Unit 0: Science Practices Guided Notes
● Apply psychological perspectives, theories, concepts, and research
findings.
● Evaluate qualitative and quantitative research methods and study
designs.
● Evaluate representations of psychological concepts in quantitative and
qualitative research, including tables, graphs, charts, figures, and
diagrams.
● Develop and justify psychological arguments using evidence.
Topic Learning Objective
Identify psychology-related concepts in descriptions or
Unit 0
representations of data.
Explain how cultural norms, expectations, and circumstances,
as well as cognitive biases apply to behavior and mental
0.1
processes.
Psychologica
l Science
Evaluate the appropriate use of research design elements in
and
experimental AND non-experimental methodology.
Research
Design
Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a
given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram.
Determine the type of research design(s) used in a given
study.
0.2 Non-
Evaluate the appropriate use of research design elements in
Experimenta
non-experimental methodologies.
l Research
Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a
given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram.
Determine the type of research design(s) used in a given
study.
0.3
Evaluate the appropriate use of research design elements in
Experimenta
experimental methodology.
l Research
Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a
given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram.
Calculate and interpret measures of central tendency,
0.4 variation, and percentile rank in a given data set.
Statistical
Reasoning Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a
given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram.
0.5 Ethics in Evaluate whether a psychological research scenario followed
Research appropriate ethical procedures.
Psychological Science and Research Design
Psychology:
Critical thinking: A form of directed, problem-focused thinking in which the
individual tests ideas or possible solutions for errors or drawbacks. It is
essential to such activities as examining the validity of a hypothesis or
interpreting the meaning of research results.
Cognitive Biases
Hindsight bias: The tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate
the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen.
Overconfidence: A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of
one’s actual ability to perform a task successfully, by a belief that one’s
performance is better than that of others, or by
excessive certainty in the accuracy of one’s beliefs.
Confirmation bias: The tendency to gather evidence that confirms
preexisting expectations, typically by emphasizing or pursuing supporting
evidence while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence.
Elements of Research Design
Hypothesis: People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a
common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-
stress levels.
The ability to prove something wrong.
What is falsifiability?
Operational definition: Precise parameters or qualification - necessary for
replication
Why is it important to To make sure an initial hypothesis is provable
operationalize within and correct.
a study?
Outcomes
Reliability: Consistency
Validity: Accuracy
Reliable, but not valid Unreliable and Reliable and
valid
hence not valid
Generalizability: The extent of which a group of people can be assumed to
have the same idea.
Representation
Population Sample
Sampling: Taking only a bit from a population to test it on something.
Sampling bias: When some people in a population are more likely to be
picked than others.
Convenience sampling: People chosen for sampling that are easier to
access than others.
Representative sample: Uses a little of a population to make an inference
about the whole of a population.
Random sampling: Picking random members of a population to test them on
something.
So you can know what the public is
knowing/thinking about a topic.
Why is it crucial to
have a representative
sample?
Measurement Instruments
Qualitative research Quantitative research
Deals with numerical data.
Deals with largely non-numerical
data
Example(s) Example(s)
Pie chart Graph
Survey Method
Survey
How can surveys be
If the study includes opinions from the public, maybe
used in other types of
a survey could help.
studies?
Pros Cons
People can lie.
Learn public opinion.
Self-report bias: Might rate themselves higher or lower than they actually
are.
Social desirability bias: Might only say opinions the public agrees with.
Conclusions
Peer review: Having a group of people in the same field as you look over
your work.
Replication: The act of repeating an experiment.
To make sure an experiment is repeatable and
Why is replication credible.
important?
Non-Experimental Research
What benefit can non-
experimental research Scientists can study out in the natural world
have within than a stimulated environment.
psychological science?
What limitation does all
Lacks manipulation, control and has no cause
non-experimental
and effect.
research have?
Case Study
Case study: In-depth investigation of an individual or small group who may
have a highly unusual trait.
Pros Cons
Details of subjects No correlational data
Unique quality or situation No generalizability
Unethical treatment Time-consuming
Meta-Analysis
Meta-analysis: The statistical combination of results from two or more
separate studies.
Pros Cons
Pose and answer questions Applicability
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation: Observing & recording natural behavior.
Pros Cons
Ecological validity No manipulation
Correlation
Correlation: The extent to which two variables are related.
Pros Cons
Predict behavior Directionality problem
Third variable problem
Positive Correlation Negative Correlation No Correlation
What is the name for
these graphs that
demonstrate
correlation?
Correlational Coefficient
Correlational coefficient:
What should you
Simply stated, what What range does a
remember in reference
does a correlational correlational coefficient
to positive and
coefficient tell us? have?
negative?
Which correlational coefficient has a stronger relationship within the given
sets?
-.70 or +.65 +.08 or +.33
+.62 or -.89 -.54 or +.21
The first thing to look
at to determine the
value of a
correlational
coefficient & why:
The second thing to
look at to determine
the value of a
correlational
coefficient & why:
Considerations for Correlations
Correlation ≠ causation:
Directionality problem:
Third variable problem:
Regression toward the mean:
Experimental Methodology
Experiment:
Cause & effect
Independent variable
Random assignment
What sets the experimental method apart from the other types of
research methods?
In experiments, you’re actually testing on/with things
Elements of Experimentation
Experimental Group Control Group
Independent Variable Comparison
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Manipulated Measures
Placebo: Inert substance
Why would an To test the effects of something in comparison.
experiment need to
use a placebo?
Considerations
Additional Variables
Placebo effect: When someone’s health improves while taking a placebo,
purely because they believed it would help.
Because it’s tricking somebody.
What negative effects
can a placebo have?
Confounding variable:
What are some
examples of
confounding
variables?
Random assignment:
How is this different
from a random
sample?
What is the purpose of
random assignment?
Is this only used in the
experimental method?
Bias
Participant bias:
What are some
examples of
participant bias?
Experimenter bias:
What are some
examples of
researcher bias?
Single blind:
Double blind:
When is it appropriate
to use one or the
other?
Statistical Reasoning
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean:
Median:
Mode:
Which measure of
central tendency is
most impacted by
outliers?
Measures of Variation
Range:
Standard deviation:
Explain standard
deviation in a way
that makes sense to
you.
Normal curve:
Percentile rank:
Explain percentile
rank in a way that
makes sense to you.
Give an example if
helpful.
Skewness
Bell Curve- Negative Skew Bell Curve- Positive Skew
What should you be
paying attention to
when deciding what
type of skew it is?
Bimodal Distribution
Bimodal distribution:
Give an example of a
bimodal distribution.
Inferential Statistics
What factors influence
whether data can be
generalized?
Statistical significance:
What does statistical
significance mean?
Effect size:
What does effect size
communicate?
Ethics in Research
Laboratory Setting
What limitations and
benefits does the
laboratory setting
have for research?
Institutional Review
Institutional review:
What is the
importance of
institutional review?
Ethical Guidelines
Informed Consent
Informed consent:
Informed assent:
Protection from Harm
Protection from harm:
Confidentiality
Confidentiality:
Debriefing
Debriefing:
Deception:
Confederate: