

●​ Sutlej (Langchen Zangbo): Starts from Lake Rakshastal (connected to Mansarovar). It enters
India via Himachal Pradesh.
●​ Karnali (Ghaghara): Starts from the Mapchachungo glacier. It is the longest river in Nepal and a
C

major tributary of the Ganga.

●​ Subansiri: Originates in the Tibetan Plateau and flows into India as a powerful tributary of the
PS

Brahmaputra.
U

Main Himalayan Range-

As per Niti ayog- 11 States + 2 UT- J&K + Ladakh + HP+ Uttarakhand + West Bengal + 8 NE States ​

Kashmir/NW Himalayas (KaLa ZaPi): Kashmir/NW Himalayas is a regional name that includes both the
Trans-Himalayas and parts of the Main Himalayas. featuring the Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar
(Trans-Himalayan) plus the Pir Panjal (Lesser Himalayan) range
 12

n
ee
​

sl
Karakoram Range

Ja
●​ K2 (8,611 m) – 2nd highest peak in the world, highest in India.
●​ Siachen Glacier – World's highest battlefield (India controls it under Operation Meghdoot).
●​ Passes – Karakoram Pass (old Silk Route, Ladakh-China border), Sasser Pass.
by
●​ Rivers- Shyok, Nubra, and Gilgit rivers flow through this range.​

Ladakh Range
ed
●​ Lower in height compared to Karakoram & Zanskar.
●​ Major passes: Chang La, Khardung La (one of the highest motorable roads in the world,
~5,359 m).
ifi

●​ Rivers- LIZ- Ladakh- Indus- Zanskar rivers​

pl

Deosai Range
●​ Located in Ladakh (India) & Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan).
●​ Deosai National Park (Pakistan-occupied region) –Himalayan Brown Bear.
m
Si
C
PS

●​ ​

Zanskar Range
U

●​ Zoji La Pass (connects Srinagar with Leh).

●​ Pensi La Pass (gateway to Zanskar Valley).
●​ Umling la - world highest motorable pass.

Kailash Range
●​ Home to Mount Kailash (6,638 m) and Lake Manasarovar (sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Jainism).​

Himalayan Ranges
1. Primary Direction (West-East)
The Himalayas stretch 2,400 km in a horizontal arc.
 13

●​ West Anchor: Indus Gorge (Nanga Parbat).

●​ East Anchor: Brahmaputra Gorge (Namcha Barwa).
2. Syntaxial Bends (North-South)
At both ends, the range takes sharp, hairpin turns Southward.
●​ Western Bend: At Nanga Parbat, pivoting toward the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges.
●​ Eastern Bend: At Namcha Barwa, bending into the Purvanchal hills toward Myanmar.
3. Himalayas grow annually (5 mm) due to tectonic activity.

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
Himalayas GLOw
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C

Greater Himalayas (Himadri/Inner Himalayas)- Hima’s GrIn

PS

●​ Highest & most continuous range of the Himalayas.

●​ Contains Mt. Everest (8,849 m), Kanchenjunga (8,586 m), Nanda Devi (7,816 m), Annapurna,
Dhaulagiri. (k2 is in karakoram)
U

●​ Permafrost conditions, no permanent habitation.​

Lesser Himalayas (Himachal)

●​ Pir Panjal Range (J&K & Himachal) – Largest range of Lesser Himalayas.
○​ Banihal Pass (J&K), Rohtang Pass (HP).
○​ Jhelum River originates from Verinag (Pir Panjal Range, J&K)
○​ Karewa deposits - Lacustrine sediments are deposits of clay, silt, sand, and organic
matter that accumulate in lake beds over time due to sedimentation- used for saffron
○​ Wular lake (North) - Dal lake (South)
●​ Dhauladhar Range (Himachal Pradesh) – Contains Triund & Mcleodganj.
○​ These lie b/w Ravi in west and Kali in East
 14

○​ Rivers – Chenab, Ravi, Beas.

○​ All major hill stations lie here.
●​ Nag Tibba (Uttarakhand) – Also called ‘Serpent’s Peak’.
○​ Bhotiyas are nomadic groups who migrate to Bugyals (summer grasslands in higher
reaches- Valley of Flowers) ​

Outer Himalayas (Shivalik Range)

●​ Discontinuous, youngest range of the Himalayas.
●​ Duns (Doon Valleys) – Chandigarh Kalka dun, Harike Dun, Nalgarh Dun, Dehradun, Patli Dun,
Kotli Dun.​

Darjeeling - Sikkim himalayas

n
●​ Kanchenjunga peak
●​ Shivalik formation is absent in entire north east himalayas

ee
○​ Instead Duar Formations (alluvial floodplains similar to Terai)- great for tea. British
introduced Tea cultivation
■​ Thick soil with high organic content (Acidic soil).

sl
■​ Moderate slopes.
■​ Moderate- Well- distributed rainfall throughout rainfall.

Ja
■​ Mild winters.
●​ Various types of orchids are found here.
●​ Lepcha tribe in higher reaches ​
by
Eastern Himalayas (Purvanchal Hills)
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS

●​ They are considered the eastern extension of the Himalayan Range System, not a separate
mountain range, although they differ structurally that run through 7 NE states.
U

●​ The range consists of the Patkai, Naga, Manipur, Mizo, and Barail Range.
●​ The Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills are geographically considered part of the Meghalaya
Plateau/Peninsular Plateau, not the Purvanchal Himalayas
●​ (Note: Purvanchal “region” is easternmost UP and Bihar- bhojpuri culture)

●​ Arunachal
○​ Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi, Patkai Bum hills
○​ Tribes- Monpa, Dafla, abor, mishmi, nishi and nagas, adi- practice jhumming.
○​ Diphu pass, Kangto peak, Namcha Barwa peak.
●​ Mizoram - molassis basin ( soft unconsolidated rocks)
●​ Naga Hills
 15

●​ Mikir Hills (Assam)

○​ Fault Mountains- Older than Himalayas
○​ Isolated hills- Not a part of other ranges
●​ Barail Range
○​ Fold
○​ Manipur, Assam and Nagaland.
○​ Forms a divide between Brahmaputra Valley & Barak Valley.
○​ Nagas, Kukis, and Dimasas
●​ Lushai/Mizo Hills – Occupy most of Mizoram.

Eastern Mountains​

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
●​
ed
●​ Badampahar- Odisha; Ajodhya hills- West bengal; Rajmahal- Jharkhand
●​ Ajodhya Hills
○​ Western Bengal, Part of Chotanagpur
ifi

●​ Rajmahal Hills
○​ Jharkhand, Part of Chotanagpur
pl

○​ Volcanic hills, basaltic rocks are associated with the Deccan Traps.
●​ Mailan Hills
○​ Odisha
m

○​ Part of Eastern Ghat

Si

WESTERN INDIA
C
PS
U
 16

Aravalli Range
●​ Oldest “fold” mountains in India
(Residual Mountains).
●​ Composed of ancient metamorphic
rocks, with Quartzite forming the
prominent ridges. Other dominant rock
types include Gneiss, Schist, and Marble,
along with extensive granite and volcanic
rocks
●​ Highest peak – Guru Shikhar (1,722 m),
Mount Abu.

✅
●​ Rivers:​

n
✅ Sahibi (Jaipur)​

ee
Banas (Kumbhalgarh) – Tributary of

✅
Chambal- Origin in Aravali​
Luni (Pushkar) – Disappears in

✅
Rann of Kutch​

sl
Sabarmati (Udaipur’s Dhebar Lake)
– Flows into Arabian Sea

Ja
●​ Haldighati – Historic mountain pass
(Battle of Haldighati, 1576).
by Satmala Range
Ajanta Range- Origin of Purna River
Balaghat Range
ed
Harishchandra Range
ifi

CENTRAL INDIA
pl
m
Si
C
PS

Vindhyas
●​ Fault-block residual mountains.
U

●​ Highest peak – Sadbhawna/Goodwill/Kalumar Peak.

●​ 5 States: Gujarat, MP, Chhattisgarh, UP, Bihar.
●​ Origin Rivers: Chambal, Ken, Betwa.
●​ Kaimur Range- Eastern portion of Vindhyas
○​ MP, UP, Bihar.
○​ From Jabalpur to Sasaram
●​ Narmada flows between Vindhyas and Satpuras,
Satpura Range
●​ Fault-block residual mountains.
●​ Maikal Range-Eastern portion of Satpuras
○​ MP, Chattisgarh
 17

○​ Amarkantak or Maikal links vindhyas and satpuras

■​ Rivers Origin- Narmada, Son, Johilla, Seonath (trib of Mahanadi), Wainganga
●​ Mahadeo Hills- Dhupgarh Peak is highest, Pachmarhi is also present
○​ Separates Narmada basin and Godavari basin
●​ Satpuras- 4 states- Gujarat, MP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra
○​ Tapi flows south of Satpuras.

Western Ghats vs. Eastern Ghats: Western Ghats are continuous & steep, Eastern Ghats are
discontinuous & eroded.
WESTERN GHATS
●​ Elevation - 1500 m EASTERN GHATS
●​ UNESCO WHS ●​ Elevation - 600 - 900 m

n
(Biodiversity hotspot). ●​ Discontinuous and low
●​ 6 States: Gujarat, hills- classic example of

ee
Maharashtra, Goa, relict mountains; highly
Karnataka, Tamil eroded by rivers
Nadu, Kerala. ●​ 5 States: Odisha,

sl
(GMG-KTK Andhra Pradesh,
●​ Highest Peak – Telangana, Karnataka,

Ja
Anamudi (2,695 m, Tamil Nadu.
Kerala, Eravikulam ●​ Highest peak –
NP). by Jindhagada Peak
●​ Rivers (North to (Araku Valley, Andhra

✅South):​
Godavari
Pradesh).
●​ Rivers Originating:
ed
(Trimbakeshwar, Baitarani,

✅Nashik)​
Krishna
Budhabalanga,
Champavati, Sarada,
ifi

(Mahabaleshwar, Sileru, Sabari,

✅Maharashtra)​ Vamsadhara, Palar,

pl

✅ Tungabhadra​
Kaveri (Coorg/
Nagavali, Rushikulya.
●​ Pass-through Rivers
m

✅Kodagu, Karnataka)​
Thamirabarani
(MahaBrahmRekha):

✅
(not origin)​
Si

(Pothigai Hills, Tamil Mahanadi,

Nadu) Brahmani,
Hills (North to South): Subarnarekha.
C

●​ Satmala Hills,
Sahyadri Hills in MH ✅
●​ Hills (North to South):​
Garhjat Hills
PS

Kalsubai peak - (Odisha, includes

highest satmala. Simlipal NP)
●​ Ajanta
✅ ○​ Malaygiri hills
U

●​ Balaghat ●​ Mahendragiri Hills

●​ Harishchandra
●​ Nilgiri Hills in Kt and
TN (meeting point of
✅
(Northern Circars)​
Nallamala Hills,
Palakonda, Veliconda,
Western & Eastern Javadi, Shevaroy Hills.
Ghats). NaPaVe JaNiShAn Ca
○​ 1st BR- Tea-
Doddabetta is
highest peak of
Nilgiri
 18

✅ Anamalai Hills (Anamudi

✅
Peak).​
Cardamom Hills
(Kerala-TN border, spices
cultivation).

Volcanoes in India
●​ No active volcanoes in the Himalayas (due to continental-continental convergence Indian and
Eurasian plates)
●​ Barren Island (Andaman & Nicobar) – India’s only active volcano, last erupted in 2022.
●​ Narcondam Island (Andaman & Nicobar) – Dormant.

n
●​ Dhinodhar Hills (Gujarat) – Extinct volcanic region.

ee
●​ Deccan Traps (Maharashtra) – Formed due to ancient volcanic activity (~66 million years ago).

Regions of India

sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U

Northern Plains Locations & Features

Bagar Tract The Bagar tract is a dry, semi-arid, and sandy upland region bordering Rajasthan and
Haryana (especially in Sirsa, Hisar, and Bhiwani) in India.​
Rivers- Ghaggar-Hakra, Saraswati
Rohilkhand Western Uttar Pradesh; River= Ramganga- Corbett, Kannauj - meets Ganga

Braj Uttar Pradesh; Rivers- Yamuna, Chambal

 19

Awadh Central Uttar Pradesh; Gomti (Lucknow), Ghaghara, Saryu (Ayodhya)

Purvanchal - Bhojpur Eastern UP - Western Bihar; Rivers- Son, Punpun

Mithila Eastern Bihar; Rivers- Kosi, Gandak, Bagmati

Dooars & Terai West Bengal, Assam; Rivers- Teesta, Raidak & Sankosh (Brahmaputra tributaries)

⛰️ Peninsula Locations & Features

Central Highlands Older, eroded plateaus; (North of Narmada)

1.​ Malwa Plateau
a.​ Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan

n
b.​ Volcanic Plateau (Amongst central highlands, only Malwa is part of Deccan

ee
c.​ Black (Regur) soil
d.​ Chambal, Betwa, Kali Sindh (tributaries of Yamuna)
e.​ Opium production (Mandsaur) and soybean cultivation

sl
f.​ Ujjain- Astronomical studies (Tropic of Cancer passes here)
2.​ Bundelkhand Plateau

Ja
a.​ Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
b.​ Crystalline Plateau (formed by Bundelkhand gneiss)
by c.​ Red & yellow soils (Jhansi rani ka Khoon)
d.​ Panna- Diamond Mines (Ken River)
3.​ Baghelkhand Plateau
a.​ Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh
ed
b.​ Crystalline Plateau (Gondwana rocks- rich in Coal not iron)
c.​ Red & yellow soils; lateritic patches
d.​ Rewa- Known for white tigers, Son River originates here
ifi

Vindhyan Hills 1.​ Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh

2.​ Fault Residual Mountains (sandstone & limestone)
pl

3.​ Separates Northern Plains from Peninsular Plateau (not Satpuras)

4.​ Bhedaghat, Jabalpur – famous for marble rocks - Dhuandhar Waterfall, Narmada
m

River
Chotanagpur Plateau 1.​ Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh
2.​ Peninsular Plateau (Gondwana land remnant)
Si

3.​ Red, laterite, and iron-rich soils

4.​ River- Damodar, Subarnarekha, Koel, Brahmani
C

Singhbhum Craton One of the oldest geological formations in India

PS

Rajmahal Hills Part of it

Deccan Plateau Volcanic basaltic plateau - Erosional

(South of Narmada)
U

Bastar Plateau ●​ Chhattisgarh- Dandakaranya

●​ Erosional Plateau
Dandakaranya Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Telangana, Andhra

Maharashtra Plateau

Telangana Plateau Semi-arid; known for granite rocks

 20

Rayalaseema Plateau ●​ Andhra Pradesh

●​ Penna, Tungabhadra
●​ Drought-prone; historically part of Vijayanagara Empire

Karnataka Plateau Karnataka- (Maidan & Malnad)

Eastern Coastal (Northern Circars to Coromandel)

Plains

Utkal Plains ●​ Odisha; Mahanadi – Largest river; forms Odisha's delta

n
●​ Chilika Lake- Largest coastal lagoon in India; Ramsar site

ee
●​ Dhamra Port- Mouth of Brahmani Baitarani

🌵 Western Arid and -

●​ Paradeep Port- Major coal and mineral export hub

sl
Semi-Arid Region
Banni Grasslands Gujarat (Kutch)- largest grassland in Asia- comprises both wetland and grassland- Home

Ja
to Maldhari community; Luni River
World's largest natural halophytic grassland

River Systems
by
Watershed, Catchment, River basin (larger)- three refer to land areas that channel water to a common
point.
ed
Difference: Scale varies—watershed is smaller, catchment is a general term for any drainage area, river
basin is the largest and include area drained by distributaries
ifi

Patterns of rivers
●​ Dendritic- Tree like due to uniform rock structure- Ganga, Brahmaputra, Satluj
pl

●​ Rectantangular- Rivers in block mountains Ex: Chambal river and its tributaries
●​ Trellis- Parallel tributaries joining the main river at right angles due to alternating hard and soft rock
m

formations, common in folded terrains. Ex: Indus and its tributaries

●​ Radial- Narmada, son, Johila, mahanadi
Si

Pattern
●​ Antecedent rivers- Older than the Himalayas, they maintain their original course despite tectonic
C

uplift. ex: Indus, Brahmaputra, Satluj, kosi, teesta, Ghaghara- Karnali, Gandak, subansiri, manas
●​ Upheavals of Himalayas= Tertiary period/ Cenozoic. (Hi, Tera, Cent)
PS

●​ Consequent rivers formed after land uplift and adjusted their course accordingly- younger than
himalayas- Ganga, Yamuna, Chambal, Damodar
●​ Rivers flowing through rift Valley- Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Damodar
U

●​ Perennial Rivers-
○​ All Himalayan rivers and its tributaries as they are fed by glaciers.
○​ Some Peninsular rivers, like the Periyar (Kerala), Narmada, and Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati,
Mandovi, Zuari, Sharavati are perennial due to rainfall and underground springs.
●​ Seasonal/ rainfed Rivers- Most Peninsular rivers, incl Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri
●​ Minimum flow- January and june
●​ Max- August/ September
●​ FRA 2006- Critical Tiger habitats
●​ Himalayan rivers are Longer, narrower, Meandering (as they are fast and eroding due to slope)
●​ Peninsular are shorter, wider, fixed. They don't meander.
 21

Ganga River System: Origin & Course

Origin Gaumukh, Gangotri Glacier, Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand

Main Source Bhagirathi River- Gangotri glacier- Uttarkashi

Alaknanda- Satopanth glacier
Trivia:-
●​ India’s longest river (~2,525 km).
●​ National Waterway 1 (NW-1): Runs from Prayagraj to Haldia (West Bengal).
●​ Sundarbans Delta: Largest tidal delta & mangrove forest.
●​ Ganga Action Plan (GAP): Launched in 1985 for pollution control.
●​ Varanasi is among the world’s oldest living cities.

n
Panch Prayags

ee
(Confluences in
Uttarakhand)

sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C

Glaciers (North to south)

PS

Satopanth Glacier- Alaknanda, Badrinath

Chorabari Glacier- Mandakini, Kedarnath
Gangotri
Yamunotri
U

Sequence of Rivers Joining

●​ Dhauliganga= Joshimath Situated (1st) Rishi Ganga is trib of dhauliganga; ;
Nanda devi is above it;
●​ Nandakini
●​ Pindar
●​ Mandakini
●​ Bhagirathi- Tehri Dam, India’s tallest dam

States 5: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal

10 Basin states + Delhi= Himachal, haryana, Rajasthan, MP, Chattisgarh
 22

Countries 2: India & Bangladesh

Key Cities Uttarakhand: Rishikesh and then Haridwar

Uttar Pradesh: Kanpur, Prayagraj, Varanasi
Bihar: Patna (Son, Punpun, Gandak), Bhagalpur
Jharkhand: Sahibganj
West Bengal: Murshidabad, Kolkata

Ganga in Renamed Padma → Merges with Jamuna (Brahmaputra) → Meghna → Bay of

Bangladesh Bengal

n
Tributaries (R) / Major Trivia

ee
from first to (L)
Last place of
confluence

sl
Map

Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C

Ra- Kannauj
PS

Ya- Allahabad (Chubby Skin, Betwa ki)

Go- Varanasi
Gh- Chappra
So- Patna
U

Gan- Patna
Kos- Bhagalpur
Mahananda- In bangladesh

Ramganga L Originates in Kumaon Himalayas, joins Ganga near Kannauj (UP)

Gomti L Originates in UP
 23

Yamuna R ●​ Largest & Longest tributary

●​ Left Bank- Tons (first tributary), Hindan (Noida), Varuna (Last)
●​ Right bank: Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken, Giri, Rind, Singher
●​ Chambal
○​ Origin- Janapav Hills, Mhow, Malwa
○​ Tributary- Banas, Kali sindh, Parbati, Shipra
○​ Cities- Kota, Bundi, Sawai Madhopur, Dholpur
○​ Dams- Gandhi Sagar Dam (Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh); Rana Pratap
Sagar Dam (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)
Flows thru 5 states- Uttarakhand, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh.
Major Cities- Tejjwala barrage, Delhi, Agra

n
Tamsa (Tons of R Originates in Kaimur Hills, MP, joins Ganga near Sirsa, UP
Ganga)

ee
Ghaghara L Originates from Mapchachungo Glacier (Tibet), flows through Nepal, joins Ganga at
Chhapra, Bihar. Major tributaries: Saryu, Rapti, Sharda, tila, seti, beri

sl
It is the largest tributary of the Ganges by volume and the second largest by length after
Yamuna.

Ja
Gandak L Originates from Nepal Himalayas, joins Ganga at Sonpur, Bihar

Burhi Gandak L
byParallel to Gandak, originates in Nepal
ed
Kosi L Origin- The Kosi River is a combination of seven tributaries (Saptakosi- Arun kosi, son
kosi, tamur kosi) originating from Tibet and Nepal. originates in Nepal, flows through Tibet.
ifi

Known as "Sorrow of Bihar".

pl

Mahananda L Originates from Darjeeling Hills, joins Ganga in Malda, WB

m

Son R ●​ Origin- Amarkantak Plateau, Joins Ganga in Patna;

●​ Bansagar Dam on Son River (MP)
Si

●​ Tributary of Son- Rihand River (Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar, UP- Largest
Artificial lake in India)
C
PS

Ajay R ●​ Originates in Jharkhand

Damodar R ●​ Known as "Sorrow of Bengal", originates in Jharkhand, joins Hooghly in WB

U

●​ Tributary- Barakar River- Maithon Dam

Hooghly R A branch of the Ganga that flows into Bay of Bengal. Major tributary:Rupnarayan
(Distributary)

Category Brahmaputra River System

 24

MAP

n
ee
sl
Origin & Course Origin: Angsi Glacier/ Chema-Yungdung Glacier, Kailash Mansarovar, Tibet

Ja
Initial Name: Yarlung Tsangpo (in Tibet).
by
Namcha Barwa: Takes a sharp U-turn here and flows through a deep gorge before entering
India. Enters india West of SADIYA town
ed
Countries It Flows Through: China (Tibet), India, Bangladesh.

States It Flows Through in India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam.

ifi

Largest River in India in Terms of Discharge.

pl

NW-2 Connection: Sadiya (Arunachal Pradesh) to Dhubri (Assam).

m

Bridges & Bhupen Hazarika Setu (Dhola-Sadiya Bridge): Longest river bridge, key link between
Si

Islands Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.

Majuli Island (Assam): Largest riverine island in the world, shrinking due to erosion.
C

National Parks Dibru-Saikhowa NP (Assam).

PS

Kaziranga NP (Assam): UNESCO WHS, home to one-horned rhinoceroses.

Manas NP (Assam): UNESCO WHS and UNESCO MAB.

U

Right Bank (from east to west)- Dihwali’s Shubh Ka Mana Seno Ri Ta

Dihang: Upper course of the Brahmaputra in Arunachal, not its tributary.

Subansiri: Originates in Tibet, Longest and largest tributary of Brahmaputra.

Kameng (Jia Bharali): Originates near Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh.

Manas: Originates in Bhutan, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.

Sankosh: Originates in Bhutan, forms part of the Indo-Bhutan border.

 25

Raidak: Originates in Bhutan.

Teesta: Originates in Pauhunri (Zemu) Glacier, Sikkim; flows through Sikkim and West Bengal,
joins Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.

Left Bank Dabang Londa Dekhe Dhanno ko

Dibang (Siang): First tributary, originates in Arunachal Pradesh.

Lohit: Originates in Tibet, enters India in Arunachal.

Dikhu: Originates in Nagaland, flows into Assam.

Dhansiri: Flows through Nagaland & Assam.

n
ee
Kopili: Originates in Meghalaya, flows through Assam.

Amochu/Torsa: Originates in Tibet/Bhutan, joins Brahmaputra in India.

sl
Brahmaputra in Brahmaputra = Jamuna in Bangladesh.

Ja
Bangladesh

Ganga + Brahmaputra = Padma.

by
Padma + Meghna = Meghna.
ed
Barak (from Manipur) meets Meghna in Bangladesh.
ifi

Indus River System

pl
m
Si
C
PS
U

Indus River (Singi Khamban)- SBI- Singhi Khamban, Bokar Chu, Indus
●​ Origin: Bokhar Chu Glacier, Mansarovar Lake region, Tibet, near Mount Kailash​
Length: 3,180 km (approx.)
●​ Countries Flowing Through: China (Tibet), India (Only Ladakh), Pakistan​
Discharge Point: East of Karachi (India wali side)
●​ Nimoo Bazgo dam on Indus
●​ Enters India at Demchok
 26

●​ Cities on Indus sequence- Leh, kargil, dras, Mohenjodaro

Tributary Origin Joins Indus at R/L Trivia

Zanskar Zanskar Range Ladakh Left 1st tributary

Shyok River Rimo glacier PoK Right Tributary- Nubra

(Baltoro, Pangong tso is transboundary lake
Siachen, Rimo) between Shyok and Indus

Gilgit and Hindu Kush PoK Right Others are gasting, dras, shigar
Hunza Gilgit-Baltistan

n
Kabul River Afghanistan Pakistan Right

ee
Kurram River Afghanistan Pakistan Right -

sl
Tochi Afghanistan Pakistan Right

Ja
Gomal, Hindu Kush, Pakistan Right
Viboa, byAfghanistan
sangar

Jhelum, J&K Verinag Spring, Merges with Left Lake Wular

ed
J&K chenab at Jhang, Trib- Kishenganga
Pakistan Jhelum in the Youth stage, yet forms
meanders - a feature of mature stage.
ifi

Chenab, HP Chandra+ Near Uch, Left Chamba Valley- Lahaul spiti

pl

& J&K Bhaga river Pakistan Dams- Salar, Baglihar, Dul Hasti, Pakul
BaraLacha (All in J&K)
m

Pass, HP Trib- Tawi, Jammu

Largest tributary of Indus
Si

Ravi, HP & Kullu Hills, HP Merges with Left Ranjit Sagar Dam, Chamera dam, Thein
Punjab Chenab at Dam, Shahpur Kandi
C

trimmu, Pakistan Tributaries- Devika, Budhil, Tundahen.

PS

Beas River Beas kund, Merges with Left Kullu Valley

HP & Punjab Rohtang Pass, Sutlej at Harike Pong Dam/ Maharana pratap sagar;
HP Pattan Pandoh dam, Beas.
Tributary- Uhl river (Shanan Hydel
U

Project Dispute b/w punjab, haryana,

HP)

Sutlej River/ Rakshastal Panjnad Near Left Bhakra Dam, Luhiri, Naphtha Jhakri,
Langchen Lake, Tibet Mithankot, Ropar Barrage
Khamban Pakistan Longest tributary
HP& Punjab

West Flowing Rivers

 27

Map

n
ee
sl
Narmada ●​ Origin: Amarkantak Plateau (maikal, satpura), Anuppur district, Madhya
Pradesh

Ja
●​ Mouth: Baruch, Arabian Sea via the Gulf of Khambhat
●​ Length: Approximately 1,312 km
●​ States Flowing Through: MP , Maharashtra, Gujarat
by
●​ Waterfalls: Dhuandhar Falls near Jabalpur
●​ Dams: Sardar Sarovar Dam, Indira Sagar Dam, Omkareshwar Dam, Bargi
Dam (BISO)
ed
●​ Trivia:
○​ Flows through a rift valley between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges.
○​ Forms an estuary, not a delta, at its mouth.
ifi

Tapi ●​ Origin: Multai, Betul district, Satpura Range, Madhya Pradesh

pl

●​ Mouth: Surat, Arabian Sea via Gulf of Khambhat

●​ Length: 724 km
m

●​ States Flowing Through: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat

●​ Waterfalls: None
Si

●​ Tributaries: Purna, Girna, Bori

●​ Dams: Ukai Dam, Kakrapar Weir, Girna Dam
●​ Trivia: Flows parallel to the Narmada River
C
PS

Mahi ●​ Origin: Vindhya Range, Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh (Mahi Ve)
●​ Mouth: Anand dist, Arabian Sea via the Gulf of Khambhat
●​ Length: 580 km
●​ States Flowing Through: MP, Rajasthan, Gujarat
U

●​ Waterfalls: None
●​ Unique among Indian rivers, the Mahi crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice

Luni ●​ Origin: Naga Hills (Pushkar near Ajmer), Rajasthan

●​ Mouth: Rann of Kutch (disappears in marshy land n does not meet sea)
●​ States Flowing Through: Rajasthan, Gujarat
●​ Length- 495 km
●​ Waterfalls: None
●​ Tributaries: Jawai, Sukri, khari, lilari, Bandi, Guhiya
●​ Trivia: It is a saline river but has fresh water in its upper reaches.
 28

Sabarmati ●​ Origin: Dhebar lake, Aravalli Hills, Udaipur district, Rajasthan

●​ Mouth: Arabian Sea via the Gulf of Khambhat
●​ Length: 371 km
●​ States Flowing Through: Rajasthan, Gujarat
●​ Waterfalls: None
●​ Cities- Gandhinagar, Ahmedabad

East Flowing Details

rivers
MAP

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS

Subarnarekha ●​ Origin: Chota Nagpur Plateau, Jharkhand

●​ Mouth: Bay of Bengal
●​ Length: 446 km
●​ States Flowing Through: Jharkhand (Ranchi), West Bengal, Odisha
U

●​ Waterfalls: Hundru Falls

●​ Trivia: Contains gold particles in its sand, hence the name.
●​ Tributary- Kharkai (Jamshedpur- even Sakchi is jharkhand)
●​ Damodar also originates in Chotanagpur

Baitarani ●​ Origin: Gonasika Hills, Keonjhar district, Odisha

●​ Mouth: Joins Brahmani before reaching Bay of Bengal and forms delta
●​ Length: 360 km
●​ States Flowing Through: Odisha
 29

Brahmani ●​ Origin: Confluence of Sankh and South Koel at Rourkela, Odisha (Through
origin of koel and shankh in jharkhand)
●​ Mouth: Bay of Bengal, Odisha
●​ Length: 799 km
●​ States: Odisha
●​ Forms Bhitarkanika Mangroves with Baitarni

Mahanadi ●​ Origin: Sihawa, Chhattisgarh

●​ Mouth: Bay of Bengal
●​ Length: 851 km
●​ States Flowing Through: Chhattisgarh, Odisha

n
●​ Dams: Hirakud Dam, Ravishankar Sagar Dam
●​ Tributaries

ee
○​ Left- Seonath, Ib, Hasdeo, mand
○​ Right- Jong, ong, Tel
●​ Note-

sl
○​ None of the mentioned rivers (Mahanadi, Brahmani or Subarnarekha)
originate in the Eastern Ghats.

Ja
○​ Most of them originate from the Chhota Nagpur Plateau (Jharkhand,
Odisha) or central highlands (Chhattisgarh).

West flowing
by
1.​ Gujarat- Shetrunji (Amreli); Bhadra (Rajkot); Dhadar
rivers (Arabian 2.​ Maharashtra- Vaitarna (Nasik)
sea) 3.​ Karnataka- Kalinadi (belgaum), Bedti, Sharavati River (Jog/ gersoppa falls-
ed
Shimoga)
a.​ Sharavati Hydropower project - 2000 MW pumped storage for
Bengaluru’s drinking water
ifi

4.​ Kerala- Bharathapuzha/ Ponnani> Periyar> Pamba

a.​ Bharathapuzha (Ponnani River) – Origin- Anamalai Hills
pl

b.​ Periyar River – Kerala’s longest river, Mouth Kochi

c.​ Pamba River – Drains into Vembanad Lake (longest lake in India)
m
Si
C
PS
U
 30

Godavari ●​ Origin: Trimbak Plateau, Nashik, Maharashtra

●​ Mouth: Bay of Bengal (Rajamundry)
●​ Length: 1,465 km (Longest Peninsular River)
●​ 5 States: Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha
(MOTA Chora)
●​ Dams: Kaleshwaram, Polavaram Dam, Nizamsagar (On manjira)
●​ Tributaries:
○​ Left: Purna, Pranhita, Indravati, Sabari, sileru
○​ Right: Manjra, Kinnerasani
●​ Waterfalls: Sahastrakund Waterfall (On penganga)
●​ Forms one of the largest deltas in India; Nanded on Godavari

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
Krishna ●​ Origin: Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra
●​ Mouth: Bay of Bengal (Vijayawada)
●​ Length: 1,400 km
ifi

●​ 4 States: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh

●​ Dams: Almatti Dam, Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, Srisailam Dam
pl

●​ Waterfalls: Gokak Falls (Ghataprabha)- Gokul

●​ Tributaries:
m

○​ Left: Don, Bhima, Dindi, Musi, Palleru, Munneru(DoBhi danda mosi Pe

Mare)
Si

○​ Right: Koyna, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Tugabhadra

C
PS
U
 31

Kaveri ●​ Origin: Talakaveri, Brahmagiri hill, Karnataka (Western Ghats)

●​ Mouth: Bay of Bengal (passes through Tanjore)
●​ Length: 800 km
●​ States: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry
●​ Dams:
○​ Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS) Dam, Mettur/Stanley Dam
○​ Bansura sagar; Mekedatu dam
●​ Tributaries:
○​ Left: Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavathi
■​ Right: Kabini, Bhavani, Moyar, Amaravati
○​ Waterfalls: Shivanasamudra Falls, Hogenakkal Falls,
Chunchanakatte Falls

n
●​ Trivia: Known as the "Ganga of the South"

ee
Other East ●​ Pennar
flowing ○​ Origin- Nandi hills, Kolar, Karnataka
○​ States- Karnataka, Andhra

sl
○​ Mouth- Nellore (Lake Kolleru is close by)
●​ Palar

Ja
○​ Origin- Nandi hills, Kolar, Karnataka
○​ States- Karnataka, Andhra, TN
by ○​ Mouth- Vellore, TN
●​ Vaigai
○​ Origin- TN
○​ Mouth- Madurai
ed
ifi

River First tributary Last tributary Largest tributary

pl

Ganga Bhagirathi Mahananda longest- Yamuna

Meghana (Bangla) Largest- ghaghara
m

Brahmaputra Dibang Dhansiri Largest and longest- Subansiri

Meghana
Si

Indus Zanskar Sutlej (joins Panjnad) Largest- Chenab

C

Longest- Satluj

Yamuna Tons Varuna Largest and longest- Chambal

PS

Trivia Fact Sheet- India

U

DAMS ●​ Tallest Dam- Tehri Dam; River- Bhagirathi and Bilangana

●​ Longest Dam in world- Hirakud dam- River Mahanadi
●​ Largest Dam by Reservoir Capacity: Indira Sagar Dam (Madhya Pradesh)-
Narmada river

WATERFAL Most major rivers, including the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus, Luni, Sabarmati, Mahi,
LS and Tapi, lack waterfalls as they flow through alluvial plains. While some tributaries
have rapids, waterfalls are rare on their main courses. Krishna and Godavari have a
few waterfalls in their upper reaches.
●​ Exceptions:
 32

○​ Narmada – Dhuandhar Falls

○​ Indravati (Godavari tributary) – Chitrakote Falls
○​ Kaveri – Shivanasamudra Falls, Hogenakkal Falls, Chuynchanakatte
Falls
○​ Krishna – Ethipothala Falls (tributary)
●​ Kunchikal Falls- Tallest/ Highest (KV)
○​ River: Varahi river
○​ Location: Shimoga dist, Karnataka
●​ Jog falls/ Gersoppa falls- Largest/ Most voluminous
○​ River Sharavati
○​ Location: Shimoga Dist
●​ Chitrakote Waterfall: Widest waterfall in India.

n
○​ River: Indravati River (a tributary of the Godavari River).
○​ Location: Bastar district, Chhattisgarh.

ee
○​ Trivia: Known as the "Niagara Falls of India,"
●​ Nohkalikai Falls: Longest single drop waterfall in India/ tallest plunge waterfall
○​ on a tributary of brahmaputra

sl
○​ Location: Cherapunji Meghalaya

Ja
Peaks ●​ Highest Peak in World- Mt Everest> K2/ Godwin Austin> Kanchenjunga
(Sikkim, India, Nepal Border
●​ Highest peak of South- Anaimalai
by
●​ Highest peak of Eastern Ghats - Jindaghada

NPs, WLS, ●​ Largest NP - Hemis National Park, ( Ladakh, Not J&K)

ed
RS ●​ 1st NP- Jim Corbett NP/ Hailey NP
●​ Largest Ramsar site - Sunderbans
○​ 1st Ramsar site - Chilika lake ( mouth of Daya river )
ifi

●​ Largest % area of UT under Ramsar site - Lakshadweep

●​ Largest BR - Kachchh
pl

●​ First BR - Neelgiri ( in 3 states )

●​ Largest WLS- Kachchh
m

●​ Largest TIger Reserve - Nagarjujna Srisailam

●​ First TR- Jim corbett
Si

Lakes ●​ Largest freshwater lake - Wular lake

●​ Longest lake- Vembanad lake (Kochi)- Brackish water
C

●​ Largest inland saltwater lake - Sambhar lake

●​ Largest Lagoon in ASIA - chilika lake ( also 1st Ramsar site, mouth of Daya
PS

river )
○​ Gahirmatha - world’s largest rookery for olive ridley turtles.
●​ Longest Canal = Indira sagar canal
●​ Largest man-made lake - Gobind Ballabh Pant Sagar ( rihand river- trib of son )
U

●​ Longest man-made lake - Gobind Sagar ( bhakra Nangal Dam, Satluj river )

Deltas ●​ Longest beach - Mariana Beach

●​ Largest delta/ mangrove in WORLD - Sunderbans
○​ featureless plain with general elevation of 50-150m
●​ Largest Riverine island- Majuli

Coldest ●​ Dras, Kargil- dist

area

Trivia info ●​ Tripura is surrounded by bangladesh on 3 sides

 33

●​ Wettest place in WORLD = Mawsynram

🏔️ 🏔️
Mountain Passes of India
North to South
MAP

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m

Pass State/UT Connects

Si

Karakoram Pass Ladakh ●​ Leh➝ China (xinjiang)

●​ Northern Most
Kongka Pass Ladakh ●​ Leh➝ China (aksai chin)
C
PS

Bilafond La Ladakh ●​ Siachen with PoK

Sia La Ladakh ●​ Siachen to Leh

U

Khardung La Ladakh Nubra Valley, siachen➝ Leh (Kha le)

Chang La Ladakh Leh ➝ Pangong Lake (transboundary, brackish)

Fotu La Ladakh Leh (NH1) ➝ Srinagar- (photo Le)

Zoji La Ladakh/J&K Leh (NH1) ➝ Srinagar - (Jaldi Le)

 34

Banihal Pass, Jammu & Srinagar ➝ Jammu (Bana le)

Pirpanjal pass Kashmir
(Sinthan pass)
Baralacha La Himachal ●​ Leh ➝ Lahaul (Manali-Leh Highway)- Chenab is nearby
Pradesh ●​ (Let's eat Lacha paratha in Himachal)
●​ Other passes in Himachal Pradesh- Boro su, indrahar pass,
Kunzum Pass Himachal Lahaul ➝ Spiti Valley
Pradesh
Rohtang Pass/ Himachal Lahaul- Spiti➝ Manali (Kullu Valley)
Atal Tunnel Pradesh
Shipki La Himachal ●​ India ➝ Tibet
Pradesh ●​ Satluj enters

n
Mana Pass Uttarakhand India ➝ Tibet

ee
Niti Pass Uttarakhand India ➝ Tibet

Lipu Lekh Uttarakhand ●​ India ➝ Tibet

sl
●​ Other passes in Uttarakhand - Nama, Mayali, rupin
Naku La​ Sikkim India ➝ Tibet

Ja
Nathu La
Jelep La Sikkim ●​ India ➝ Tibet (Near Chumbi Valley)
by ●​ Other passes in Sikkim - Goecha La
Sela Pass Arunachal Tawang ➝ Guwahati (Tezpur)
Pradesh
Bum La Bomdila Arunachal Arunachal Pradesh ➝ Tibet (Lhasa)
ed
Pass Pradesh
Dihang Pass Arunachal Arunachal Pradesh ➝ Myanmar
Pradesh
ifi

Diphu Pass Arunachal India-Myanmar-China trijunction.

pl

Pradesh
Thal ghat & Bhor MH Mumbai - Nashik / Mumbai Pune
m

ghat
Palakkad Gap Kerala/Tami Kerala ➝ Tamil Nadu (Palakkad ➝ Coimbatore)
Si

l Nadu
C
PS
U
 35

Glaciers
Map

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
Ladakh 1.​ Baltoro
ed
2.​ Siachen

Himachal 1.​ Bara Shigri - Chenab

ifi

Uttarakhand 1.​ Badrinath- Satopanth - Alaknanda

(N.E- SW) 2.​ Kedarnath - Chaurabari - Mandakini
pl

3.​ Gangotri - Bhagirathi

4.​ Bandarpunch / Yamunotri
m

5.​ Kamet
6.​ Nandadevi
Si

Nepal 1.​ Dhaulagiri

(From NW to SE) 2.​ Annapurna
C

(DA- ELM) 3.​ Everest

4.​ Lhotse
PS

5.​ Makalu
U
 36

Comparison of National Waterways, National Highways, and Major Ports in India

Feature

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi

Feature National Waterways National Highways Major Ports (North to South)

pl

(NW) (NH)
m

Governing Inland Waterways National Highways Major ports are administered by the Ministry of
Body Authority of India Authority of India Ports, Shipping and Waterways,
Si

(IWAI)- statutory, (NHAI)- statutory while non-major ports are governed by the
under the Ministry of under NHAI act respective State Governments or Maritime Boards.
Ports, Shipping & (MoRTH).
C

Waterways.
PS

Total 5 major NWs 12 Major Ports + 1 New

Number 111 National 599 National 200 minor ports under state govts.
Waterways Highways
U
 37

Important NW-1: NH-44 (12 states) 1. Kolkata-Haldia Port (Hugli river, WB) – Only
Waterways Ganga-Bhagirathi- (Kanyakumari to riverine “major” port in India. Haldia is its
Hooghly (1620 km, Srinagar, 4,112 km) ​ satellite port. Problems - silt accumulation + port
Prayagraj to Haldia) Trivia: Longest NH, substitution. Also Tidal port.
Longest NW, handles prev NH-7. 2. Paradip Port (Mahanadi delta, Odisha) –
bulk cargo like coal, NH-27 (8 states) Handles coal & iron ore exports, among the
cement. (Porbandar to largest by cargo volume. It has a deep harbour
NW-2: Brahmaputra Silchar) (3640km)​ suitable to handle large vessels. (Note
(891 km, Sadiya to Trivia: Longest Bhitarkanika is on brahmani delta and not
Dhubri) east-west NH. mahanadi)
NW-3: West Coast NH-19 3. Visakhapatnam Port (Andhra Pradesh) –
Canal (205 km, (Delhi-Kolkata) Deepest major port in India. Land-locked

n
Kerala)- connects Trivia: Part of harbour connected to sea by channel cut through
Kollam to historic GT Road, solid rock.

ee
Kottapuram. crucial for freight 4. Kamarajar (Ennore) Port (Tamil Nadu) –
NW-4: movt. India’s first corporate port, near Chennai.
Krishna-Godavari NH-16 (Kolkata to 5. Chennai Port (Tamil Nadu) – Oldest major

sl
rivers (1078 km, Chennai) ​ port on the east coast. Artificial harbour
Andhra Pradesh, Trivia: Part of the 6. Tuticorin (V.O. Chidambaranar) Port (Tamil

Ja
Tamil Nadu) Golden Quad. Nadu) – Major hub for container traffic &
NW-5: Brahmani & NH-48 (Delhi to fertilizer exports.
Mahanadi delta (623
by Mumbai) Trivia: Key 7. Cochin Port (Kerala) – located at the entrance
km, Odisha) trade route, part of of lagoon with natural harbour. Important for
Ganga (2525 km) > Delhi-Mumbai transshipment, cruise tourism, and LNG
Godavari (1465 km) > Industrial Corridor. imports. Called “queen of Arabian Sea”
ed
Krishna (1400 km) > Golden 8. New Mangalore Port (Karnataka) – Handles
Yamuna (1376 km) > Quadrilateral (GQ): petroleum, chemicals, fertilizers (PCF cargo).
Narmada (1312 km) > Covers 5,846 km, 9. Mormugao Port (Zuari estuary, Goa) – Major
ifi

Indus (1114 km) > connects iron ore export hub(50% of India's), though
Brahmaputra (916 Delhi-Mumbai-Chen activity has declined.
pl

km) > Mahanadi (890 nai-Kolkata. 10. Mumbai Port (Maharashtra) – natural harbour
km) > Kaveri (800 km) Roads Oldest major port, handles bulk cargo & oil
m

> Tapti (724 km) classification - trade. Contains India's largest oil terminal.
Rural roads 70% 11. Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva)
(UP), District roads (Maharashtra) – India’s largest container port.
Si

= 14% of road length 12. Kandla Port (Gulf of kutch Gujarat) –

(MH),urban roads ●​ Tidal port. Aka (Deendayal Port)
C

(5-6%), state ●​ Largest in cargo handling by volume in

highways (4-5%) 2024, key for crude oil, salt, and fertilizers.
PS

(MH), national ●​ first port developed soon after

highways 2-3% (UP) Independence to ease the volume of trade
on the Mumbai port, in the wake of the loss
of Karachi port to Pakistan after the
U

Partition.
Vadhavan Port (Maharashtra) (Upcoming) –
Will be India’s largest port upon completion.
Vizhinjam Port (Kerala) (Minor Port) – India’s
first deep-water container transshipment port,
strategically positioned to compete with Colombo
and Singapore.
Note-
●​ Majority vessels are engaged in coastal
trade rather than international trade.
 38

●​ O
​ ver the past three fiscal years, India's
major ports have consistently increased
their cargo handling

Mineral Largest Largest India- Largest reserves Use Cases

Reserves producer
Petroleum Venezuela USA Mumbai High (offshore) ●​ Russia is India’s largest import source
(18%) leads total production ●​ The world’s largest oil field is the
(~40%) and reserves, Ghawar Field in Saudi Arabia.
Middle East discovered in 1974 by the ●​ Saudi Arabia is largest exporter of Oil
(50%) Sagar Samrat rig and split

n
into North and South

ee
blocks.

Barmer is the top onshore

sl
producer via the
Mangala-Bhagyam-Aishw
ariya fields, utilizing a

Ja
700km world's longest
heated pipeline for its
by unique waxy crude.

Assam holds the most

ed
onshore reserves via
Digboi, Naharkatiya, and
Moran, linked to four
refineries (Digboi,
ifi

Guwahati, Bongaigaon,
Numaligarh) by a
pl

1,157km automated
pipeline.
m

Lithium Chile (30%) Australia Salal-Haimana area, EVs

(White gold) (ABC triangle- (50%) Reasi district, J&K China controls 60% of rare earth and critical
Si

50%) Mandya and Yadgiri dist minerals production and 80% of the processing
of Karnataka. worldwide. China is top source for 5/12 critical
minerals (curbed antimony export against
C

“national security” concerns)

PS

Vanadium China (40%) China Lower Subansiri, Used in steel alloys to improve strength
Arunachal Pradesh
(arunachal ki Vand)
Tungsten China (50%) China Karnataka (40%) Exceptional hardness and high melting point-
U

essential for cutting tools and military

Limestone USA Karnataka: 97% of India’s total limestone production in
Minor Minerals include 2021 was of cement grade
Kaolin, Dolomite, Limestone is used in steel plants as a flux to
Quartzite, Silica, remove impurities like silica, sulfur,
Gypsum, Shale, Slate, phosphorus, during steelmaking.
Agate, and
Jasper.
Barytes, Feldspar, Mica,
Quartz, and Limestone
are now Major Minerals,
 39

reclassified in early 2025

to improve reporting for
the National Critical
Mineral Mission.
Graphite Turkey/ China China Arunachal Pradesh
(40%)- Arunachal ka
graph
Cobalt DRC (85%) DRC No Application in EVs
Coal USA China> India Jharkhand 97% coal reserves of India in Valleys of
(India has 5th Damodar, Son, Mahanadi and godavari
largest coal because these regions hold the vast majority
reserve in the of Gondwana-era sedimentary rocks, which
world) were formed ~250 million years ago from

n
buried vegetation.

ee
Iron Australia Australia Odisha ( 33% ) In India, magnetite> Haematite are the two
(30%) primary iron ores. Approximately 79% of
India has largest haematite deposits are found in the Eastern

sl
reserves iron ore in Asia Sector, while about 93% of magnetite
deposits occur in the Southern Sector.

Ja
(South Indians are magnets of friendship)-
Quality wise: magnetite is best
Chromite South Africa South Africa Odisha ( 96 %)- Sukinda Chromite is essential for producing stainless
by
(Ferrous) (70%) valley steel, as it imparts corrosion resistance and
hardness.
Bauxite Guinea (25%) Australia Odisha ( 75 %)
ed
Manganese- South Africa South Africa Odisha ( 44% ) Steelmaking-improves hardness, durability
Ferrous (40%)
Nickel (ICBM Indonesia Indonesia Odisha ( 90% ) Nickel is essential in producing stainless steel
ifi

nikal) (20%) and various alloys, offering corrosion

resistance and strength.
pl

Tin China (Tin tin China Chhattisgarh soldering materials for electronics due to its
Chini) low melting point and excellent conductivity
m

Platinum South Africa crucial in automotive catalytic converters

(90%)
Si

Gold Australia- China Bihar ( 44% ) > Rj> Kt Switzerland is largest exporter; India has
Natural (20%) emerged largest consumer
C

Silver Peru Rajasthan (80%) Silver has the highest electrical conductivity of
all metals- electronics and photovoltaic cells.
PS

Copper Chile (23%) Rajasthan (54%) excellent conductivity and ductility.

Lead, Zinc Australia Rajasthan ( 90% ) Lead is extensively used in batteries, while
(40%) zinc is crucial for galvanizing iron and steel to
U

prevent corrosion.
Phosphorou Morocco Rajasthan
s
(Phoro Moro)
Gypsum Rajasthan ( 80% ) cement and plaster, construction industry.
Mica India India (60%) Rajasthan ( 51% ) Major , electronics due to its insulating
properties and resistance to high temp.
Diamond Russia Russia (by Panna Belt, MP( Diamonds are 3D allotropes of carbon
(Russia is quantity)> Kimberlite pipes- mh rich (Allotropes are different physical forms of the
India’s Botswana> igneous rocks, same chemical element in the same physical
diamond frnd) DRC> Conglomerate beds) state)
 40

Canada
Telangana (Golconda) While not a major producer, India is the world's
Botswana (By largest cutting and polishing center, handling
value) Andhra Pradesh roughly (85-90%) of the world's diamonds by
(Wajrakarur, Kollur volume.
mines) India is the largest importer and exporter of
diamonds by value and volume.
Odisha, Chattisgarh
India has become chairman of Kimberley
process for 2026 for the 3rd time- aim to
prevent trade in “conflict diamond”/ Blood
diamonds.

n
2 rocks for diamonds

ee
1.​ Kimberlite- named after the diamond
city in South Africa.
2.​ Lamproite- Argyle mine, Australia

sl
Lab grown diamonds- High Pressure, High

Ja
Temperature (HPHT) method or Chemical
Vapour Deposition (CVD) method.

Thorium India by Australia Kerala

(Monazite sands)
Uranium- largest reserves- australia; largest
producer kazakhstan
ed
Antimony China (32%) China (88%) HP, MP Antimony is a versatile metalloid primarily as a
(rare hardening agent for lead in lead-acid batteries,
element) semiconductors , solar panels , flame retardant
ifi

materials
1.​ India imports 90% of its crude and 50% of its gas through imports
pl

2.​ LPG- Largest producer= USA. But India imports majorly from UAE (40%) and Qatar (30%)
3.​ LNG- Largest producer= USA. But India imports 50% from Qatar. The South Pars/North Dome field
m

(shared by Iran and Qatar) is the world's largest natural gas field.
4.​ Helium- Largest USA> Qatar (Ras Laffan)
Si

Polymetallic Nodules
●​ Aka Manganese nodules are seabed deposits of manganese, iron oxide (Mn, Cobalt, Copper, Nickel),
C

found at 4000–6000 m depth.

○​ Contain critical metals vital for batteries, electronics, and green tech.
PS

○​ Support clean energy transition (EVs, wind turbines) and reduce land-mining pressure.
●​ Major regions: Pacific ocean {Clarion-Clipperton Zone (largest), Peru Basin, Penrhyn Basin}, and Central
Indian Ocean- Carlsberg.
U

●​ They form in low sedimentation zones; metals originate from plankton and hydrothermal vents.
●​ Countries have exclusive mining rights within their EEZ. ISA regulates seabed mining in international waters
(beyond national EEZs).
○​ ISA is an autonomous intl org established under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS).
○​ HQ in Kingston, Jamaica, it regulates mineral-related activities in the seabed beyond national
jurisdictions ("the Area").
○​ It issues exploration licenses, ensures environmental protection, and promotes fair access.
○​ India has secured an exploration area in the Central Indian Ocean Basin.
 41

Climatic Regions of India & World

Whole India has monsoon type climate with 5 types of regional variations.
●​ Koppen scheme is based on ‘TeRa’(empirical classification)
○​ Temperature (main classification)
○​ Rainfall (sub classification)

●​ Tropical climate- avg temp of coldest month- more than 18 Celcius;

○​ Rainfall -200 cm+
○​ Mean annual temperature > 22C , annual range is very low
○​ ​

n
Tropical wet/ equatorial- High temperature, negligible annual temperature range, High
rainfall (more than 200 cm), daily range is between 20-30C

ee
■​ India doesn’t have a true equatorial climate; regions like the Western Ghats and
Andaman & Nicobar have a Tropical Rainforest Climate.

sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi

■​ World -amazon basin, western equatorial africa (congo vala)

pl

■​ Double peak rainfall, No Dry season. Round the year rainfall.

●​ Afternoon thunders.
○​ Tropical monsoon- Monsoon with seasonal variation in rainfall
m

■​ Monsoon with very short dry season- Malabar and Konkan coast. NE part of south
america & Northern australia.
Si

■​ Monsoon with dry summer- Coromandel coast

■​ Monsoon with dry winters - Northern plains & Northeastern region (Not NW plains,
C

why??)
○​ Tropical wet & dry (Savanna/ sudan type)
PS

■​ Peninsular plateau- distinct wet season and dry season.

