IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

MODULE 2
CANALS
A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape, constructed on the ground to
carry water to the fields either from a river or tank or reservoir.
If the full supply level (FSL) of a canal is below the natural ground surface, an open cut or
excavation is necessary to construct a canal. If the FSL of the canal is above the existing
ground level, the canal is constructed by providing earthen banks on both sides. In the first
case the channel is called a canal in cutting and in the second case it is called a canal in
filling. Sometimes a canal can be of the intermediate type and the channel is called a canal in
partial cutting and Partial filling.

TYPES / CLASSIFICATION OF CANALS:

The irrigation canals can be classified in different ways based on the following
considerations.
1. Classification based on the nature of source of supply:
a) Permanent canals
b) Inundation canals
➢ A permanent canal is one which draws water from a permanent source of supply. The
canal in such cases is made as a regular graded canal (fixed slope). It is provided with
permanent regulation and distribution works. A permanent canal may also be perennial
canal or nonperennial canal depending on whether the source supplying water is a
perennial one or a nonperennial.
➢ An inundation canal is one which draws water from a river when the water level in the
river is high or the river is in floods. These canals are not provided with any regulatory
works, but an open cut is made in the banks of the canal to divert water.
2. Classification based on the function of the canal:
a) Feeder canals
b) Carrier canals
c) Navigation canals
d) Power canals
➢ A feeder canal is constructed for the purpose of supplying water to two or more canals
only but not directly irrigating the fields.
➢ A carrier canal carries water for irrigating the fields and also feeds other canals for their
needs.
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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

➢ A canal serving the purpose of in-land navigation is called a navigation canal.

➢ A power canal supplies water to a hydro electric power generation plant for generation of
electrical power.

3. Classification based on the discharge and its relative importance in a

given network of canals:

a) Main canal
b) Branch canal
c) Major distributory
d) Minor distributory
e) Water course or Field channel

➢ A main canal is the principal canal in a network of irrigation canals. It directly takes off

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

from a river, reservoir or a feeder canal. It has large capacity and supplies water to branch
canals and even to major distributaries.
➢ Branch canals take off from a main canal on either side at regular intervals. They carry a
discharge of about 5 cumec and are not usually used to directly irrigate the fields.
➢ A major distributory takes off a branch canal or a main canal. It has a discharge capacity
of 0.25 to 5 cumec. They are used for direct irrigation and also to feed minor
distributaries.
➢ Minor distributaries are canals taking off from the branch canals and major distributaries.
They carry a discharge less than 0.25 cumec. These canals supply water to field channels.
➢ A water course or field channel takes off from either a major or minor distributory or a
branch canal also. These are constructed and maintained by the cultivators/farmers. The
other canals are constructed and maintained by the government or the Command Area
Development Authority.
4. Classification based on Canal alignment:
a) Ridge canal or watershed canal
b) Contour canal
c) Side slope canal
A contour canal is one which is aligned nearly parallel to the contours of the
country/area. These canals can irrigate the lands on only one side. The ground level on one side
is higher and hence bank on the higher side may not be necessary.
➢ A contour canal may be intercepted by natural streams/drains and hence cross drainage
works may be essential.
➢ A Side slope canal is one which is aligned at right angles to the contour of the
country/area. It is a canal running between a ridge and a valley. This canal is not
intercepted by streams and hence no cross drainage works may be essential. This canal
has steep bed slope since the ground has steep slope in a direction perpendicular to the
contours of the country/area.

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

5. Classification based on the financial output:

a) Productive canals
b) Protective canals
➢ A productive canal is one which is fully developed and earns enough revenue for its
running and maintenance and also recovers the cost of its initial investment. It is essential
the cost of its initial investment is recovered within 16 years of construction.
➢ Protective canals are those constructed at times of famine to provide relief and
employment to the people of the area. The revenue from such a canal may not be
sufficient for its maintenance. The investment may also not be recovered within the
stipulated time.

6. Classification based on the soil through which they are constructed:

a) Alluvial canals
b) Non-alluvial canals.
➢ Canals constructed in alluvial soils are known as alluvial canals. Alluvial soils are found
in the Indo-Gangetic plains of North India. The alluvial soils can be easily scoured and
deposited by water.
➢ Canals constructed through hard soils or disintegrated rocks are called non-alluvial
canals. Such soils are usually found in Central and South India.

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

7. Classification based on lining being provided or not:

a) Unlined canals
b) Lined canals
➢ An unlined canal is one which the bed and banks of the canal are made up of natural soil
through which it is constructed. A protective lining of impervious material is not
provided. The velocity of flow is kept low such that bed and banks are not scoured.
➢ A lined canal is one which is provide with a lining of impervious material on its banks
and beds, to prevent the seepage of water and also scouring of banks and bed. Higher
velocity for water can be permitted in lined canals and hence cross sectional area can be
reduced.

CANAL ALIGNMENT
In aligning an irrigation canal, the following points must be considered.
1. An irrigation canal should be aligned in such a way that maximum area is irrigated with
least length of canal.
2. Cross drainage works should be avoided as far as possible, such that the cost is reduced.
3. The off taking point of the canal from the source should be on a ridge, such that the canal
must run as a ridge canal and irrigate lands on both sides.
4. Sharp curves in canals must be avoided.
5. In hilly areas, when it is not possible to construct ridge canals, the canal must be made to
run as a contour canal.
6. The canal should be aligned such that the idle length of the canal is minimum.
7. The alignment should be such that heavy cutting or heavy filling are avoided. If possible
balanced depth of cutting and filling is achieved.
8. It should not be aligned in rocky and cracked strata.
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9. The alignment should avoid villages, roads, places of worship and other obligatory points.

DRAW BACKS IN KENNEDY‘S THEORY:

1. Kutters equation is used for determining the mean velocity of flow and hence the
limitations of kutter‘s equation are incorporated in Kennedy’s theory.
2. The significance of B/D ratio is not considered in the theory
3. No equation for the bed slope has been given which may lead to varied designs of the
channel with slight variation in the bed slope.

4. Silt charge and silt grade are not considered. The complex phenomenon of silt
transportation is incorporated in a single factor are called critical velocity ratio.
5. The value of m is decided arbitrarily since there is no method given for determining its
value.
6. This theory is aimed to design only an average regime channel.
7. The design of channel by the method based on this theory involves trial and error which is
quite cumbersome.

UNLINED AND LINED CANALS: A COMPARATIVE OVERVIEW

Canals are artificial waterways constructed for irrigation, drainage, water supply, and
navigation. They can be classified into lined and unlined canals based on whether their beds
and sides are reinforced with impermeable materials.
2. Unlined Canals
Unlined canals are excavated earthen channels without any protective lining. They rely on
natural soil to retain water and are commonly used in regions with low permeability soils.
Characteristics
⬛ Lower initial construction cost
✓
✓ Easier and faster to construct
⬛
✓ Allows groundwater recharge
⬛
✓ Suitable for temporary or seasonal water conveyance
⬛
Disadvantages
+ High seepage losses, leading to water wastage
+ Soil erosion and instability along the canal banks
+ Weed growth, leading to reduced water flow
+ Lower efficiency, especially in sandy or porous soil conditions
Best Suited For
◆ Areas with clayey soils (which naturally reduce seepage)
◆ Short-term irrigation projects
◆ Regions with abundant water supply
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3. Lined Canals
Definition
Lined canals have impermeable surfaces such as concrete, stone, brick, or geomembrane to
reduce seepage and improve water conveyance efficiency.
Characteristics
✓ Minimized water loss due to seepage reduction
⬛
⬛ Increased flow velocity and efficiency
✓
⬛ Prevention of weed growth and soil erosion
✓
✓ Lower maintenance costs in the long run
⬛
Disadvantages
+ Higher initial construction cost
+ Less groundwater recharge
+ Requires skilled labor for construction
+ Potential cracking or damage over time
Best Suited For
◆ Water-scarce regions where seepage losses must be minimized
◆ Large-scale irrigation and drinking water supply projects
◆ Steep or unstable terrains prone to erosion

4. Types of Canal Linings

1. Concrete Lining – Most durable, widely used for irrigation canals.
2. Brick or Stone Lining – Cost-effective but requires maintenance.
3. Clay Lining – Natural and eco-friendly but less durable.
4. Plastic or Geomembrane Lining – Used in modern irrigation, prevents seepage
effectively.
5. Asphalt Lining – Flexible, used in specialized applications.

5. Comparison Table

Feature Unlined Canal Lined Canal

Seepage Loss High Low

Construction Cost Low High

Maintenance High Low

Durability Less Durable Highly Durable

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Feature Unlined Canal Lined Canal

Efficiency Lower Higher

Erosion Risk High Low

Weed Growth More Minimal

The choice between lined and unlined canals depends on cost, soil type, water availability,
and project duration. Lined canals are more efficient but costly, while unlined canals are
cheaper but prone to seepage and maintenance issues.

Unlined Canals Lined Canals

Design of Canals Using Lacey’s and Kennedy’s Methods

The design of irrigation canals is crucial to ensure efficient water conveyance with minimal
losses. Two widely used empirical methods for canal design are Lacey’s Method and
Kennedy’s Method.
1. Lacey’s Theory for Canal Design
Introduction
Lacey’s theory (1939) is based on the concept of regime flow, which states that a canal will
maintain a stable section if it carries silt-laden water at a velocity that neither scours nor
deposits silt.
Key Assumptions
1. The canal is in regime condition, meaning it has adjusted its section naturally over
time.
2. No silting or scouring occurs in a regime channel.
3. The flow is fully developed and is influenced by the properties of the transported silt.

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Lacey’s Equations
1. Regime Velocity (V)
V=0.64(f⋅R)0.5V = 0.64 \left( f \cdot R \right)^{0.5}V=0.64(f⋅R)0.5
where:
o VVV = Mean velocity (m/s)
o RRR = Hydraulic radius (m)
o fff = Silt factor (depends on particle size)
2. Regime Width (W)
W=4.83⋅Q0.5W = 4.83 \cdot Q^{0.5}W=4.83⋅Q0.5
where:
o WWW = Canal width (m)
o QQQ = Discharge (m³/s)
3. Regime Depth (D)
D=0.47⋅Q0.33D = 0.47 \cdot Q^{0.33}D=0.47⋅Q0.33
4. Lacey’s Slope Formula
S=fQ0.5S = \frac{f}{Q^{0.5}}S=Q0.5f
where:
o SSS = Longitudinal slope of the bed
o fff = Silt factor
o QQQ = Discharge (m³/s)
Advantages of Lacey’s Method
✓ Suitable for alluvial channels and rivers.
⬛
✓ Accounts for silt transportation.
⬛
✓ Ensures self-adjusting canal sections.
⬛
Limitations of Lacey’s Method
+ Does not consider sediment transport in detail.
+ Empirical in nature, may not be applicable to non-regime conditions.

2. Kennedy’s Theory for Canal Design

Introduction
Kennedy’s method (1895) is based on the critical velocity theory, where the canal velocity
should be just enough to prevent sediment deposition while avoiding erosion.
Key Assumptions
1. Silt carried in suspension is influenced by eddy currents generated by the flow.

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2. The critical velocity depends on depth and silt concentration.

Kennedy’s Equations
1. Critical Velocity (V₀) Formula
V0=CDnV_0 = C D^nV0=CDn
where:
o V0V_0V0 = Critical velocity (m/s)
o DDD = Depth of flow (m)
o CCC = Critical velocity coefficient (empirical)
o nnn = Constant (varies from 0.64 to 0.77)
2. Velocity Ratio (m)
m=VV0m = \frac{V}{V_0}m=V0V
where:
o VVV = Actual velocity
o V0V_0V0 = Critical velocity
Advantages of Kennedy’s Method
✓ Simple and widely used for canals in India.
⬛
✓ Works well for semi-stable channels.
⬛
✓ Does not require detailed silt analysis.
⬛
Limitations of Kennedy’s Method
+ Based on observation, lacks theoretical proof.
+ Cannot handle regime conditions.
+ Does not consider detailed silt transport mechanisms.