■​ Diurnal range of temperature is high
■​ Distinct dry season- No rainfall for 6 - 8 months.
■​ Tropical grasslands (Savannas) are defined by having scattered trees (like Acacia or
U

Baobab). Temperate grasslands are often largely treeless (except along river banks)
because of lower rainfall and colder winters.
■​ Examples-
●​ Llanos & campos in south america ( North & south of amazon)
 42

●​ Kanos & salesbury in south africa

●​ Dry climate

n
○​ Steppe - Semi arid (50-100 cm)
■​ NW india (Punjab to Gujarat)- mild monsoons, mild showers in winters

ee
■​ No rainfall for 9-11 months
■​ Rainfall Variability affects life more than desert
○​ Desert- arid ( less than 50 cm)

sl
■​ Cold desert - ladakh , Lahaul Spiti
■​ Hot Desert - Thar desert (Marusthali)

Ja
■​ Rain in short & intense thundershowers, ineffective in building soil moisture.
●​ Fog is common in coastal deserts bordering cold current.
by
●​ Warm Temperate climate- Coldest months temp ( -3 to 18 degree C); 100-200 cm rain
○​ Mediterranean type- Dry hot summers (25 deg), mild winter rainfall (less than 10 deg);
Rainfall- 35- 90 cm
ed
■​ Major cause is the shifting of pressure belts.
■​ Found - central california, central chile, coast of south africa & australia
ifi
pl
m
Si
C

■​ Kashmir himalayas
○​ China type/ Marine East coast/ Humid subtropical climate- Hot, humid summers (27
PS

deg); cold, dry winters (10 deg)

■​ Daily range of temperatures is small.
■​ Rainfall is 75-150cm.
■​ Northern plains & Northeastern region
U
 43

■​ No dry season. Warm summers

n
ee
○​ British type/ Marine west coast - No dry season. Cool summers (18 deg) , mild winters (7
deg).
■​ Precipitation varies greatly ( 50-250 cm).

sl
○​ India type- Cold humid winters with short summer - Arunachal Pradesh

Ja
●​ Cool temperate climate - Coldest month temp ( below -3C ); Warmest month ( >10 deg ). 100-200
cm rain.
○​ Laurentian - Humid continental. Northern Hemisphere only (less landmass and coastal in
by
SH).
■​ Large annual range of temperature (as continental)
■​ , summer maximum & cold dry winters
ed
■​ Ex- Siberia (continental), Trans and Greater Himalayas
ifi
pl
m
Si
C

○​ Taiga/ Boreal/ subarctic

PS

■​ Annual rainfall is 15cm

U
 44

■​ Higher altitude of himalayas- Bugyals.

n
ee
●​ Ice/cold climate -mean temp of all months is below 10 deg.
○​ Tundra - Ladakh

sl
■​ No true summers.
■​ Mosses, lichens, flowering plants

Ja
■​ Permafrost = temperature below 0 degrees for 2 years
○​ Ice caps - Perennial ice. Ex - greenland.
by
Metropolitan cities and rivers
ed
●​ Madurai - vaigai river ●​ Bengaluru - Arkavati ●​ Nashik - godavari
ifi

●​ Kochi - periyar river ●​ Vijayawada - Krishna ●​ Surat - Tapi

pl

●​ Chennai - Adyar river ●​ Hyderabad - Musi ●​ Ahmedabad - sabarmati

●​ Cooum- Tiruvallur
m

●​ Indore - Khan river ( ●​ Bhopal - No river ( ●​ Jabalpur - narmada (

malwa) malwa) mahakoshal)
Si
C

Jamshedpur - subarnarekha ●​ Patna -Ganga, Son, ●​ Lucknow - Gomti (Awadh)

punpun, gandak
PS

●​ Ayodhya - saryu ●​ Agra - yamuna ●​ Meerut - ganga + yamuna

U

Climatic & Soil Conditions for Major Crops in India

Crop Climate Type Temp Rainfall Ranks- Origin; Largest producer; Special
and cropped (cm) Largest Exporter; Top 3 States. Conditions
area
 45

Rice Tropical but has > 25°C > 100 ●​ Origin- China Rain-fed,
3000 varieties cm ●​ Largest producer- India (20%) > needs
that can be China standing
grown in different ●​ Largest exporter- India water
agro climatic ●​ Top 3 states- West Bengal, Uttar
regions from sea Pradesh, Punjab
level to 2000 m ●​ Punjab and haryana; Rajasthan,
altitude; dry and Gujarat, MH are non traditional rice
wet areas states (intro in 1970s by green
revolution)
25% of total ●​ The Green Revolution impacted
cropped area Punjab, Haryana, UP, AP, TN.

n
under rice. ●​ In Southern states and WB, 2-3
crops of rice in 1 year.. In WB it is

ee
called Aman, Aus, Boro

Basmati Rice -

sl
●​ Mainly grow - himalayan foothills
(Punjab, Haryana, HP, Delhi, W. UP,

Ja
Pakistan).
●​ warm, humid climate (20–35°C),
by ~100–150 cm water/year
●​ FSSAI norms: must be naturally
fragrant, free from artificial
additives.
ed
●​ India consistently exported non
basmati more than basmati rice.
ifi

Wheat Temperate (Rabi) 10°C - 50 - 75 ●​ Origin- Central Asia Cool, moist

25°C cm ●​ Largest producer- China> India climate for
pl

●​ Largest exporter- Russia growth &

14% of total ●​ Top 3 states- UP, MP, Punjab warm, dry for
m

cropped area is harvest

under Wheat. 85% total wheat area.
●​ North & central india, indo-gangetic
Si

( irrigated condition)
●​ Malwa plateau & Himalayas up to
C

2700m (rainfed condition)

PS

Jowar In North mainly 20-32 C 30-100 ●​ Largest producer in india - MH ​

(sorghum) kharif in South cm (50% plus of total)
Both kharif + rabi. ●​ Coarse grains have 16% cropped
area
U

Bajra Hardy crops 25-30 45 cm Rajasthan Hot & dry in

(pearl resist frequent deg C Rajasthan also tops in Coarse cereals NW &
millets) dry spells. Western
About millets- parts.
Cultivable in ●​ Origin- Africa
mixed cropping ●​ Millets are small seeded grasses.
also ●​ Top 2: Rajasthan> UP.
●​ Rainfed- Kharif season mainly.
Jowar is both kharif and rabi
 46

●​ Gluten free (Gluten is a protein

which provides no nutrients.)
●​ At present, Ragi, Bajra, Jowar get
MSP.
●​ India is the largest producer. India
produce 20% of total millets with
avg yield greater than global avg

Maize Humid Tropical 21°C - 25 - 75 ●​ Origin- Mexico High diurnal

27°C cm ●​ Largest producer- USA> India temp
Food as well as (5th) variation
fodder (Bright (Rainfed ●​ Top 3 States- Karnataka helps

n
sunshine ) ●​ All over India except Eastern and Sustainable
Cultivated over ) North Eastern option for

ee
inferior soils ●​ Yield is higher than other coarse Ethanol
crops
Maize is not a

sl
millet but a
coarse cereal.

Ja
(NFSA includes
coarse cereals
but not millets in
by
definition of
coarse grains)
ed
Sugarcane Tropical 21°C - 75 - 100 ●​ Origin- New Guinea (close to Frost-free,
27°C cm indonesia) cool temp
●​ Largest producer- Brazil (40%)> for ripening
ifi

India (Dussehra,
●​ Top 3 States- UP, Maharashtra, Holi)
pl

●​ Retting is the process of extracting Duration- 12-

fibre from a stem. Ex - Jute 18 months
m

●​ Ratooning is a form of cropping in 3-4 ratoons

which the 2nd crop is allowed to
grow from remains of an already
Si

harvested crop. Ex sugarcane &

pineapple. Not usable endlessly as
C

yield drops.
PS
U
 47

Tea Tropical, Mod- Mod ●​ Origin- China Humid &

Subtropical 21°C - 150 - ●​ in india- started in 1840s frost-free
Moderate slope 29°C 200 cm ●​ Largest producer- China (43%)> climate
Black tea leaves India
are fermented, ●​ Largest exporter- china
green tea leaves ●​ Consumer- Turkey
are unfermented ●​ Top 3 States- Assam (53%), WB
Tea Board of (Darjeeling), Kerala, TN (Nilgiris)
India – ●​ Cardamom hills ( western ghats)
Constituted under ●​ Tea takes 3 years to mature. Has to
the Tea Act of be 3 feet to be harvested.
1953 and

n
operates under
the MoCI.

ee
Located in
Kolkata
Reconstituted

sl
every 3 years.

Ja
by
ed

Coffee Tropical 15°C - 150 - ●​ Origin- Ethiopia (Africa); Arabica

28°C 250 cm Introduced to India by Baba (global fame,
ifi

Coffee Board of NO Budan in Karnataka Higher

India- constituted Frost, ●​ Largest producer- Brazil (37%)> qualiyu),
pl

under the Coffee snowfall, Vietnam; India is 7th Robusta

Act of 1942 and prefer N, ●​ Top 3 States- Karnataka (70%)> (higher
m

operates under E Kerala (23%), TN, AP and Odisha caffeine),

MoCI. Located in aspects (Araku valley) liberica
Si

Bangalore, it of slopes ●​ Grows on hilly side of western ghats Traditionally

comprises 33 (600- 1600 m), usually on laterite arabica
members, soil in India grown in
C

including the ●​ Grows under shade of tree to India, last

Chairperson maintain moisture as direct sunlight decade
PS

Coffee research is harmful shifted to

institute in ●​ Hot and Humid climate but Dry Robusta.
Chikmagalur weather is necessary for Ripening.
The board also ●​ GI Coffees: Coorg Arabica,
U

introduced Wayanad Robusta, Chikmagalur

IndiaCoffee App, Arabica, Araku Valley Arabica,
to help growers Bababudangiris Arabica;
and exporters Monsooned Malabar (specialty)
meet global
traceability
compliance
mandated by the
European Union
Deforestation
 48

Regulation
(EUDR)

Cocoa ●​ Origin- Amazon

●​ Consumer- Switzerland
●​ Largest producer- Côte d’Ivoire
(40%)
●​ Top 3- Andhra Pradesh, kerala

Rubber Tropical > 25°C > 200 ●​ Origin- South America (amazon) Grows in
Rubber Board of cm ●​ Largest producer- Thailand> high altitude

n
India – indonesia> India is 3rd

ee
Constituted under ●​ Top 3 States- Kerala (90%, laterite
the Rubber Act of soil)> tripura> TN, Karnataka, A&N
1947 and

sl
operates under It takes at least 6 years to harvest rubber
the MoCI. after sowing. Its yield increases steeply

Ja
Located in year by year, reaching peak at 14 years
Kottayam, Kerala and can be tapped up to 28 years
by ISNR (Indian Standard Natural Rubber) is a
technically specified block rubber (TSR)
processed in India sustainably according
ed
to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
specifications
ifi

Cotton Tropical to 21°C - 50 - 80 Origin- IVC; India has largest area under Needs 210
(White subtropical; 37°C cm cotton cultivations (37% total) frost-free
pl

gold, silver Largest producer- China> India (24% as days, & high
fibre) India grows short lower productivity so we are importing sunshine
staple (indian more now in last 20 years) during
m

cotton) & long Largest Exporter- USA flowering

staple Top 3 States- Gujarat, Maharashtra (yield stage
Si

(american) cotton is very low), Telangana, AP, MP

called ‘narma’ in Long staple varieties 5 to 6
C

NW india- cotton Suvin months

is pure cellulose Shankar-6 – Gujarat and Maharashtra, (150-180
PS

Bunny – Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. days) to

Giza - egypt MECH Series (Bt Cotton- major grow
Pima - USA production) - hybrids like MECH-12 and
MECH-162.
U

1st cotton Medium staple- Jaydhar

modern mill- Short- Karundhani.
1854 at mumbai

Silk Host Plant- Bombyx ●​ Origin- China

Mulberry, oak, Mori ●​ Largest Producer- China> India
castor, arjun (Silk ●​ Top 3- Karnataka>Andhra
worm) Pradesh> Assam> Tamil Nadu
Central silk ●​ Mulberry silk (90%)- Mostly south
board- HQ
Karnataka
 49

●​ Tussar silk- Jharkhand,

chhattisgarh, odishaEri (Ahimsa
silk)- Assam, Meghalaya
●​ Muga silk- Assam exclusively, most
prized. Golden sheen.

Jute Hot & Humid 28°C - 150 - ●​ Origin- India Requires

37°C 200 cm ●​ Largest producer- India (60%) 70-90%
India’s 2nd- ●​ Largest Exporter- India humidity
largest cash crop Reqs ●​ Top 3 States- West Bengal, Bihar,
after cotton less Assam, Odisha Largely pest
water resistant.

n
than rice

ee
Wool Origin- Sheep haha
Largest producer- Australia (25%)
Largest Consumer- China

sl
Top 3 States- Rajasthan

Ja
Pulses Subtropical 25- 30 C 50-75 Origin- Fertile Crescent (Middle East) Concentrated
11% of total Cm Largest producer- India (25%) in drylands
cropped [Link] Largest Exporter- Canada (India is largest of Deccan &
Gram (desi importer and imports from Canada and Central
chana) & Pigeon myanmar) Plateaus &
pea are main Top 3 States- MP NW parts of
ed
pulses the country.

Bengal Gram - Just 1 1.​ High Rainfall Crops (all need >
ifi

Subtropical light 150 cm rain): Tea, Coffee, Rubber,

shower/ Jute.
pl

Only 2.8% total irrigation 2.​ Dry Climate Crops: Wheat, Cotton,
cropped area reqd Maize, guar (require moderate
m

rainfall).
Rainfed crop 3.​ Subtropical Crops: Wheat, Tea.
Si

cultivated during 4.​ Tropical Crops (high temp): Jute,

rabi season in Rubber, Rice, Sugarcane.
central, western, 5.​ Frost-Free Crops: Sugarcane, Tea,
C

NW parts Rubber (frost damages them),

Cotton (210 frost free)
PS
U

Tur/ arhar/ red

gram/ pigeon
pea
Only 2% of total
cropped area
Rainfed condition
in central &
southern states
of country
 50

Spices ●​ Largest producer- India (75%)

●​ Largest Exporter- India
●​ Top 3 States- Madhya Pradesh

Millets ●​ Origin- Sub-Saharan Africa ​

( East Africa )
●​ Largest producer- India (42%)
●​ Largest Exporter- India
●​ Top 3 States- Maize- KT; Ragi- KT;
Jowar- MH; Bajra- Rj

Makhana/ Relative humidity: 20-35 100-250 ●​ Origin- Mithila Region, India

Fox nut/ 50%-90% deg cm (Black Diamond)

n
Gorgon Celsius ●​ Largest producer- India

ee
nut ●​ Largest Exporter- India
●​ Top 3 States- Bihar (90% )

sl
Rapeseed Several seeds ●​ Origin-indian subcontinent (IVC) Frost
& Mustard included- rai, ●​ Largest producer- Canada (28%)- sensitive

Ja
sarson, toria, mini punjab crops
taramira ●​ Largest Exporter- Canada
●​ Top 3 States- Rajasthan ( 1/3rd)
by
Sesamum 21-23 C 45-50 Origin-india
ed
(til) cm Largest producer-india
Top 3 States-Gujarat

Soyabean Kharif crop 26-30 <100 cm Origin- China

ifi

(Golden deg C Rainfed Largest producer- Brazil (India’s rank is

Beans) 5th)
pl

Top 3 States- MP​

MACS 1407: Soybean variety- pest
m

resistant
Si

Groundnut Predominantly 20-30C 50-75 Origin- South America

C

(King of kharif crop cm Largest producer- China (36%)

oilseeds) Top 3 States- Gujarat
PS

Sunflower Seed Largest producer in world Top Producer in India-​ Origin- North America
U

- Ukraine (27%) Karnataka

Betel/ Supari/ arecanut India Karnataka Philippines
Coconut India (30%) > Indonesia Karnataka (land of Indian ocean region
coconut) including India, Southeast
Asia
Coconut Development Board (CDB)
●​ Establishment: Created on 12 January 1981; Statutory under the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
●​ Headquarters & Offices: HQ at Kochi, Kerala.
In India, the most prominent varieties are West Coast Tall, East Coast Tall, Chowghat Orange Dwarf,
Gangabondam, Kerasankara, and Chandrasankara.
 51

Palm oil Indonesia Andhra Pradesh Africa

Cashew (true fruit) Ivory Coast> India MH> Andhra.. (GI to Goa; Brazil (17th ce by
Cashew Capital= Kollam) Portuguese in India)
Cashew council= MoCI
Tobacco China> India Andhra Pradesh> Gujarat Mexico
Tobacco board in Andhra (80%)
Pradesh Short duration, dry, hardy
crop; frost free period of
90- 120 days
Flue-cured Virginia (FCV)
tobacco is a high-quality,
regulated, air-tight cured leaf

n
mainly used for cigarette
manufacturing, whereas

ee
non-FC varieties (e.g., Bidi,
chewing, Natu) are mostly
sun- or air-cured, produced

sl
for traditional tobacco
products (gutka, bidis)

Ja
without strict Tobacco Board
oversight
Turmeric by India (80%) Telangana, MH India
Black Pepper Vietnam (35%)Consumer- Kerala Malabar Coast
India
Jackfruit India Kerala Western Ghats, India
ed
Ginger India Kerala Southeast Asia
Note- The British introduced Rubber, Cinchona (Malaria), and Eucalyptus to India, while they
commercialised/expanded existing crops like Tea, Coffee, and Indigo.
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U
 52

Natural Vegetation

Types of Forests and

Natural Vegetation -
Dry deciduous (40%)
> Moist deciduous (
20%) > Tropical
Evergreen forest (
12%) > Montane
forest (3%) > Thorn
(2.6%) > Mangroves (

n
0.5%) ( life cycle of
Jasleen Approach )

ee
Most planted trees in
India

sl
TEAK> SHISHAM>
CHIR PINE

Ja
by ●​ In this table, all trees except Mahogany and Cinchona (native to South America)
are Indigenous.
●​ Wattle is invasive but its type Babool is native.
ed
Endemic trees in India
●​ Aini- western ghats
●​ Ironwood
ifi

●​ Neela kurinji
●​ Red Sanders
pl

●​ Deodar- western Himalayas

m

Tropical Evergreen
and Semi Evergreen ●​ Evergreen Vegetation
forest ○​ Location- Tropical equatorial (Andaman and Nicobar); Tropical monsoon
Si

with short dry season ( Western Ghats), North East.

○​ Temperature- mean annual temp 22 deg C
C

○​ Rainfall- more than 200 cm

○​ Well stratified with layers closer to the ground with short structure trees
PS

followed by tall varieties up to 60 m and above (competition for sunlight)

■​ Epiphytes are ‘air plants’ growing on other plants (phorophyte)
for physical support, but don't obtain water & nutrients from them.
■​ Less Gregarious strands (Diverse- don’t live in colonies)
U

○​ Mesophytic vegetation - Neither too dry, not too wet.

○​ Tree species- broad-leaved hardwood timber trees that remain green
throughout the year.
■​ Ex- Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood, and Aini
■​ Laurel, Jamun, Ironwood; Cinchona (source of quinine)-
■​ MERA LaJawab Evergreen Chehra Iron ka hai
●​ Semi Evergreen- Mostly Softwood
○​ Location? North East
○​ Ex: Kail, White Cedar, Hollock (Kai Ce Ho)
○​ Hardwoods are not used for furniture, some softwoods can be.
 53

Tropical deciduous ●​ Tropical monsoon climate- Monsoon with dry winters

forest/ Monsoon ○​ Temperature - 22 to 28 C
forests ○​ Rainfall- 70- 200 cms
●​ Moist Deciduous
○​ Location- Himalayan foothills, NE India, Eastern slope of western ghats,
Odisha
○​ Rainfall- 100- 200 cm
○​ Heavily buttressed with good undergrowth.
○​ High degree of gregarious strands (live in colonies)
○​ Species- Sal (dominant in Simlipal), Teak, Shisham (Indian rosewood),
Hurra, Mahua, Amla, Semua, Kusum, Sandalwood.
●​ Dry deciduous

n
○​ Location- Northern plains like bihar, Rainier parts of Peninsula
○​ Rainfall- 70-100 cm

ee
○​ Parkland Landscape- open stretches with teaks in between. As the dry
season begins, trees shed their leaves completely and the forest appears
like a vast grassland with naked trees all around.

sl
○​ Species- PABKAT- Palas, Amaltas, Bel, Khair, Axlewood, Tendu.

Ja
Tropical Thorn forest ●​ Rainfall < 50cm
●​ Location - Semi arid (steppe) & arid areas (desert)
by ●​ Xerophytic vegetation ( extremely dry soil )
●​ Species- Palas, Khair, Babool (Acacia wattles- indigenous), Ber, Neem, Khejri, Wild
date palm
○​ Tussocky Grass upto 2m as undergrowth
ed
○​ The Banni Grassland in the Kutch district of Gujarat, India, is considered the
largest grassland in India and Asia.
ifi

Montane forest Northern mountain forest

●​ Foothills- deciduous forests
pl

●​ 1000- 2000m- wet temperate type & evergreen broadleaf like oak & chestnut (WB,
UK). Oak forests in Garhwal were replaced by Pine chirs in Garhwal kumaon
m

regions for need for timber by british

●​ 1500-1750 m- Pine forests with Chir Pine, Deodar (endemic to Western
Himalayas, ie Kashmir valley), Chinar & Walnut ( not endemic ). Ex: srinagar
Si

●​ 2200-3000 m - temperate grasslands ( Bugyals )- Blue Pine & Spruce. Ex: mini
switzerland.
C

●​ 3000-4000m- Alpine forest & pastures like silver firs, Junipers, Rhododendrons,
pine, Birch. Ex: Sissu n Jispa
PS

○​ Transhumance by tribes like Gujjars, Bakarwals, gaddis, Bhotiyas

●​ Tundra - mosses, lichens
Southern slopes of Himalayas have thicker vegetation than northern slopes due to rainfall.
U

Southern mountain forest

●​ Temperate- Sholas are temperate forests (1500-2000 mt)
●​ Sub-tropical- magnolia, Laurel, Cinchona (Malaria), wattle

Littoral & swamp ●​ 70% of wetlands comprise of paddy cultivation

●​ Hydrophytic vegetation (in water saturated soil)

ISFR 2023- Indian ●​ Biennial, Forest survey of india at Dehradun, MoEFCC

state of Forest ●​ 25% forest area (22% forest cover, 3% tree cover)- overall increase by 1500 sq km;
report mangrove cover also increased slightly.
○​ State with highest forest area- MP
 54

○​ State with highest % forest area- Mizoram (85%)

○​ States with lowest forest area = haryana
○​ Lowest % area = Punjab
○​ UT with highest % forest area- andaman & nicobar forest (82%)
○​ Lakshadweep has tree cover (90%), primarily from coconut trees, but
since it lacks dense, natural forests, its official forest cover remains 0%
●​ Moderately dense forest- 9.4% ( 40-70%) > Open forest- 9.3% (10-40%) > Very
dense forest- 3% ( 70%) MoOV
○​ States with <10% forest area - J&K, North & North western states.
○​ State with 10-20% = WB, TN
○​ 20-30% - peninsular India
○​ >30% NE india

n
■​ 19/28 States have more than one-third area under forest area which
is also the target of forest conservation policy.

ee
○​ 8 states/UTs, namely Lakshadweep, A&N Island, 7 sisters except Assam
have forest cover above 75%.
●​ Top 3 Gaining states

sl
○​ Overall + Tree cover - Chhattisgarh > UP >Odisha (ChUpO)
○​ Forest cover - Mizoram> GJ> Odisha

Ja
●​ Top Losing states- MP> Karnataka> Ladakh (Madhya KaLa)
●​ Top 3 States in Carbon Stock- Arunachal Pradesh > MP> Chhattisgarh
by ●​ Highest forest gain countries - China > Aus >India
●​ Definitions under ISFR-
○​ Recorded Forest Area (RFA): Land notified as forest under any law (may
or may not have actual forest).
ed
■​ RFA may include areas with <10% tree density or even no trees.
■​ Forest Cover includes areas outside RFA.
■​ Forest Cover changes are influenced by both RFA and non-RFA
ifi

areas, not just within RFAs.

○​ Forest Cover: Land ≥1 ha with ≥ 10% tree canopy, regardless of land use,
pl

ownership, or species (includes agroforestry & plantations).

○​ Tree Cover: Tree patches <1 ha outside RFA, irrespective of canopy
m

density.
○​ FAO Definition: Excludes agriculture & plantations as they lack
biodiversity (unlike India's definition).
Si

Types of forestry National commission on agriculture has classified Social forestry ( afforestation on
C

barren land for env, social and rural deve )

●​ Rural forestry
PS

○​ Agroforestry- raising crops + trees together.

○​ Community forestry
●​ Urban forestry- on public and private waste lands
●​ Farm forestry - farming of trees on farms for commercial and non commercial
U

purpose. (think farm houses)

Types of Soil and Their Characteristics

(Aishwarya Rai Bachhan, Aradhya Late hai)

 55

Institutions Related to Soil Survey & Research

1.​ Soil Survey of India
○​ Estd: 1956
○​ Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare
○​ Hq: Nagpur, Maharashtra
2.​ National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP)
○​ Estd: 1976
○​ Under: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
○​ Hq: Nagpur, Maharashtra

Soil Type % Rich in Poor in Additional Features How to

Cover Improve

n
Alluvial Soil ~40% Potassium, Lime Phosphorus Found in Indo-Gangetic

ee
(Entisols) (ca) , Nitrogen, Plains, Coastal and Delta
Both khadar Humus regions. Highly fertile, suitable
Inceptisols are (entisols) and (PNH) for multiple crops.

sl
fertile and found bhangar have
at diff places kanker formations. Sandy, loamy, clay- sand

Ja
and are most content decreases from west to
abundant at east.
40%.

Red and Yellow ~20%

by Iron (Fe)- Acidic PNH Formed in low rainfall areas Adding lime to
Soil Red due to iron near igneous & crystalline reduce acidity
ed
(Alfisols) oxidation. rocks in in Deccan Plateau
Yellow shade in Found in Eastern, Central, and
hydrated form. Southern India.
ifi

Black Soil ~15% Iron, PNH Found in the Deccan Plateau.

pl

(Regur Soil) Aluminum,

Magnesium, very deep, retains moisture,
(Vertisols) Lime impermeable & clayey. suitable
m

for cotton. Forms deep cracks

( hence self-ploughing & self
Si

-aerating ) in dry season

Arid Soil ~4.5% Saline + alkaline in NH Found in Rajasthan, Gujarat. Requires

C

(Aridisols) nature. Sandy, lacks moisture, requires gypsum

Phosphorus, high irrigation. ​ treatment,
PS

Lime content - Kanker layer formation in green

(Capillary action) bottom horizons restrict the manuring.
infiltration of water, so when
U

proper irrigation is available

they instantly become fertile
 56

Laterite Soil ~3.4% Iron, Aluminum PNH, Found in high rainfall areas, But not for
(Oxisols) Potash- due High temperature- low cultivation-
Suitable for to leaching fertility. reqmt of
plantation crops of minerals Fertilizers like
(Rubber, cashews, Used for Brick making as it NPK + Humus
tea, coffee, coconut becomes very hard due very and liming help
acidic nature, deep high temp + very poor humus in improving
soil profile due to content. productivity.
humidity and high
drainage.

Saline (Usara) - Potassium, PNH, Sea intrusion + Mangrove Can be

n
Soil Sodium, Calcium areas like east coast, reclaimed by
Magnesium salts Sunderbans, kutch- poor gypsum and

ee
drainage + improved
Areas with excessive irrigation drainage.
and hot dry climate promote

sl
capillary action- salts come on
the surface.

Ja
Very hard due to excessive
chemicals and poor humus.

Peaty and
Marshy Soil
-
by Nitrogen, Humus
(50%)- High rainfall
P Found in Bihar, Uttarakhand,
coastal areas of west bengal,
and high humidity Odisha , TN.
ed
so no
decomposition. waterlogged, swampy regions
so low drainage capacity-
ifi

Mostly acidic but in some

places alkaline also.
pl

Forest Soil - Nitrogen, Organic Phosphorus Found in hilly and forested

Matter , Potash areas. Fertile in valleys,
m

(But in snow bound acidic in humid regions.

areas, they have
Si

low humus content

and acidic)
C

Podzolization.
PS

Forest Cover ●​ 1 hectare with 10% tree canopy

Current fallow ●​ Left uncultivated for less than 1 year to recoup lost fertility
U

Culturable ●​ Left fallow for more than 5 years

waste land ●​ Barren & waste land can’t be cultivated with available tech

Change in ●​ Net Sown area increased to 55% (due to culturable waste land).
land use ○​ India has largest arable land, highest % of area under cultivation
categories (55%) as well as largest area under cultivation & 3rd largest area
(since 1960s) under permanent crops.
●​ Forest area increased to 25% (due to increase in demarcated area for forest
rather than actual forest)
●​ Area under non agricultural use- double to 10% (highest rate of increase)
 57

●​ Current fallow also increased.

●​ Barren and wasteland, permanent pasteur & tree crops, culturable
fallow lands - decreased ​
(due to expansion of cultivation, illegal encroachment as well by farmers)
●​ Total stock of agricultural land/ total cultivable land= net sown area + all
fallow lands + culturable wastelands. Marginal decline in total cultivable land.

Cropping ●​ Kharif season - tropical crops (June - Sept)

season ○​ Northern states - rice, maize, jowar, bajra, cotton
○​ Southern states - rice, maize, jowar, ragi, groundnut
●​ Rabi ( oct - march)
○​ Northern states - BGW RMPL

n
○​ Southern states - rice, maize, jowar, ragi, groundnut
●​ Zaid ( apr - June)

ee
○​ Veggies, fruits, fodder

Irrigation & ●​ Protective irrigation: Prevents moisture stress, ensures crop survival.

sl
farming types ●​ Productive irrigation: Ensures sufficient soil moisture for high
productivity. Higher Water input per unit area than protective irrigation

Ja
●​ Dryland farming (Rainfall < 75 cm):
○​ Drought-resistant crops: Ragi, bajra, jowar (fodder crops), Guar
○​ Practices: Soil moisture conservation, rainwater harvesting.
by ●​ Wetland farming (Excess rainfall):
○​ Crops: Rice, jute, sugarcane
○​ Issues: Floods, soil erosion.
ed
●​ Guar gum is fodder used as binding & thickening agent & a laxative to treat
diarrhoea, diabetes.
ifi

Legumes/ Pea ●​ Pulses -

pl

family/ ○​ Chickpeas (white & black chana) ,

Fabaceae/ ○​ lentils ( they are self pollinating),
Nitrogen fixing ●​ lupin beans (phaliya)
m

●​ Mesquites - american shrubs

●​ Tamarind ( imli)
Si

●​ Alfalfa (sativa)
●​ Clover - also usable for green composting
C

●​ Legumes are a broad family of plants that produce seeds within pods, while
pulses are specifically the dried, edible seeds of these plants. Essentially,
PS

pulses are a subset of legumes. For example, a pea pod is a legume, but
the pea inside the pod is a pulse.
U

Water Resources

Rivers with highest Ground Water Ganga > Godavari > Brahmaputra

Rivers with lowest Ground Water Subarnarekha

River with Highest GW Utilisation Indus > Kaveri

River with Lowest GW Utilisation Brahmaputra

Fluoride Contamination Rajasthan, Maharashtra

 58

Arsenic Contamination West Bengal, Bihar

States with Highest GW Utilisation Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan

States with Lowest GW Utilisation Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, North Eastern states, Kerala

Major River Basins Contribution Ganga + Brahmaputra + Barak = 60% of total water, 30% of total
catchment area

Ganga Basin Coverage 11 states + 1 UT

Brahmaputra Basin Coverage 6 states

n
Indus Basin Coverage 5 states + 2 UTs

ee
Kaveri Basin Coverage 3 states + 1 UT

sl
India's First Dam Kallanai Dam (Grand Anicut) on Kaveri, Tamil Nadu, built by King
Karikala Chola (c. 200 AD)

Ja
First Dam Post-Independence Bhakra Nangal Dam
by
Surface Water Use Distribution Agriculture (89%) > Households (9%) > Industry (2%)

Ground Water Use Distribution Agriculture (92%) > Industry (5%) > Domestic (3%)
ed
Largest GW User in the World India
ifi

Irrigation Sources Tube well (56%) > Canal (32%) > Tanks (6%)
pl

State with Highest % of Area Under Punjab

Irrigation
m

State with Largest Area Under Uttar Pradesh

Irrigation
Si

Leading State in Tank Irrigation Andhra Pradesh

C

Green Revolution Leader Norman Borlaug

PS

Watershed Management Pioneer Hermann Bacher

National Water Policy (2002) Drinking > Irrigation > Energy > Navigation > Industry
U

Priorities
 59

World Maps

n
ee
sl
Ja
EQUATOR-
by
1.​ 13 countries, 3 continents
2.​ Sun’s Position: The Sun is directly overhead at the Equator on the equinoxes
(March 21 and September 23). all latitudes experience nearly equal day and
ed
night on the equinox—about 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night.
3.​ South America (BCE): Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil
a.​ The only country in the world where the Equator and the Tropic of
ifi

Capricorn both pass through.

b.​ The country with the largest area on the equator is brazil
pl

4.​ Africa (Cuts in 2): (GCC SKUS) São Tomé and Príncipe (territorial waters), Gabon,
Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia
a.​ The Congo River, the second-largest river in the world by discharge after
m

Amazon river
b.​ Lake Victoria in Uganda, the world’s second-largest freshwater lake after
Si

Lake Baikal (Meromictic)

5.​ Asia: (Mumbai Indians) Maldives (territorial waters), Indonesia
C

6.​ Oceania: Kiribati (territorial waters)

PS
U

Tropic of Cancer
1.​ 16 countries, 3 continents
a.​ North America- Mexico (cuts in 2); Bahamas
b.​ Africa- Algeria, Libya, Egypt; Western Sahara; Mauritiana, Niger, Mali (Volta
and niger rivers in gulf of guinea
c.​ Asia (Desert area)- Saudi Arabia (cuts in 2), UAE, Oman, India;
BANGLADESH, CHINA, TAIWAN.
 60

2.​ Water Bodies- Oceans & Seas: Passes through the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean,
Red Sea, Indian ocean ( Bay of Bengal)

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN (10 countries)

1.​ Africa- Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar

n
a.​ All 3 pass from it

ee
b.​ NoBody Sees Mars Mission in africa
2.​ S. America-
a.​ Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay

sl
b.​ Guay CAB
3.​ Australia

Ja
World’s borders- TRIVIA facts
1.​ Top 3 (BCA)
by
a.​ Tropic of Cancer- China> India> Mexico
b.​ Equator- Brazil> DRC
c.​ Tropic of Capricorn- Australia
ed
2.​ Longest Border – The Canada-USA
3.​ Shortest Border – Spain-Morocco border
4.​ Most Militarized Border – The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).
5.​ Country Inside a Country – Lesotho (South Africa); Vatican City (Rome, Italy)
ifi

6.​ Triple Borders – "Three Borders Landmark" where Brazil, Argentina, and
Paraguay (ABP)
pl

7.​ Borders You Can Walk Over Without Noticing – Belgium and the Netherlands
(Baarle-Nassau & Baarle-Hertog)
m

8.​ A Border That Moves – The Danube River forms a border between Serbia and
Croatia, but the river's course changes over time, shifting the actual boundary.
Si

9.​ The Only Quadripoint? Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

C
PS
U

PRIME MERIDIAN
 61

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
1.​ Unlike equator, which is centrally placed between poles, any meridian could have
been taken to begin numbering of longitudes.
2.​ 8 continents, Only 2 Continents and 3 oceans
3.​ Europe - ( FUS ) - France , UK, Spain
ifi

4.​ Africa - ( BAG MT) - Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo
5.​ Trivia facts
pl

a.​ Divides the Eastern and Western Hemispheres

b.​ Not Fixed, It Moves! Due to continental drift and modern satellite data,
m

the "true" Prime Meridian is about 102 meters east of its original position in
Greenwich!
Si

c.​ Opposite of the International Date Line (180° Longitude)

C
PS
U

●​ roughly along the 180° longitude, serving as the point where the date changes by a
full day when crossed.
●​ If you cross it from east to west (e.g., from the USA to Asia), you gain a day.
○​ East to West/ Westwards (USA → Asia): Move forward a day (March 5 →
March 6).
 62

●​ If you cross it from west to east (e.g., from Japan to the USA), you lose a day.
○​ West to East (Japan → USA): Move backward a day (March 5 → March 4).
●​ The IDL is not an official international boundary; it is a convention for timekeeping
and convenience.
●​ The International Date Line avoids all landmasses by zigzagging through the Arctic,
Pacific, and SouthernOceans. It bends east to bypass Russia, west around
Alaska’s Aleutian Islands, and stretches far east to encompass Kiribati, Samoa,
Fiji, and New Zealand, ensuring these nations maintain a unified calendar date.
●​ Zigzag- Islands in the Same Longitude Have Different Dates

Daylight savings
●​ practice of moving clock 1 hour ahead in summer and 1 hour back in winter to
make better use of daylight during longer days & reduce artificial lighting.

n
○​ “Spring forward”: Clocks set 1 hour ahead in spring (e.g., from 2 AM to 3

ee
AM).
○​ “Fall back”: Clocks set 1 hour back in autumn (e.g., from 2 AM to 1 AM).
●​ Practiced in higher latitude with greater variation, ex -USA, Europe, Aus, NOT in low
latitudes /tropical like INDIA

sl
●​ FYI -

Ja
Mountain Ranges
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U

Mountain Length Location Highest Type Key Features Major Rivers

Range (km) Peak
 63

The Andes 7,000 South Mount Young Longest Trivia: Home to the
America - 7 Aconcag Fold / continental largest salt flat, Salar
Venezuela, ua Cordillera mountain de Uyuni.
Colombia, are range, highest
Ecuador, parallel volcano (Ojos Amazon
Peru, interconn del Salado), Origin- Andes (Peru)
Bolivia, ected. Lithium Mouth- Atlantic ocean
Chile, Triangle
Argentina region (CAB)

Rocky 4,800 North Mount Young Extends from Colorado

Mountains America- 2 Elbert Fold British Origin: Rockies (USA

n
(Canada to Columbia to Mouth: gulf of california

ee
USA) New Mexico (Mexico)

Missouri.

sl
Ja
The Great 3,500 Australia Old Fold FYI- Darling Darling River
Dividing (Eastern Range is Origin:
Range by Coast) opposite i.e. Tributary of Murray
west coast)
Murray
Origin: Australian Alps
ed
Mouth: Southern ocean

Atlas 2,500 Maghreb Mount Young Separates the

ifi

Mountains MAT Toubkal Fold Sahara Desert

(Morocco, from the
pl

Algeria, Mediterranean
Tunisia) coastline
m

Ural 2,500 2- Russia + Mount Old Fold Forms Ural

Si

Mountains Kazakhstan Narodnay boundary Origin- Urals, Russia

a between Mouth- Caspian
Europe and
C

Asia Volga
Origin- Valdai Hills,
PS

Russia
Mouth- Caspian Sea

Appalachian 2,400 USA and Mount Very Old Tennessee River

U

Mountains Canada Mitchell Fold Ohio River

Himalayas 2,400 India, Mount Young 7th largest

Nepal, Everest Fold
Bhutan,
China
(Tibet),
Pakistan
 64

Altai 2,000 Russia, Mount Fold Located at the UNESCO World

Mountains Mongolia, Belukha intersection of Heritage Site
China, four countries
Kazakhstan

Old fold Appalachians, Urals,

Great dividing range,
Scandinavian.