Comparison: Lacey vs. Kennedy Method

Feature Lacey’s Method Kennedy’s Method

Approach Regime theory (self-adjusting channel) Critical velocity concept

Uses critical velocity

Silt Handling Uses silt factor fff
V0V_0V0

Velocity V=0.64(fR)0.5V = 0.64 (f V0=CDnV_0 = C D^nV0

Formula R)^{0.5}V=0.64(fR)0.5 =CDn

Application Stable, natural channels Artificial irrigation canals

Empirical
More theoretical More observational
Basis

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

• Kennedy’s Method is simple but empirical, useful for irrigation canals with silt in
suspension.
• Lacey’s Method is more refined and applicable for natural, regime conditions with
self-adjusting sections.

DRAW BACKS IN LACEY‘S THEORY:

1. The theory does not give a clear description of physical aspects of the problem.
2. It does not define what actually governs the characteristics of an alluvial channel.
3. The derivation of various formulae depends upon a single factor f and dependence on
single factor f is not adequate.
4. There are different phases of flow on bed and sides and hence different values of silt
factor for bed and side should have been used.
5. Lacey‘s equations do not include a concentration of silt as variable.
6. Lacey did not take into account the silt left in channel by water that is lost in absorption
which is as much as 12 to 15% of the total discharge of channel.
7. The effect of silt accumulation was also ignored. The silt size does actually go on
decreasing by the process attrition among the rolling silt particles dragged along the bed.
8. Lacey did not properly define the silt grade and silt charge.
9. Lacey introduced semi ellipse as ideal shape of a regime channel which is not correct.

STANDARD SECTIONS IN CANAL DESIGN

The cross-section of a canal is designed based on hydraulic efficiency, stability, and structural
feasibility. There are several standard canal sections used in irrigation engineering:

1. Types of Standard Canal Sections

A. Trapezoidal Section (Most Common)

• Widely used in irrigation engineering due to simplicity and hydraulic efficiency.
• The sides are sloped, providing stability against erosion.
Design Parameters
• Top Width (T)
• Bottom Width (B)
• Depth (D)
• Side Slope (Z:1) (Z = horizontal distance per 1m vertical rise)
• Bed Slope (S)
Advantages
⬛ Hydraulically efficient for water conveyance.
✓
✓ Stable against erosion when lined.
⬛
✓ Easier to construct compared to complex sections.
⬛
Disadvantages
+ Requires more land width than rectangular sections.
+ Higher seepage losses if unlined.
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B. Rectangular Section
• Used where space is limited (e.g., urban areas, concrete-lined channels).
• Fully lined to reduce seepage losses.
Advantages
⬛ Requires less width, making it ideal for urban canals.
✓
✓ Best suited for lined canals, reducing seepage.
⬛
Disadvantages
+ More expensive due to lining requirements.
+ Hydraulically less efficient than trapezoidal sections.

C. Triangular Section (Rare)

• Used in small drainage channels and natural stream formations.
• Not commonly designed for large-scale irrigation projects.
Advantages
✓ Self-adjusting for sediment load.
⬛
✓ Used in hill regions and flood management.
⬛
Disadvantages
+ Less water-carrying capacity per unit width.
+ Difficult to construct and maintain.

D. Circular Section
• Used in closed conduits or drainage pipes.
• Applied in sewage systems and pressurized canal networks.
Advantages
✓ Best suited for underground water transportation.
⬛
⬛ Resists pressure forces better than open channels.
✓
Disadvantages
+ Limited accessibility for maintenance.
+ Not suitable for gravity-flow open channels.