The Alps 1,200 Europe 8- Mont Young Trivia: Site of the first
(France, Blanc Fold Winter Olympics.

n
Switzerland, Rivers: Rhine, Rhone,
Italy, Po, and Danube.

ee
Austria,
Germany,
Liechtenstei

sl
n, Slovenia,
Monaco)

Ja
Drakensberg 1,100 South Africa Young Located in the Trivia: "Dragon
by and Fold eastern part of Mountains" in
Lesotho South Africa. Afrikaans.
Orange.
ed

Carpathians
ifi

Caucasus
pl

Elbruz Azerbaijan, Connects black sea

Armenia, with caspian sea
m

Georgia,
Turkey
Si

Iran
Russia
(TIR)
C

Zagros Iran , Iraq,

PS

Turkey

Tienshan China,
Kazakh,
U

Kyrg,
Uzbek,
Tajikstan

Brooks Range Alaska USA

 65

Deserts of World
Map

n
ee
sl
Ja
Cold Deserts
by
Polar High pressure belt + Cold Air Mass- Cold air cannot hold much moisture, so very
(arranged in Large little precipitation
ed
to small) 1.​ Antarctic Desert ( 142 lakh sq km )
2.​ Arctic Desert ( 139 lakh sq km )
Cold deserts have Rain Shadow Effect (Orographic Barriers) + Continentality
ifi

larger area than hot 3.​ Gobi Desert ( 13 lakh sq km ) - China, Mongolia
deserts cos of a.​ Rain Shadow of Himalayas & Tibetan Plateau
pl

antarctic and arctic 4.​ Patagonia Desert ( 7 lakh sq km ) - Argentina> Chile (Thand mein Argen, Tina ka
Pata Chal gaya)
m

a.​ Rain Shadow of Andes

5.​ Great Basin Desert - USA
a.​ Rain Shadow of Sierra Nevada
Si

6.​ Taklamakan - China (Chini Takle hai)

a.​ Rain shadow of Himalayas & Tien shan
C

7.​ Ordos desert, Mongolia.

PS

Hot Deserts Subtropical High-Pressure Belt (30° N & S, Hadley cell, Sinking air circulation) + Hot Air
Mass (Tropics of cancer and capricorn-> High Solar Insolation)
1.​ Sahara Desert group ( 92 lakh sq km ) - North Africa- {Maghreb (MTAL, Western
Sahara) + Sahel (Mauritiana, Mali, Niger , Chad, Sudan)}​
U
 66

n
ee
​

2.​ Australian Desert group ( 27 lakh sq km )

sl
a.​ Great Victoria Desert
b.​ Great Sandy desert

Ja
c.​ Gibson
d.​ Simpson
e.​ Tenani
by
3.​ Arabian Desert group ( 18 lakh sq km ) - GCC + Yemen + Egypt + Iran + Iraq +
Jordan.
4.​ Kalahari desert ( 9 lakh sq km ) - South Africa
ed
5.​ Rub-Al-Khali Desert
6.​ Thar desert
7.​ Danakil - Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti
ifi

Rain shadow effect + Continentality

8.​ Chihuahuan desert, Sonoran desert, Mojave (death valley of California) - US,
pl

Mexico
a.​ Rain Shadow of Rockies
9.​ Kara kum desert - Turkmenistan & Uzbekistan
m

10.​Kyzylkum Desert - Uzbekistan

Si

Coastal Deserts Cold Ocean Currents - desiccating effect

1.​ Namib desert (1.6 lac sq km)- Angola, Namibia
a.​ Benguela Current
C

2.​ Atacama- Peru, Chile (AC)- (1.4 lac sq km)

a.​ Driest desert in the world, 1cm annual rainfall
PS

b.​ Humboldt current

3.​ Peruvian Desert
U
 67

Straits Map

n
ee
sl
Ja
Gulf – A large coastal inlet of the sea, with a narrow mouth (e.g., Gulf of Mexico).
by
Bay – A broad, curved indentation of a coastline, usually smaller than a gulf.
Strait – A narrow waterway connecting two larger water bodies
Isthmus – A narrow strip of land connecting two larger landmasses, with water on both sides
ed
(e.g., Isthmus of Panama).
Bass Strait- australia
Cook strait- New zealand.
ifi

Strait Connects (Water Bodies) Separates (Landmasses)

pl

Bering Strait Arctic Ocean & Pacific Ocean Russia & USA (Alaska)
m

Davis Strait Baffin Bay & Atlantic Ocean ( not Canada & Greenland
atlantic ocean)
Si

Hudson strait Canada

C

Florida Strait Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic Ocean USA (Florida) & Cuba
PS

Yucatan channel Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic Ocean Mexico & Cuba

Strait of Gibraltar Atlantic Ocean & Mediterranean Sea Spain & Morocco
U

Strait of magellan Connect atlantic & pacific Argentina & Chile

English Channel North Sea & English Channel UK & France

(Strait of Dover)

Messina strait Italy

Bonifacio strait Italy

Kerch strait Black Sea & Sea of azov Russia and Crimea
 68

Bosporus Strait Black Sea & Sea of Marmara European & Asian Turkey

Dardanelles Sea of Marmara & Aegean Sea European & Asian Turkey
Strait

Strait of Hormuz Persian Gulf & Gulf of Oman (NOT UAE & Iran
INDIAN OCEAN)

Bab el Mandeb Red Sea & Gulf of Aden Yemen & Djibouti/Eritrea

Palk Strait Bay of Bengal & Gulf of Mannar India & Sri Lanka

n
Malacca Strait Andaman Sea & South China Sea​ Malaysia & Indonesia

ee
(indian ocean & pacific ocean )

Sunda Strait Java Sea & Indian Ocean Java & Sumatra (Indonesia)

sl
Lombok Strait Bali Sea & Indian Ocean Bali & Lombok (Indonesia)

Ja
Torres Strait Arafura Sea & Coral Sea Australia & Papua New Guinea

Tsushima Strait East China Sea & Sea of Japan

by Japan & South Korea

La Pérouse Strait Sea of Japan & Sea of Okhotsk Russia & Japan
ed
Tartary strait Sea of japan to Sea of Okhotsk Sakhalin island- largest island of russia. Amur river
flows into it
ifi

Tsugaru strait Sea of Japan to Pacific Ocean. Separates Honshu (Japan’s main island) from
Hokkaido (Japan’s northern island).
pl

Formosa strait Link south china sea to east china Taiwan from mainland china
sea in pacific ocean.
m
Si
C
PS
U
 69

Rivers Map

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C

1. Nile River – The longest river in the world (~6,650 km), flowing through 11 countries- Egypt,
Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and the
PS

DRC., and crucial for Egypt and Sudan’s agriculture.

2. Congo River – The deepest river in the world (220+ m)
3. Zambezi River – Victoria Falls,
4. Limpopo River – Flows through four countries (Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and
U

Mozambique) and is prone to seasonal flooding.

Major Lakes of Africa

1. Lake Victoria – The largest lake in Africa and the main source of the White Nile. (Lake
superior is the largest)
2. Lake Tanganyika – The second-deepest lake in the world after lake baikal.
3. Lake Malawi (Nyasa) – Contains the highest number of fish species (~1,000+) of any lake
globally, supporting local economies.

Continent River Origin Outflow

 70

🌎 North
America
Mackenzie ( Canada) Canada Arctic Ocean

Colorado (US, mexico) Rocky Mountains (USA) Gulf of California

Mississippi USA Gulf of Mexico

Rio Grande (US, mexico) San Juan Mountains, Colorado, Gulf of mexico
Rockies (USA)

🌍 South
America
Amazon (Peru, Colombia,
Brazil)
Andes Mountains (Peru) Atlantic Ocean

🌍 Europe

n
Danube (Germany, Black Forest (Germany)- Black Sea

ee
Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, 4 capitals- Vienna (Austria);
Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Budapest (Hungary) Bratislava
Bulgaria, Moldova, (Slovenia), Belgrade (Serbia)
Ukraine) (-ia vali

sl
countries)- 2nd longest

Ja
Don Russia Sea of Azov

Dniper (Russia, ukraine,

by Black sea
Belarus) - RUB Valdai Hills (Russia)

Volga (Russia)- longest in Caspian Sea

ed
europe

Rhine (Switzerland, Swiss Alps (Switzerland)- Rift North Sea (Norway, Denmark,
ifi

Germany, France, Valley Netherlands, Belgium, France,

Netherlands, germany, UK)
pl

Liechtenstein, Austria)
m

Seine France English Channel

🌍 Africa Nile (Burundi, Rwanda, DR Lake Victoria (Tanzania, Uganda, Mediterranean Sea
Si

Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Kenya)- Rift Valley

Uganda, South Sudan,
C

Sudan, Egypt)
PS

Congo Lualaba River (DR Congo) Atlantic Ocean

Zambezi Zambia Indian Ocean

🌏 Asia
U

Yellow Tibetan Plateau Bohai Sea

Yangtze Tibetan Plateau East China Sea

Mekong Tibetan Plateau (China) South China Sea

Ob Altai Mountains (Russia) Arctic Ocean

Lena Baikal Mountains (Russia) Arctic Ocean

Tigris (Ilisu Dam) Turkey Persian Gulf

 71

Euphrates Turkey Persian Gulf

(Turkey, Iraq, Syria)

🌏 Australia Murray and darling Australian Alps (Australia) Southern Ocean

Seas Map

BaKaLava

Si Chukeya (bering)
BeuBaf Green ne

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi

Caspian Sea TARIK- Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Russia, Iran, Kazakhstan

pl

Inflow- Ural, Terek, Volga river (UTV)

Black sea BURGRT- Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Romania, Turkey

m

Inflows - Danube, Don, Dniper, Dniester

Si

Baltic sea SR. DGP FELL

(Denmark, Sweden, Finland), (Germany, Poland), (Russia, Estonia, latvia, Lithuania) (NO
NORWAY)
C

Inflows- Daugava, Nemunas, Vistula, Oder, Torne, and Neva, Gota

PS

Mediterranean sea Mediterranean- METAL (Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya) LIST (Lebanon, Israel,
Syria, Turkey; MISS MBA GF Cry (Monaco, Italy, Spain, Slovenia, Montenegro, Bosnia&H,
Albania, Greece, France, Croatia)
U

Inflows- Nile, Rhone, Tiger, Po, Ebro

Red Sea DESSEY- Djibouti, Egypt, Saudi, Sudan, Eritrea, Yemen

Inflow- No

Aral sea Kazakhstan- Uzbekistan

Dead Sea Jordan , Israel

(Rift Valley)
 72

Lakes Map

n
ee
sl
Ja
Titicaca- andes- bolivia, peru

Grassland Maps
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U

Pustaz- hungary
U
PS
C
Si
m
pl
ifi
ed
by
Ja
sl
ee
n
73
 74

Islands in Indian ocean (North to South)

●​ Lakshadweep (India)
●​ Maldives
●​ Chagos Archipelago (UK)
●​ Seychelles
●​ Comoros ; Tromelin Island (France)
●​ Mauritius
●​ Réunion (France)
●​ Madagascar
●​ Amsterdam Island (France)
●​ Saint Paul Island (France)

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U

Kalpakkam (Madras)- TN- Fast breeder reactor

 75

Feature NP (106) WLS (567) BR TR Conservation Community

Reserve Reserve

Human No human Limited Core- No human core area- Are Areas outside
activity activity rights activity legal status of uninhabited NPs/WLSs,
allowed allowed NP/ WLS- No and privately
(except Chief Buffer- Tourism, human completely owned.
Wildlife Warden human activity; owned by
of state) settlement, the Centre Local
research, edu, Buffer- communities

n
No core- buffer Sustainable use Tourism Regulated use
zones allowed. activities resources

ee
No core- Transition- allowed sustainably
buffer zones Agriculture (No traditional
allowed.​ practices like

sl
No core- shifting
Can contain NP buffer zones cultivation)

Ja
and WLS
No core-
by buffer zones

Legal State govt State govt Central Govt Declared by CG can State govt
Basis declared it declared it declares under NTCA with declare (WPA WPA, 2002
ed
under WPA, under WPA, EPA, 1986 and final approval -2022 (Amendment)
1972. (Centre 1972. ​ UNESCO MAB of State Govt. amendment),
in case of UTs) (Centre in under WPA, Earlier only
ifi

case of UTs) 1972 SG had

authority.
pl

(now Both)
m

Mgmt Primarily by State Govt (via UNESCO + State govt + State Govt Community
Chief Wildlife Warden) Central govt= the NTCA reserve mgmt
Guided by overarching mgmt state govt body (Local
Si

plan of CG. prepares Communities)

the Management + State Govt
C

For 5,6th Sch, mgmt plan will Action Plan which

be prepared after due is
PS

consultation with Gram sabha approved and

monitored by the
central
MAB Committee.
U

Features ONLY SG can alter boundary 80% tigers Max in

by notification after prior are found in Nagaland.
approval of NBWL India Siswan in
Punjab.
 76

IMP Trivia
●​ World Network of Island and Coastal Biosphere Reserves
○​ was launched in 2009 by UNESCO MAB Programme to foster sustainable deve.
○​ Two technical secretariats working together: Island of Jeju (Republic of Korea), which focuses on
climate change issues; and Menorca (Spain).
○​ Does not contain any biosphere reserve from India.
Legal & Policy Aspects
●​ Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (WPA) has been amended 8 times, the latest in 2022.
●​ Wildlife falls under the Concurrent List of the Indian Constitution. (42nd CA)

Protected Areas: National Parks (NPs)

Highest Number of National Parks

n
●​ Madhya Pradesh (12) > Andaman & Nicobar Islands (9)
Oldest / 1st National Park

ee
●​ Jim Corbett NP (Uttarakhand)- largest tiger density in the world.
Largest & Smallest National Parks
●​ Largest: Hemis NP (Ladakh) – 4,400 km²

sl
●​ Smallest: South Button Island NP (Andaman & Nicobar) – 0.03 km²
Notable National Parks

Ja
●​ Namdapha NP (Arunachal Pradesh) – Harbours the northernmost lowland evergreen rainforest in the
world at 27°N latitude.
●​ Kaziranga NP (Assam) – 3/4th of the world's one-horned rhinos.
by
●​ Indravati NP (Chhattisgarh) – Last population of endangered wild Asian buffalo.
●​ Gir NP (Gujarat) – Last population of Asiatic lions + Chousigha (World’s only four-horned antelope).
●​ Great Himalayan NP (Himachal Pradesh) – Recognized as a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site.
ed
●​ Bannerghatta NP (Karnataka) – 1st biological park to have a fenced forested elephant sanctuary.
●​ Kanha NP (Madhya Pradesh) – Known for Bhoorsingh / Barasingha (Swamp deer).
●​ Keibul Lamjao NP (Manipur) – Only floating NP in the world, habitat of Sangai (brow-antlered deer).
ifi

●​ Balphakram NP (Meghalaya) – Known as the "Land of Spirits".

●​ Clouded Leopard NP (Tripura) – Named after the clouded leopard.
pl

●​ Govind NP (Uttarakhand) – Snow Leopard Project is managed here.

m

Protected Areas: Tiger Reserves (TRs)

Highest Number of Tiger Reserves- Madhya Pradesh & Maharashtra
Largest & Smallest Tiger Reserves
Si

●​ Largest: Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam TR (Andhra Pradesh & Telangana) – 3,728 km²

●​ Smallest: Bor TR (Maharashtra) – 138 km²
C

●​ Tamil Nadu and Kerala: Largest Contiguous Population of Tigers

●​ Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam TR: Largest contiguous Critical Tiger Habitat
PS

●​ Simplipal TR: Decline in number

Elephant Reserves
●​ Tamil Nadu and Assam have the highest number of ERs (5 each)
U

●​ Singhbhum (Jharkhand) is the largest and 1st ER.

Protected Areas: Ramsar Sites (RS)
Highest Number of Ramsar Sites- Tamil Nadu (14) > Uttar Pradesh
Largest & Smallest Ramsar Sites
●​ Largest: Sundarbans Wetland (West Bengal) – 4,230 km²
●​ Smallest: Renuka Wetland (Himachal Pradesh) – 0.2 km²
Highest Number of Biosphere Reserves- Madhya Pradesh (3) & Tamil Nadu (3)
Largest & Smallest Biosphere Reserves
●​ Largest: Great Rann of Kutch (12,400 km sq) > Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) – 10,500 km² (largest
protected area of india???)
●​ Smallest: Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam) – 765 km²
 77

Conservation Efforts
●​ India’s first Snow Leopard Conservation Centre to be established in Uttarkashi Forest Division
(Uttarakhand) in association with UNDP under the SECURE Himalayas project.
●​

n
ee
sl
Ja
Biosphere Reserve by State(s) Major Distinct Flora & Fauna Important WNBR
Rivers Trivia
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U
 78

Nilgiri
●​ Mudumalai TR, TN
Tamil Nadu,
Kerala,
Bhavani,
Moyar,
EndemicFlora: Shola
forests, sandalwood, Vanda
First
Biosphere
✅
(2000)
●​ Mukurthi NP, TN Karnataka Kabini Endemic Fauna: Largest Reserve
●​ Sathyamangalam, known population of Nilgiri (1986)
TN (MMS) tahr (EN), Nilgiri langur,
●​ Siruvani, TN Lion-tailed macaque.
●​ Wayanad WLS
●​ Bandipur NP, KT
●​ Nagarhole, KT
●​ Silent valley NP
●​ Nilambore (KR)
( to rem- Sivani, Nilam

n
wayanad Nagar me Silent
bandi hai)

ee
Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu (
comprises 21
2nd largest
BR after gulf
Endemic Flora: Seagrass,
Jatropha, morning glory.
First
“Marine”
✅
(2001)

sl
islands) of Katch Biosphere
Fauna: Dugong (sea cow- Reserve of

Ja
found in Indo pacific oceans, India, Asia/
Vulnerable), sea turtles. SE Asia
by (1st marine
national
park is
Kutch)
ed
Sundarbans (BR, NP, TR,
RS)- SaLoHa
West Bengal Ganga, Endemic Flora: Sundari
Brahmaputra trees, Heritiera fomes are
Largest
mangrove
✅
(2001)
ifi

●​ Sajnekhali WLS delta good for timber. forest in

●​ Lothian WLS the world.
pl

●​ Haliday WLS Endemic Fauna: 200 Royal

Bengal Tiger ( are good
m

swimmers)

Others- Gangetic dolphin is

Si

endemic to Indian
subcontinent

✅
C

Nanda Devi Uttarakhand Rishi Ganga, Flora: Alpine meadows,

PS

●​ Valley of Flowers ( chamoli, Alaknanda Brahma Kamal, orchids like (2004)

National Park. almora, latifolie
●​ Nanda Devi NP pithoragarh, Fauna: Snow leopard,
Bageshwar) Himalayan musk deer, black
U

bear, brown bear, golden

eagle, black eagle, snow
 79

cock

n
Nokrek Meghalaya Simsang, Flora: Citrus indica (wild Wild ✅

ee
( garo hills ) Ganol orange). orange (2009)
Fauna: Red panda, Asiatic country
elephant.

sl
✅

Ja
Pachmarhi (BoPaSa) Madhya Denwa Flora: Sal, teak forests. Part of
●​ Bori WLS Pradesh ( Fauna: Giant squirrel, flying Satpura (2009)
●​ Panchmarhi WLS betul, squirrel. range; rich
●​ Satpura NP by Hoshangabad
, chhindwara)
Barasingha (swamp deer) is
endemic to India and nepal
in caves
with
prehistoric
ed
Its genetic express highway paintings.
linking 2 biological hotspots (
eastern himalayas & western
ghats )
ifi

Simlipal (HadKul) Odisha ( Budhabalan Largest zone of Sal tree Named ✅

pl

●​ Hadgarh WLS mayurbhanj ga, after Simul (2009)

●​ Kuldiha WLS district ) Subarnarekh (Silk
m

a Cotton)
trees.

✅
Si

Achanakmar-Amarkantak Madhya Origin of Chousingh- 4 horned

Pradesh, Narmada antelope (2012)
C

Chhattisgarh Johila and

( anuppur Son rivers.
PS

dindori ,
bilaspur)

Great Nicobar (campbell Andaman & Coastal ✅

U

& galathea ) Nicobar Fauna: Saltwater crocodile, (2013)

Islands Nicobar pigeon.
(southernmo
st island )

Agasthyamalai
●​ Neyyar WLS
Kerala, Tamil
Nadu
Thamirabara
ni
Nilgiri tahr, Malabar civet. ✅
(2016)
●​ Peppara WLS
●​ Shendurney WLS
 80

●​ Kalakkad
Mundanthurai TR (
TN)

Khangchendzonga Sikkim Teesta,

Rangeet
India’s first ✅
& only world (2018)
Mixed
heritage site

Panna
●​ Gangau WLS
Madhya
Pradesh
Ken River Teak forest , gharial ✅
(2020)
●​ Ken Gharial WLS (panna &

n
chhatarpur)

ee
Cold Desert Himachal Chandrabha Harshest WNBR
●​ Pin valley NP​ Pradesh ga, Pin, Spiti climate (2025)
Kibber WLS among

sl
●​ Chandratal WLS biosphere
●​ Sarchu WLS reserves.

Ja
Dehang-Dibang
Mouling NP
Arunachal
Pradesh
Siang,
Dibang
Flora: Pine, fir forests.
Fauna: Mishmi takin, Red
Idu Mishmi
tribes.
❌
Dibang WLS
by panda.

Manas Assam Manas River pygmy hog. UNESCO ❌

ed
Natural
World
Heritage
ifi

Site.

❌
pl

Dibru-Saikhowa Assam ( Brahmaputra White-winged duck, feral Known for

tinsukia, horses,wild water buffalos its feral
m

Dibrugarh) horses.
Si

Seshachalam Hills Andhra Penna River Endemic Flora: Red Famous for ❌
C

●​ Sri venkateshwara Pradesh sandalwood. red

NP Slender loris ( native to india sanders.
PS

& lanka )

Rann of Kutch Gujarat Luni, Wild ass sanctuary Largest ❌

U

●​ Wild ass sanctuary Sabarmati Banni grasslands known as salt desert;

shravan kavadia Flamingo
flamingos. City.

Aspect Details

Total Biosphere Reserves in India 18

 81

UNESCO-Recognized under WNBR Now 13- Includes cold desert in 2025

First Biosphere Reserve in India Nilgiri (1986)

First Marine Biosphere Reserve Gulf of Mannar

Largest Biosphere Reserve Rann of Katch

Smallest Biosphere Reserve Dibru-Saikhowa

6/18 are Non- WNBR: Dihang - dibang , 5/ 18 are Non WHS- Dihang - dibang ,
Dibru-saikhowa, CSMR ( Seschalam, Dibru-saikhowa; NMN (Nokrek, Mannar, Great

n
Manas; Rann of Katch) Nicobar)

ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U

●​ Max NPs= MP
●​ Max TRs- MP
 82

●​ Max RS- TN
●​ Max ERs- TN and Assam
●​ Max WLS- A&N> MH
●​ Max Community reserves- Nagaland
Ramsar Convention
●​ Adopted: 1971, Ramsar, Iran
●​ Came into force: 1975
●​ Signatories: 172 countries (as of 2024)
●​ Eligibility: A site must meet at least 1 out of 9 criteria to be designated as a Ramsar Site
●​ Coverage: Protects approximately 6% of the world’s land area and 5% of India’s
geographical area
●​ First Ramsar Site in the world: Cobourg Peninsula, Australia; Largest is Congo Basin

n
Ramsar Site.
●​ As of February 2026, India has 98 designated Ramsar sites, covering a total area of

ee
1,362,205 hectares, making it the country with the largest network of Ramsar sites in Asia.
Tamil Nadu has the highest number of sites (20), while the Sundarban Wetland in West
Bengal is the largest.

sl
●​ COP- meets every 3 years
●​ No Ramsar Site has ever been “deleted”, and Parties have only extremely rarely restricted the

Ja
boundaries of a Site on this basis.
●​ The six international partners of the Ramsar Convention are:
1.​ BirdLife International, Cambridge UK
by
2.​ International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)- geneva
3.​ World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)- geneva
4.​ Wetlands International
ed
5.​ International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
6.​ Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
Wetland (under Ramsar):
ifi

●​ Includes marshes, swamps, peatlands, rivers, lakes, deltas, mangroves, coral reefs, and
artificial wetlands like reservoirs & rice paddies. {Man Made- Inland (Reservoirs, tanks,
pl

ash ponds); Coastal (Saltpans, Aquaculture)}

●​ Ramsar convention- at Iran- waterfowl Habitat
m

●​ Depth Criteria: max 6m at low tide.

●​ Wetlands: Water-covered or waterlogged for ≥7 days in the growing season.
●​ Hydrophytes: Plants adapted to wet conditions.
Si

●​ Hydric Soils: Low oxygen, unsuitable for some plants.

●​ Montreux Record 1990
C

○​ register of those Ramsar Sites that need urgent attention.

○​ Chilika Lake in Orissa was the first to be inscribed on the Montreux Record in 1993
PS

owing to siltation (removed in 2002)

○​ Currently, two wetlands of India are in Montreux record: Keoladeo National Park due
to water scarcity and invasive species and Loktak Lake due Ithai Barrage and
infestation of water hyacinth.
U

●​ Ramsar Site 9 Criteria – any one

○​ Biodiversity Hotspot 🦎
○​ (C1) Rare or unique wetland

■​ (C2) Threatened species (IUCN)

■​ (C3) Rich biodiversity

○​ Big Numbers & Vital Role 🐟

■​ (C4) Supports key life stages (breeding, migration)

■​ (C5) 20,000+ waterbirds

■​ (C6) 1% of a species' population
■​ (C7) Fish diversity
■​ (C8) Fish breeding & migration
 83

■​ (C9) 1% of a non-bird species.

Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017
●​ Notified by MoEFCC under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
●​ State Wetlands Authority (SWA): Estd in each State/UT, led by the Environment Minister,
comprising officials and experts.
●​ Digital Inventory: States must list and notify wetlands within six months; a digital inventory
will be updated every 10 years.
●​ National Wetlands Committee (NWC): Led by the MoEFCC Secretary, oversees
implementation, advises on policies, Ramsar site designation, and international collaboration.
National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP)
●​ Lakes are deeper, smaller, permanent, thermally stratified (Wind regulated in wetlands),
dominated by phytoplanktons (Macrophytes in wetlands); Grazing food chain (detritus in

n
wetlands); Oligotrophic; lower productivity and biodiversity
●​ Lakes: more than 3m depth, >10 hectares, minimal aquatic vegetation.

ee
●​ Uses: Drinking water, irrigation, recreation.
●​ Macrophytes: Excessive growth harms water quality and usability.
●​ Wetlands: less than 3m depth, nutrient-rich, dense macrophytes, high biodiversity (birds,

sl
fish, invertebrates).
●​ Comparison: Wetlands are more crucial than lakes for ecosystem conservation.

Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U
 84

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS

1 Kolleru Lake Andhra Eutrophic lake b/w River basins of Godavari and
U

Pradesh Krishna
Previously a lagoon, now Inland.

2 Deepor Beel Assam Permanent freshwater lake in Brahmaputra valley.

3 Kanwar/ Kabar Taal Bihar Asia’s largest freshwater oxbow lake

4 Nagi Bird Sanctuary

5 Nakti Bird Sanctuary

 85

6 Nanda Lake Goa Freshwater lake with high biodiversity

7 Khijadia WLS Gujarat Unique mix of freshwater and marine wetlands

8 Nalsarovar BS Largest Natural freshwater lake in Thar (a relict sea)

Endangered Indian Wild Ass

9 Thol Lake Artificial freshwater lake, habitat for flamingos and

pelicans

10 Vadhvana Wetland

n
11 Bhindawas WLS Haryana

ee
12 Sultanpur NP

13 Chandra Taal HP High-altitude Glacial lake

sl
Snow leopard/

Ja
14 Pong Dam Lake Maharana pratap sagar

15 Renuka Lake
by Natural lake. Smallest Ramsar

16 Ranganathituu BS Karnataka
ed
17 Magadi Kere Cons Karnataka
Reserve
ifi

18 Ankasamudra Bird
ConsReserve
pl

19 Aghanashini Estuary
m

20 Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala Estuarine system-at Neendakara.

Si

NW 3 passes through it.

21 Sasthamkotta Lake Largest freshwater lake in Kerala

C

22 Vembanad-Kol Longest lake in India

PS

Wetland Second largest Ramsar site

23 Bhoj Wetland MP Human made Urban wetland near Bhopal,

U

Sarus Crane

24 Sakhya Sagar Man-made lake inside Madhav National Park

25 Sirpur wetland near Indore

26 Yashwant Sagar Important for migratory birds, waterfowl habitat

27 Tawa Reservoir Major irrigation reservoir, bird habitat

longest tributary of river Narmada
 86

28 Lonar Lake Maharashtra Meteorite impact crater lake- Highly saline. Contains
anaerobes, cynobateria.

29 Nandur Nashik
Madhameshwar

30 Thane Creek Estuarine wetland, supports flamingos

31 Loktak Lake Manipur Largest freshwater lake in Northeast India, floating

phumdis- Keibul Lamjao

32 Pala Wetland Mizoram Largest natural lake in Mizoram

n
33 Ansupa Lake Odisha Freshwater lake on Mahanadi floodplain

ee
34 Bhitarkanika India’s second- largest mangrove ecosystem
Mangroves Famous for saltwater crocs and olive ridley sea

sl
turtles.
Gahirmatha marine WLS

Ja
35 Chilika Lake 1st Wetland
by Largest coastal lagoon in India
Nalbana Bird Sanctuary is core
Home to the only known population of Irrawaddy
Dolphin (Brackish water)
ed
36 Hirakud Reservoir
ifi

37 Satkosia Gorge Meeting point of Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau.

pl

38 Tampara Lake

39 Beas CnR Punjab Hosts only known population of Indus river

m

dolphins.
Gharial- reintroduction of endangered gharial.
Si

40 Harike Wetland Confluence of beas and satluj

C

41 Kanjli Wetland Human-made wetland, Guru Nanak

PS

42 Keshopur-Miani Community-managed wetland

CmR
U

43 Nangal WLS Endangered Indian Pangolin. Human made.

Panchsheel principles were finalised here.

44 Ropar Wetland River Sutlej wetland- Humanmade

45 Keoladeo NP Rajasthan A complex of 10 artificial, seasonal lagoons.

UNESCO WHS
Siberian Crane
Invasive grass species- Paspalum Distichum-
listed in the Montreux Record since 1990 for
water scarcity.
 87

46 Sambhar Lake Largest inland saltwater lake in India

Flamingos.

47 Chitrangudi BS Tamil Nadu

48 Gulf of Mannar
Marine BR

49 Kanjirankulam BS

50 Karikili BS

n
51 Koonthankulam BS

ee
52 Pallikaranai Marsh Urban wetland, critical bird habitat

53 Pichavaram

sl
Mangrove

Ja
54 Point Calimere WLS Flamingo habitat

55 Suchindram Theroor
Wetland
by
56 Udhayamarthandapu
ed
ram BS

57 Vaduvur BS
ifi

58 Vedanthangal BS One of India’s oldest bird sanctuaries

pl

59 Vellode BS Important for resident and migratory birds

m

60 Vembannur
Si

61 Karaivetti BS
C

62 Longwood Shola RF Montane wetland in Nilgiris

PS

63 Nanjarayan BS

64 Kazhuveli BS
U

65 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura Palace lake, Gomti river

Three striped Roof turtle.

66 Hokera Wetland J&K Jhelum basin. Natural perennial wetland 10 kms from
Srinagar.

67 Hygam Wetland

68 Shallbug Wetland
 88

69 Surinsar-Mansar Twin religious lakes

Lakes

70 Wular Lake Largest freshwater lake in India; Jhelum

71 Tso Kar Ladakh Highest wetland in South Asia

Hyper saline land.
North of Tso moriri

72 Tsomoriri Only breeding ground outside of china for Black

necked crane and bar headed geese
Great Tibetan sheep or Argali- Tibetan Wild ass.

n
73 Bakhira WLS UP Largest natural floodplain wetland in UP

ee
74 Haiderpur Wetland Important wintering site

75 Nawabganj BS Important bird sanctuary

sl
76 Parvati Arga BS Twin oxbow lakes, bird habitat

Ja
77 Saman BS

78
by
Samaspur BS

79 Sandi BS
ed
80 Sarsai Nawar Jheel Important for Sarus cranes (scavengers)
Sarus Crane- Bhoj, MP; Sarsai, UP
ifi

Black necked crane- Tso Moriri.

Siberian Crane- Keoladeo
pl

Flamingo- Kutch and Sambhar

m

81 Sur Sarovar Human-made lake, bird sanctuary

(Keetham Lake)
Si

82 Upper Ganga River Ganges dolphin and Gharial.

C

83 Asan Barrage Uttarakhand On Yamuna River (longest tributary of Ganga and

2nd largest after Ghaghara- Karnali; flows thru 4
PS

states + 1 UT- HP, UK, UP, Haryana, Delhi)

84 East Kolkata West Bengal Unique sewage treatment wetland

Wetlands
U

89 Sundarban Wetland Largest Ramsar site in India,

World’s largest mangrove ecosystem- India’s 60%
mangrove forest and 90% mangrove species

Tiger Reserves of India

 89

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m

●​ About tigers-
○​ Tigers, leopard, lions are Nocturnal (Cheetahs are diurnal)
Si

○​ Global Tiger Initiative- led by the 13 tiger range countries are South Asia
(India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan), Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand,
C

Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Indonesia, Malaysia), and East Asia (China, Russia).
(NO Pak/ Afghan)
PS

○​ There are 8 subspecies of tiger. Among the 8, at present, 5 subspecies are

present in the wild.
■​ They are Bengal, South China, Indochinese, Sumatran, and Siberian.
■​ 3 subspecies of tiger — Caspian, Bali, and Javan — are extinct
U

○​ Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera Tigris)

■​ Native to India.
■​ Habitat:
●​ Largest population is in India, smaller groups in Bangladesh,
Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar.
●​ high mountains, mangrove swamps, tall grasslands, to dry and
moist deciduous forests, evergreen and shola forest systems.
●​ Home range varies from 15-400 [Link]
■​ flagship, keystone, umbrella .
■​ Solitary and territorial animals, and the territory of an adult male may
encompass territories of two to seven females.
 90

■​ Strong swimmers
●​ India hosts 80% of the world’s tigers, population rising from 2,226 (2014) → 3200
(2022). Nearly 35% of tigers in India are found outside tiger reserves
○​ Tiger - IUCN Endangered, Sch 1 (WPA 1972)
○​ Can be killed on 2 grounds-
■​ diseased / disabled beyond recovery
■​ Threat to human life
○​ In no case can a tiger be declared a Vermin.
●​ Project Tiger (1973) – NTCA-led initiative for in-situ tiger conservation; provides federal
funding to tiger range states.
○​ Core- declared by state govt.
○​ Buffer- limits decided by Gram sabha and expert committee.

n
●​ Tiger Census – Conducted every 4 years by NTCA & Wildlife institute of India, assisted
by state forest agencies & NGOs, to estimate India's tiger population. So far 5 tiger

ee
census.
●​ M-STrIPES (2010) – Monitoring System for Tigers – Intensive Protection & Ecological
Status; software-based system enhancing patrolling & ecological monitoring in Tiger

sl
Reserves.
●​ Tiger Task Force

Ja
○​ Formed based on the NBWL recommendation.
○​ Addressed issues in tiger conservation and Project Tiger.
●​ National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
by
○​ Statutory body under MoEFCC, formed in 2005 on Tiger Task Force
recommendations.
○​ Established under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (amended 2006).
ed
○​ Strengthens tiger conservation with assigned powers & functions.
●​ Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
○​ Autonomous body under MoEFCC, established 1982 in Dehradun.
ifi

○​ Provides training, research, and advisory on wildlife management

●​ Classification of tiger reserves-
pl

○​ Largest- Core Area

■​ Nagarjunsagar Srisailam (AP) – 2596 km²
m

■​ Amrabad (Telangana) – 2166 km²

○​ Smallest- Core Area
Si

■​ Orang (Assam) – 79 km²

■​ Bor (Maharashtra) – 138 km²
○​ Top 3- MP> Karnataka> Uttarakhand
C

○​ Corbett has highest no and density

○​ Central Indian Landscape and Eastern Ghats had the highest tiger population
PS

○​ Reserves with No Tigers (2022): Dampa (Mizoram), Buxa (West Bengal),

Palamau (Jharkhand), Satkosia (Odisha), Kawal (Telangana), Sahyadri
(Maharashtra), Mukundara Hills (Rajasthan), Ramgarh Vishdhari (Rajasthan),
Kamlang (Arunachal Pradesh), Namdapha (Arunachal Pradesh), Kalakad
U

Mundanthurai (Tamil Nadu).

 91

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed

State Tiger Reserve Key Features- Critical Tiger Habitat under WPA 1972
ifi

Andhra Nagarjunsagar Srisailam TR ●​ Largest TR in India,

Pradesh ●​ Spans Nallamala Hills,
pl

●​ Hosts Srisailam & Nagarjuna Sagar reservoirs.

●​ Home to Bengal tigers, leopards, pangolins, rock
m

pythons.
●​ Krishna River
Si

Arunachal Namdapha TR ●​ Only TR with four big cat species—Tigers,

Pradesh Leopards, Snow Leopards, Clouded Leopards.
C

●​ Noa-Dihing River.
PS

Kamlang TR ●​ Kamlang river

Pakke tiger reserve ●​ Kameng river

●​ Hornbill Nest Adoption Programme.
U

Assam Nameri tiger reserve

Manas TR ●​ UNESCO WHS, also an Elephant & Biosphere

Reserve. Home to One-horned Rhinoceros, Clouded
Leopards, Hoolock Gibbons.
●​ Manas river

Kaziranga TR ●​ Home to One-horned Rhinos, Tigers, Elephants.