2. Design Considerations for Canal Sections

1. Hydraulic Efficiency
o A wider, shallower section is better for reducing seepage losses.
o A narrower, deeper section is useful for high discharge in constrained spaces.
2. Stability Against Erosion
o Lining (concrete, brick, or stone) is used to prevent seepage and erosion.
o Proper side slopes (Z:1 ratio) are chosen based on soil type.
3. Seepage Control
o Lining reduces water loss.
o Compaction of earthen canals prevents excessive seepage.
4. Cost Efficiency
o Trapezoidal sections balance cost and efficiency.
o Lining increases cost but reduces maintenance.

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

The choice of canal section depends on hydraulic conditions, soil properties, available space, and
cost.
• Trapezoidal canals are most common for irrigation.
• Rectangular sections are used in urban or lined canals.
• Circular canals are found in piped or pressurized systems.

There is a detailed engineering diagram illustrating different standard canal sections, including
trapezoidal, rectangular, triangular, and circular designs.

Gross Command Area (GCA) in Irrigation

Definition:
Gross Command Area (GCA) refers to the total geographical area that can be irrigated by a
particular canal system or irrigation project, whether or not the entire area is actually cultivated.
It includes both cultivable and uncultivable lands within the irrigation command. Or
Gross command area (GCA) is the total area that can be economically irrigated by an irrigation
system. It includes both the cultivable and unculturable areas.
What does GCA include?
• The area of the command up to the farthest point that can be supplied water
• Un-culturable areas like ponds, houses, and barren lands
• The whole area enclosed between imaginary boundary lines
How is GCA calculated? GCA = CCA + Uncultivable area and CCA = GCA - Uncultivable
area.
What is the purpose of GCA?
• The GCA is used to calculate the water use efficiency (WUE) of an irrigation system
• It is also used to determine the intensity of irrigation for each crop season

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Types of Command Areas in Irrigation

1. Gross Command Area (GCA)
• The total area that falls within the command of an irrigation system.
• It includes both cultivable and non-cultivable land (e.g., forests, barren lands, roads,
settlements).
• Represents the maximum extent of land that can be covered by the irrigation network.
Example:
If a dam project has an irrigation network covering 50,000 hectares, then the GCA = 50,000
hectares.

2. Cultivable Command Area (CCA)

• The part of the GCA that is actually suitable for cultivation.
• Excludes non-arable lands such as forests, urban areas, and wastelands.
• This area is further divided into Irrigated CCA and Unirrigated CCA based on water
availability.
Example:
If out of 50,000 hectares of GCA, only 40,000 hectares are arable, then the CCA = 40,000
hectares.

3. Net Irrigated Area (NIA)

• The portion of the CCA that actually receives irrigation in a given season or year.
• Excludes land that remains unirrigated due to factors like water scarcity or farmer
preferences.
• Can be less than the CCA due to inadequate water distribution.
Example:
If only 30,000 hectares out of the 40,000 hectares of CCA receive irrigation, then the NIA =
30,000 hectares.

4. Irrigable Command Area (ICA)

• The part of the CCA that can be provided with assured irrigation under normal
conditions.
• Takes into account available water resources, soil type, and water conveyance efficiency.
Example:
If a canal network has technical limitations in delivering water to 5,000 hectares, the ICA =
35,000 hectares (out of 40,000 hectares of CCA).

Relation Between GCA, CCA, ICA, and NIA

GCA≥CCA≥ICA≥NIA
• Gross Command Area (GCA): Total area under the command of an irrigation project.
• Cultivable Command Area (CCA): Part of GCA that is arable.
• Irrigable Command Area (ICA): Portion of CCA that can be efficiently irrigated.
• Net Irrigated Area (NIA): Land actually receiving irrigation in a season.

GCA represents the total possible irrigation area, including both cultivable and non-
cultivable land.
CCA is the actual land that can be farmed, while ICA considers technical irrigation
feasibility.
NIA reflects real-time irrigation coverage, which may vary seasonally.

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

Here is a detailed infographic illustrating the relationship between Gross Command

Area (GCA), Cultivable Command Area (CCA), Irrigable Command Area (ICA), and Net
Irrigated Area (NIA) in irrigation systems.