●​ Brahmaputra river
 92

Orang tiger reserve ●​ Brahmaputra river, Dhansiri river

Bihar Valmiki TR ●​ Gandak river

Chhattisgarh Achanakmar TR ●​ Maniyar river

Guru Ghasidas- Tamor Pingla TR ●​ Hasdeo river

Udanti-Sitanadi Tiger Reserve

Indravati TR ●​ Dense forest, rich biodiversity.

Jharkhand Palamau TR ●​ First TR in India under Project Tiger.

n
●​ North Koel river

ee
Karnataka Nagarhole TR ●​ Kabini river

Dandeli- Anshi (kali)

sl
Biligiri Ranganatha Temple TR

Ja
Bhadra TR
by
Bandipur TR ●​ Rich biodiversity, part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
●​ Moyar river
ed
Kerala Periyar TR ●​ Famous for Periyar Lake, known for elephants and
tigers.
●​ Mullaperiyar river
ifi

Parambikulam TR
pl

Madhya Satpura TR ●​ Rich biodiversity— Leopards, Sambar, Chinkara,

m

Pradesh Indian Giant Squirrels.

●​ Denwa river
Si

Sanjay Dubri TR ●​ Banas

C

Pench TR
PS

Panna TR ●​ Ken river

Kanha TR ●​ Home to Bengal Tigers, Leopards, Sloth Bears,

Barasingha.
U

Bandhavgarh TR ●​ Son river

Veerangana Durgavati ●​ Narmada river

Ratapani TR ●​ Betwa river

●​ It includes the Bhimbetka rock shelters (WHS)

Maharashtra Tadoba-Andhari TR ●​ Maharashtra's oldest and largest TR.

●​ Andhari & Tadoba river
 93

Sahyadri TR ●​ Koyna river , Krishna river (nearby)

Pench TR ●​ Pench river

Nawegaon- Nagzira ●​ Nagzira river

Melghat TR ●​ Located in Satpura Range, crucial for tiger

conservation.
●​ Tapti river flows nearby.

Bor TR

Mizoram Dampa TR -

n
ee
Odisha Similipal TR ●​ Home to Royal Bengal Tigers, diverse flora &
fauna.
●​ Budhabalanga, Salandi river

sl
Satkosia TR ●​ Mahanadi river
●​ Includes baisapalli WS + Satkosia Gorge WS

Ja
Rajasthan Sariska TR ●​ Sariska river
by
Ranthambore TR ●​ Famous for easily visible tigers.
●​ Banas river, Chambal River (flows nearby)
ed
Ramgarh Vishdhari TR

Mukandra Hills ●​ Chambal River

ifi

Tamil Nadu Srivilliputhur Megamalai TR ●​ Vaigai river

pl
m

Sathyamangalam ●​ Largest TR in TN, part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

●​ good link between the Eastern Ghats and the
Si

Western Ghats.

Mudumalai TR ●​
C

Kalakkad - Mundanthurai TR ●​
PS

Anamalai TR ●​ Aliyar, Amaravathi river

U

Telangana Kawal TR ●​ Godadvari river (nearby)

Amrabad TR ●​ Located in Nallamala Hills, home to Chenchu tribes,

rich biodiversity.
●​ Krishna River

Uttar Pradesh Ranipur TR ●​ Betwa river

Pilibhit TR

Dudhwa TR ●​ Only TR in UP with Tigers and Rhinos together.

 94

●​ Girwa river

Uttarakhand Rajaji TR ●​ Ganga River

Corbett TR ●​ First TR under Project Tiger, known for highest

tiger density.
●​ Ramganga

West Bengal Sunderbans TR ●​ Largest mangrove forest, home to Royal Bengal

Tigers. UNESCO WHS.

Buxa TR ●​ Raidak river

n
ee
Elephant Reserves Project elephant- Elephant maximus- 1992- Centrally sponsored: Protect

sl
elephants, their habitat, migration routes, and address human-elephant conflict.
Elephant Reserves: 33 reserves exist across 16 states; 101 elephant corridors

Ja
have been identified by the Wildlife Trust of India (Noida).. Karnataka> Assam>
Kerala
byDistribution: Mostly found in Southern Western Ghats, Northeast, East, Central,
and North India.
Legal Status:
●​ Not notified under any specific law.
ed
●​ Elephant Reserves ≠ Protected Areas (WLPA, 1972) → Permits activities
like mining, drilling, dams.
●​ Elephant Corridors : no legal recognition.
ifi

●​ Notified by MoEFCC in consultation with states

2010: Declared National Heritage Animal, but no legal protection followed.
pl

●​ The elephant numbers have not increased or decreased drastically but there
is an increasing pressure on the elephant habitats.
m

●​ Characteristics
○​ Form herds of related females led by the oldest female, the 'matriarch'.
○​ Have the longest gestation period of all mammals (18 to 22 months).
Si

●​ RE-HAB Project is an innovative way of preventing elephant–human conflicts

without causing any harm
C
PS
U
 95

n
ee
National Parks

sl
Ganga River
●​ Rajaji National Park (Uttarakhand) – Ganga River. (Jim corbett- Ramganga)

Ja
Yamuna River tributary
●​ Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) – Banganga and Gambhir (Yamuna system).
Brahmaputra River by
●​ Kaziranga National Park (Assam) –Brahmaputra
●​ Manas National Park (Assam) – Manas River.
●​ Dibru-Saikhowa National Park (Assam) –Dibru and Brahmaputra Rivers
ed
Indus River
●​ Hemis National Park (Ladakh) – Indus River.
Narmada River tributary
ifi

●​ Satpura National Park (Madhya Pradesh) –Denwa River

Godavari River
pl

●​ Papikonda National Park (Andhra Pradesh) – Godavari River.

●​ Pench NP (Maharashtra & Madhya Pradesh) – On the Pench River, a Godavari tributary.
m

Krishna River
●​ Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (Andhra Pradesh & Telangana) – Krishna River.
Si

Kaveri (Cauvery) River tributary

●​ Mudumalai National Park (Tamil Nadu) and bandipore – Moyar River, a Kaveri tributary.
●​ Nagarhole National Park (Karnataka) – Kabini River
C

Punjab is the only state in India that has no designated national park
PS

Assam West to East (R MONK DsP)

1. Raimona National Park
2. Manas National Park (WHS/ TR / ER / BR)
3. Orang National Park and Tiger Reserve (NP/TR)
U

4. Nameri National Park (TR)

5. Kaziranga National Park
●​ UNESCO WHS (Natural), TR, IBA.
●​ Hosts two-thirds of the world's Indian
rhinoceroses
●​ Brahmaputra, Mora Diphlu, Mora Dhansiri
6. Dibru - Saikhowa National Park (BR)
7. Dehing Patkai National Park (ER)
 96

Nagaland 1.​ Ntangki

Meghalaya Megha ke Nakli Bal

1. Nokrek (BR) / (BD hotspot)
2. Balpakram

Manipur Man Jao Shreya

1. Keibul Lamjao
●​ only floating national park in the world, part
of Loktak Lake
●​ Floating decomposed plant material locally
called phumdi

n
●​ Flagship species - Sangai or Eld’s deer (CR)

ee
●​ "too deep to be marsh, too shallow to be a lake"
2. Shirui

sl
Mizoram 1. Murlen NP
2. Phawngpui Blue Mountain NP

Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m

Tripura 1. Bison (Rajbari) NP

2. Clouded Leopard NP (Phayre’s langur found)
Si

Only three national parks in India on the name of

[Link]: Blackbuck National Park, Gujarat
C
PS
U

Arunachal Pradesh 1.​ Namdapha NP

a.​ World’s northernmost (27 deg N) lowland
evergreen rainforests
b.​ The climate of this area varies from
tropical to subtropical, temperate and
 97

arctic.
c.​ Namdapha flying squirrel- endemic to the
park and CR
d.​ Only park in the World to have the four
Feline species of big cat, namely: Tiger,
Leopard, Snow Leopard and Clouded
Leopard.
e.​ Located b/w Mishmi Hills and the Patkai
range.
f.​ Noa Dihing River flows here.
2.​ Mouling NP

n
ee
Sikkim 1.​ Khangchendzonga National Park/Biosphere

sl
Reserve
a.​ first "Mixed Heritage" site of India (Fulfils

Ja
natural + cultural criteria) as Tholung
monastery located
b.​ Lepcha tribes

Andhra Pradesh
by
PaVeRS
●​ Papikonda NP
ed
○​ Godavari river
○​ A unique dwarf breed of Goat known
locally as the “kanchu mekha”
ifi

●​ Sri Venkateswara NP
●​ Rajiv Gandhi/ Rameshwaram NP
pl

○​ Penneru river flows.

●​ Seshachalam BR
○​ Tirupati and Red sanders located here
m
Si
C

Karnataka Anshi Ko Puri (wHole) Bandi Bana

PS

●​ Anshi NP
●​ Kudremukh NP
○​ source of major rivers like Tunga, Bhadra
U

and Nethravathi rivers.

○​ shola-grassland biome
○​ Single largest contiguous populations of
Lion Tailed Macaque
●​ Nagarahole NP
○​ Rivers- Kabini, Lakshmanteertha
●​ Bandipur NP
○​ Part of Nilgiri biosphere reserve
●​ Bannerghatta NP
 98

n
ee
sl
Kerala Yar Ira, Silent hoke Shoja
●​ Periyar National Park

Ja
○​ Periyar & Pamba rivers
○​ Lies in Anamalai hills- one of the
by centres in the Western Ghats with a
high percentage of endemism. (Teak,
Rosewood, Sandalwood, Salim Ali's fruit
bat)
ed
●​ Eravikulam National Park
○​ The land of “Neelakurinji”. (12 years
bloom; Paliyan tribal people calculate
ifi

age from it.)

○​ Anamudi is located here.
pl

●​ Silent Valley National Park

○​ Kunthipuzha river
m

●​ Mathikettan Shola National Park

●​ Anamudi Shola National Park
●​ Pambadum Shola National Park
Si
C

Tamil Nadu ●​ Guindy NP

PS

●​ Mudumalai NP
●​ Indira Gandhi NP (Anamalai TR)
●​ Mukurthi NP (Shola forests)
●​ Gulf of Mannar Marine NP
U
 99

n
ee
sl
Ja
Telangana ●​ Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park-
Located in Jubilee Hills and Banjara Hills in
byHyderabad
●​ Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park- It is
deer national park located in Hyderabad
●​ Mrugavani National Park
ed
ifi
pl
m

Maharashtra ●​ Borivari (Sanjay) NP

○​ Kanheri caves
Si

○​ Karvi Shrub: Lavender Bloom once in 8

years
C

●​ Chandoli NP
●​ Navegaon NP
PS

●​ Pench NP
○​ MP- MH border
○​ Mentioned in book ‘The Jungle book
●​ Guggamal NP
U

●​ Tadoba NP

Madhya pradesh ●​ Maadhav NP

●​ Panna NP
 100

●​ Bandhavgarh NP- Johilla originates

●​ Satpura NP
●​ Vanvihar NP
●​ Kuno NP
○​ Trib of Chambal
○​ all four of India’s big cats,
●​ Kanha NP
●​ Fossil NP
●​ Sanjay NP

n
ee
sl
Odisha Bhitarkanika National Park (RS)
●​ 2nd largest mangrove site in India.

Ja
●​ Largest population of the Least Concern
Saltwater crocs in India ( largest living reptile)
by●​ Located in the estuary of Brahmani, Baitarani,
Dhamra & Mahanadi river
●​ India’s Largest Heronry (a breeding
●​ colony of herons).
ed

Similipal BR/ NP/TR

●​ Sal forest, Mugger, 12 rivers, Indian Trogon
ifi
pl
m
Si
C

Goa ●​ Mollem National Park or Bhagwan Mahavir

PS

Wildlife Sanctuary

Jharkhand ●​ Betla National Park

U

○​ Chota Nagpur Plateau

○​ North Koel River.

Bihar ●​ Valmiki National Park (TR)- Gandak River

West Bengal ●​ Sundarban NP

●​ Neora Valley NP
●​ (Sang) Singalila NP
●​ Jaldapara NP
●​ Buxa NP
●​ Gorumara NP
 101

Chattisgarh ●​ Guru Ghasidas National Park.

○​ Chota Nagpur plateau
○​ Sal.
●​ Indravati National Park (TR)
○​ Indravati River
○​ Wild Asian Buffalo
●​ Kanger ghati NP
○​ 2nd protected area in the country, after
Similipal in Odisha to recognize
Community forest rights under FRA 2006
○​ Kanger river and Tirathgarh Waterfall

n
J&K ●​ Kishtwar NP
●​ Dachigam NP- Zabarwan Range, Kashmiri stag

ee
(hangul) endemic here (CR)
●​ City Forest
●​ Kazinag

sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi

Ladakh ●​ Hemis
○​ Largest national park
pl

○​ One of the most important natural

habitats for the snow leopard
○​ Argali /great Tibetan sheep/ bharal/
m

blue sheep
Si

Himachal Pradesh ●​ Pin Valley

●​ Simbalbara
●​ Khirganga
C

●​ Inderkilla
●​ Great Himalayan NP
PS

○​ World Heritage Site

○​ Junction between two of the world’s
major biogeographic realms, the
U

Palearctic and Indomalayan Realms.

Uttarakhand ●​ Govind NP
●​ Gangotri NP
●​ Corbett NP
○​ 1st National Park and 1st Tiger Reserve
○​ Ramganga, Sonanadi, Kosi
○​ Highest density of tigers among TRs
○​ It is one of the thirteen protected areas
covered by the WWF under their Terai
Arc Landscape Program
 102

●​ Rajaji NP (Ganga river)

●​ Nanda Devi NP (Nandakini river)
●​ Valley of Flowers NP
○​ Part of Nanda devi BR

n
ee
Haryana ●​ Kalesar NP, WLS
●​ Sultanpur NP (Ramsar)

sl
UP Dudhwa TR, NP
●Terai belt

Ja
● Dudhwa TR = Dudhwa NP + Kishanpur WLS +
Katarniaghat WLS.
● Indian rhinoceros (VU) was reintroduced into Dudhwa
by
from Pobitora Sanctuary (Assam).
ed
Rajasthan ● Desert National Park
●​ Only place where Rajasthan State Bird (Great
Indian Bustard), State animal (Chinkara) and
ifi

State tree (Khejri- protected by Bishnois) and

State flower (Rohida) are found naturally.
pl

● Ranthambore ( Banas and Chambal )

● Sariska
m

● Keoladeo Ghana
●​ RS, UNESCO WHS. (Montreux Protocol)
Si

●​ Only regular wintering area in India for the

Siberian crane (CR).
● Mukundra Hills
C

Gujarat ●​ Vansda National Park

PS

●​ Marine National Park- (Gulf of Kutch) is

situated in the Dwarka area. (Biorock project
started here)
●​ Blackbuck/ Velavadar NP
U

●​ Gir National Park- Maldharis community of

tribals (the Grazers)
 103

Andaman and Nicobar Islands ●​ Mount Harriett NP (Mount Manipur NP)

○​ (Near Port Blair in South Andaman.)
●​ Galathea, Campbell- part of Great nicobar BR

n
ee
sl
Ja
Wildlife Sanctuary
●​ Largest no- A&N Is> MH
by
●​ Sonanadi WLS- Uttarakhand
●​ Wayanad WLS- Kabini River
●​ Changthang Cold Desert Wildlife Sanctuary- Indus River
ed
○​ First dark sky reserve at Hanle in Ladakh
○​ Home to highest altitude water lakes, namely, Tso Moriri (a Ramsar
Wetland site), Pangong Tso and Tso Kar.
ifi
pl
m
Si
C

●​ National Chambal Sanctuary- UP

●​ Tal Chhapar Blackbuck Sanctuary- Rajasthan
PS

●​ Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary (Tripura)

●​ Dugong Conservation Reserve- TN- India’s first in Marine NP
U

Extras

Places in News
●​ Drying Lakes
a.​ Lake Poopó (Bolivia): due to prolonged drought and climate change
b.​ Lake Titicaca (Peru–Bolivia): Facing record-low water levels from El Niño.
c.​ Lake Puraquequara (Brazil): Amazon drought has nearly emptied the lake.
●​ Dzuko Valley- Manipur
●​ Ziro Valley- Arunachal
●​ Araku Valley- Andhra
 104

●​ The Jordan River flows into the Dead Sea (the Dead Sea has been shrinking over
time)
●​ The Gulf of Aqaba/ Eilat is a northeastern extension of the Red Sea, located
between the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt) and the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia)
a.​ Aqaba (Jordan) and Eilat (Israel)

n
ee
sl
Ja
●​
by
●​ Kosi Mechi project-
a.​ Mechi is a tributary of mahananda river (mahananda meets ganga in
bangladesh)
ed
b.​ To overcome sorrow of bihar
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS

●​
●​ Scarbrough shoal- disputed between philippines and china
U
 105

n
ee
sl
●​
●​ Sudan - humanitarian crises due to ethnic conflict & displacement crisis

Ja
●​ DRC - M23 rebels captured its largest city Goma & Bukavu

by
ed
ifi

a.​
pl

●​ Arabian peninsula = 7 countries -

m
Si
C
PS

a.​
b.​ Saudi arabia (80%), Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, UAE, Yemen, Bahrain,
U

c.​ Iraq, Jordan

 106

n
ee
sl
●​

Ja
●​ Hungry Slave Molds Red Rocks in Bela Patti
●​ A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country),
aimed at taking control of the country or a region, achieving independence, or
by
changing government policies
a.​ Sudan (2023)- Sudanese Armed Forces vs. Rapid Support Forces (RSF)
b.​ Myanmar (2021)
ed
c.​ Ethiopia (2020) – Tigray conflict
d.​ Cameroon (2016) – Anglophone separatist groups
e.​ Yemen (2014) – Houthi rebels
ifi

f.​ South Sudan (December 2013)

g.​ Syria (2011) – Kurdish groups
pl

h.​ DRC (1998)

i.​ Somalia (1991) – al-Shabaab
m

j.​ Israel–Palestine (1948).

●​ Lakes Kivu (Rwanda–DR Congo), Kariba (Zambia–Zimbabwe), and Naivasha
Si

(Kenya) lie along or near the East African Rift Valley, formed by tectonic plate
separation.
●​ Lake retba- senegal- halophilic green algae making it pink
C

●​ Grand ethiopian dam- blue nile

●​ The Persian Gulf is bordered by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar,
PS

United Arab Emirates (UAE),and Oman (via the Strait of Hormuz).

U

●​ Kharg island- Iran

●​ Persian Gulf- QUIIK SOB- Qatar, UAE, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi, Oman, Bahrain.
 107

●​ Gulf of oman- uae, oman, iran

●​ Tigris & Euphrates- Turkey, syria, Iraq- Shatt- el arra
●​ North Sea- For U Burgers are Neither Good Nor Disgusting (Finland, UK, Belgium,
Netherlands, Germany, Norway, denmark)- silverpit crater
●​ Abraham accords- UAE and bahrain were first. Kazakhstan is latest.
●​ Op sindhu- iran- israel; Op brahma- myanmar

n
ee
sl
Ja
by
ed
ifi
pl
m
Si
C
PS
U