The intensity of Irrigation: It is defined as the percentage of the culturable commanded

area proposed to be irrigated annually. The yearly intensity of irrigation may be obtained by
adding the intensity of irrigation for all the crop seasons.
The time factor in irrigation refers to the duration and scheduling of water application to
crops. It is crucial in ensuring optimal plant growth, preventing water wastage, and maintaining
soil health.
Key aspects of the time factor in irrigation include:
1. Irrigation Frequency
• How often water is applied, based on crop needs, soil moisture levels, and weather
conditions.
• Frequent irrigation may be required for sandy soils, while clayey soils retain moisture
longer.
2. Irrigation Duration
• The length of time water is applied in each irrigation cycle.
• Longer durations may lead to deep percolation losses, while shorter durations might not
meet crop requirements.

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3. Irrigation Scheduling
• Determining the best times for irrigation (e.g., early morning or late evening to reduce
evaporation losses).
• Methods include fixed-time scheduling (regular intervals) and real-time scheduling
(based on soil moisture sensors or weather conditions).
4. Soil Infiltration Rate
• The rate at which water enters the soil affects how long irrigation should last.
• Slow infiltration (e.g., in clayey soils) requires slower, prolonged irrigation to avoid
runoff.
5. Crop Growth Stage
• Different growth stages (germination, vegetative, flowering, and fruiting) have varying
water requirements.
• Overwatering during certain stages can cause diseases, while underwatering can reduce
yield.
6. Climatic Factors
• Temperature, humidity, and wind speed affect the timing of irrigation.
• In hot and dry conditions, more frequent irrigation may be needed.
Crop factor is a number that estimates how much water a crop needs to use, based on its
leaf area and other factors. It's used to calculate the amount of water to irrigate a crop.
The crop factor (Kc) is a coefficient that represents the water requirement of a specific crop
relative to reference evapotranspiration (ET₀). It is used in irrigation planning to determine the actual
evapotranspiration (ETc) of a crop.
Formula:
ETc=Kc×ET0
Where:
• ETc = Crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
• Kc = Crop coefficient (varies by crop and growth stage)
• ET₀ = Reference evapotranspiration (based on weather conditions, usually calculated
using the Penman-Monteith equation)
Example Crop Coefficients (Kc)
Mid-
Crop Initial Late-Season
Season
Wheat 0.3-0.5 1.1-1.2 0.5-0.7
Maize 0.4-0.5 1.2-1.3 0.6-0.8
Rice 0.6-0.7 1.2-1.4 0.8-0.9
Cotton 0.3-0.5 1.0-1.2 0.5-0.7

RESERVOIR A reservoir is a natural or artificial storage area for water, used for various
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purposes such as irrigation, drinking water supply, hydroelectric power generation, flood control,
and recreation.

INVESTIGATIONS FOR RESERVOIR:

Following are the investigations that are usually conducted for reservoir planning.
1. Engineering Investigations / Surveys
2. Geological Investigations
3. Hydrologic Investigations

Engineering investigations / surveys:

➢ Generally Engineering Surveys are conducted for the dam, the reservoir and their
associated works. During this investigation topographic survey of the area is carried out
and the contour plan is prepared. The horizontal control is usually provided by
triangulation survey and vertical control by precise leveling.
➢ At the dam site, very accurate triangulation survey is conducted and a contour plan to a
scale of 1:250 or 1:500 is generally prepared with contour intervals in the range of 1 to 2
m. Such a survey should cover an area at hart upto 200 m upstream 400 m downstream
and for adequate width beyond the two abutments.
➢ For the reservoir, the contour plan is generally prepared to a scale of 1:15,000 with
contour intervals between 2 to 3 m. The area elevation and storage elevation curves are
prepared for different elevations upto an elevation of 3 to 5 m higher than the anticipated
maximum water level.

Geological investigations:
Following are the reasons for carrying out the Geological investigations at a reservoir site:
➢ Suitability of foundation for the dam.
➢ Water tightness of the reservoir basis.
➢ Location of quarry sites for the construction.

Hydrological investigations:
Following purposes demand the hydrological investigations:
➢ To study the runoff pattern and to estimate yield.
➢ To determine the maximum discharge at the site.

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SELECTION OF SITE FOR A RESERVOIR

A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics:
➢ Large storage capacity: The topography of the proposed site should be such that the
reservoir has a large capacity for storing the water.
➢ Suitable site for the dam: A suitable site for the proposed dam should be available on the
downstream side of the reservoir, with very good foundation; narrow opening in the
valley to provide minimum length of the dam and also the cost of construction should be
minimum.
➢ Water tightness of the reservoir: Geology at the proposed reservoir site should be such
that the entire reservoir basin is water tight. They should have Granite, Gneiss, Schists,
Slates, or Shales etc.
➢ Good hydrological conditions: The hydrological conditions of the river at the reservoir
should give high yield. Evaporation, transpiration, and percolation losses should be
minimum.
➢ Deep reservoir: The proposed site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed after the
dam construction. The reason being evaporation losses would be minimum; in addition to
low cost of land acquisition and less weed growth.
➢ Small Submerged area: At the proposed site, the submerged area should be minimum and
should not affect the ecology of the area. Important places, monuments, roads, railway
lines should not sub merge.
➢ Minimum silt inflow: The life of reservoir is defined by the quantity of silt inflow, which
means that, if the silt inflow is large, the life would be less. Hence, it is necessary to select
the reservoir site at such a place, where the silt inflow is minimum.
➢ No objectionable minerals: The proposed site should be free from soluble and
objectionable salts, which may pollute the reservoir.
➢ Minimum acquisition and construction cost: The overall cost of the project should be
minimum in terms of dam construction, land acquisition for reservoir, buildings, roads,
railways etc.

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 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING (15CV73)

STORAGE ZONES OF A RESERVOIR:

1. Live Storage or useful storage: Is that amount of water available or stored between the
minimum pool level (LWL) and the full reservoir level (FRL). Minimum pool level or
low water level is fixed after considering the minimum working head required for the
efficient working of turbines.
2. Surcharge Storage: Is the volume of water stored above the full reservoir level (FRL) up
to the maximum water level (MWL) In case of a multipurpose reservoir, useful storage or
live storage is divided into A. Conservation storage B. Flood control storage
3. Dead storage: Is the volume of water held below the minimum pool level. This storage is
not useful and hence cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating conditions.
4. Bank storage: Water stored in the banks of a river is known as bank storage. In most of
the reservoirs the bank storage is small since the banks are generally impervious.
5. Valley storage: Is the volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley upto
the top of its banks before the construction of the reservoir. The valley storage depends
upon the cross section of the river, the length of the river and its water level.

DETERMINATION OF STORAGE CAPACITY USING MASS CURVES

Mass Curve is a graphical representation of cumulative volume of water in the reservoir Vs
cumulative time. It will be a continuously raising curve.
Fixing Capacity of a reservoir Capacity of a reservoir depends on the inflow and demand. It
is a fact that if the available inflow is more than the demand, there is no necessity of any
 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING (15CV73)

storage. On the other hand, if the inflow is less and demand is high a large reservoir capacity
is required. Capacity for a reservoir can be determined by the following methods
(i) Mass curve or graphical method
(ii) Analytical method
(iii) Flow duration curve method
Mass curve method or Graphical method
Storage required for uniform demand: In the case of uniform demand, the mass curve will be
a straight line.
The procedure adopted will be as follows:
1. Prepare the mass inflow curve for the flow hydrograph of the site for a number of
consecutive years including the most critical years (or the driest years) when the
discharge is low, Fig shows the mass inflow curve.
2. Prepare the mass demand curve corresponding to the given rate of demand. If the rate of
demand is constant, the mass demand curve is a straight line as shown in fig. 1.3. The
scale selected for plotting of the mass inflow and mass demand curve should be the same.

3. Draw the lines AB, FG etc. such that they are parallel to the mass demand curve, and they
are tangential to the peak points or crests at A, F etc. of the mass inflow curve points A,
F, etc. indicate the beginning of dry periods marked by the depressions.
4. Determine the vertical intercepts CD, HJ etc. between the tangential lines and the mass
economical height of a dam
5. curve. These intercepts indicate the volumes by which the inflow volumes fall short of
demand, which can be explained as follows:
 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

❖ Assuming that the reservoir is full at point A, the inflow volume during the period AE is equal to
ordinate DE and the demand is equal to ordinate CE. Thus the storage required is equal to the volume
intercepted by the intercept CD.
6. Determine the largest of the vertical intercept determined in step (4). The largest vertical intercept
represents the storage capacity required. Following import points have to be noted:
❖ The capacity obtained in the net storage capacity which must be available to meet the demand. The
gross capacity of the reservoir will be more than the net storage capacity. It is obtained by adding the
evaporation and seepage losses to the net storage capacity.
❖ The tangential lines AB, FG etc. when extended forward must interest the inflow curve. This is
necessary for the reservoir to get filled again. If these lines do not intersect the mass curve, the
reservoir would not fill again. Many times very large reservoirs may not get refilled every year.
❖ The vertical distance such as FL between the successive tangents represents the volume of water
flowing over the spillway.

ECONOMICAL HEIGHT OF A DAM

The economical height of a dam is the height at which the total cost of the dam, including
construction, maintenance, and operation, is minimized while ensuring maximum benefits such as
water storage, power generation, and flood control. Economical height of a dam refers to the height at
which the cost per unit storage is minimum. The cost per unit storage is calculated by dividing the total
cost of constructing the dam by the total storage capacity it provides. The economical height of a dam
is the height that yields the minimum cost per unit of storage. This means that while increasing the
dam's height initially reduces the cost per unit of storage, there's a point where further height increases
lead to higher costs, and the optimal height is the one that balances these factors.

• Cost per Unit Storage: When designing a dam, engineers consider the cost of construction versus the
amount of water storage the dam provides. The goal is to maximize storage capacity while minimizing
the cost per unit of storage.
• Initial Cost Reduction: As the dam's height increases, the cost per unit of storage initially decreases
because a taller dam can store more water with relatively less construction effort.
• Point of Diminishing Returns: However, there's a point where the cost of construction increases
disproportionately to the increase in storage capacity. This is because the engineering challenges and
 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

material requirements become more complex and costly with increased height.
• Optimized Height: The economical height is the point where the cost per unit of storage is at its
lowest, meaning that any further increase in height would result in a higher cost per unit of storage.

Factors Affecting the Economical Height of a Dam

1. Construction Cost: Increases with height due to materials, labor, and structural stability
requirements.
2. Storage Capacity: A higher dam allows for more water storage, benefiting irrigation,
hydroelectricity, and drinking water supply.
3. Benefit-Cost Ratio: The height should be such that the incremental benefits (water supply, power
generation) outweigh the increased construction and maintenance costs.
4. Foundation and Geological Conditions: Stronger foundations can support higher dams without
excessive costs for additional reinforcement.
5. Hydrological Considerations: Ensuring sufficient water availability to justify the chosen height.
6. Safety and Environmental Impact: Higher dams may increase risks such as flooding and
environmental damage, affecting overall feasibility.
7. Site Geology: The type of rock and soil at the dam site can affect the feasibility and cost of
construction.
8. Seismic Activity: Dams in earthquake-prone areas require more robust designs, which can increase
construction costs.
9. Environmental Considerations: The environmental impact of the dam, such as the loss of habitat, can
also influence the optimal height.
10. Benefit/Cost Analysis: A thorough analysis of the benefits of the dam (e.g., water supply,
hydropower) compared to the costs is crucial in determining the optimal height.

Determination of Economical Height

• The cost (C) of constructing a dam generally follows an exponential relationship with height (H):

• where a and b are constants depending on materials and construction techniques.

• The revenue (R) generated by the dam is linked to the water volume stored and its use.
• The economical height is found where the difference between revenue and cost is maximized, i.e.,
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

when:
• Practically, graphical or numerical methods are used to find this optimal point.

Diagram of Economical Height of a Dam

Here is a technical diagram illustrating the concept of the economical height of a dam.