Power System Stability Analysis
Description of power system states
Classification of power system stability
Application of Analytical methods to
improve power system stability limit.
Description of power system states
Introduction to Power system stability principles
▪ Power system stability is a critical aspect of electrical
engineering that ensures the reliable and secure operation of
electric power systems.
✓It involves the study and analysis of the dynamic behavior
of the system under various operating conditions to maintain
equilibrium and avoid disruptions.
▪ Instability in a power system may be manifested in many
different ways depending on the system configuration and
operating mode.
▪ Traditionally, the stability problem has been one of maintaining
synchronous operation.
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Description of power system states
Introduction to Power system stability principles
▪ Since power systems rely on synchronous machines for generation of
electrical power, a necessary condition for satisfactory system
operation is that all synchronous machines remain in synchronism
or colloquially, “ in step”.
▪ This aspect of stability is influenced by the dynamics of generator
rotor angles and power angle relationships.
▪ The power system is highly nonlinear system that operates in a
constantly changing environment; loads, generator outputs and key
operating parameters change continually.
▪ When subjected to a disturbance, the stability of the system depends
on the initial operating condition as well as the nature of the
disturbance.
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Description of power system states
Definitions
▪ The Steady state stability limit is the maximum power that can be
transferred by a machine to receiving system without loss of
synchronism.
▪ Transient stability limit is the maximum power that can be
transferred by a machine to a fault or a receiving system during a
transient state without loss of synchronism. Transient stability limit is
always less than steady state stability limit.
▪ Dynamic stability is the ability of a power system to remain in
synchronism after the initial swing (transient stability period) until the
system has settled down to the new steady state equilibrium condition.
✓ Or Is the ability of a system to reach its stable condition after a
very small disturbance (disturbance occurs only for 10 to 30
seconds). It is also known as small signal stability.
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Description of power system states
Introduction to Power system stability principles
Rotor angle stability
▪Is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines of
a power system to remain in synchronism.
✓ When two or more sychronous machines are
interconnected, the stator voltages and currents of all
the machines must have the same frequency and the
rotor mechanical speed of each synchronized to this
frequency.
✓ Therefore, the rotor of all interconnected synchronous
machines must be in synchronism.
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Description of power system states
▪ The power transferred from generator to the motor is a function of
angular separation (𝛿) between the rotors of two machines.
▪ This angular separation is due to three components:
✓Generator internal angle 𝛿𝐺 ( angle by which the generator rotor
leads the revolving field of stator);
✓Angular difference between the terminal voltages of the generator
and motor( angle by which the stator field of generator leads that of the
motor); and the internal angle of the motor (angle by which the rotor
lags the revolving stator field.
▪ Power transferred from generator to the motor is given by:
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Description of power system states
▪ When the angle is zero, no power
transferred.
▪ As the angle increased, the power transfer
increases up to maximum.
▪ After a certain angle, nominally 900, a further
increase in angle results in a decrease in
power transferred. Power transfer characteristic of a two-
machine system
▪ There is thus a maximum steady-state power
that can be transmitted between the two
machines.
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Description of power system states
▪ For convenience in analysis and for gaining useful insight into the nature
of stability problems, it is usual to characterize the rotor angle stability
phenomena in terms of the following two categories:
a) Small-signal or (small-disturbance) stability us the ability of the
power system to maintain synchronism under small
disturbances. (small variations in loads and generation).
b) Transient stability is the ability of the power system to maintain
the synchronism when subjected to a severe disturbance.
▪ Voltage Stability
✓In addition to transient stability, maintaining proper voltage levels is
crucial for power system operation. Voltage stability analysis is
performed to ensure that the system can maintain acceptable voltage
levels under various conditions.
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Description of power system states
Classification of power system states
▪ There are two forms of instability in power systems, the
stalling of asynchronous loads (voltage stability or load
stability) and the loss of synchronism between synchronous
machines.
▪ The synchronous stability is again divided into two regimes:
✓Steady state stability.
✓Transient state stability.
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Steady state stability
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Example of Steady State Instability
▪ Assume that the system load starts to grow. As the system load grows,
system voltages decline.
▪ Since the generator is in manual excitation the generator terminal
voltage also falls.
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Example of Steady State Instability
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Transient stability
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Classification of power system stability
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Classification of power system stability
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Small-disturbance or small-signal angle stability
▪ “It is the ability of the system to remain in synchronism when
subjected to small disturbances”.
▪ If a disturbance is small enough so that the nonlinear power
system can be approximated by a linear system, then the
study of rotor angle stability of that particular system is
called as small-disturbance angle stability analysis.
▪ Or The rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected
synchronous machines of power system to remain in
synchronism.
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Large-disturbance or transient angle stability
▪ “It is the ability of the system to remain in synchronism when
subjected to large disturbances”.
▪ Large disturbances can be faults, switching on or off of
large loads, large generators tripping etc.
▪ When a power system is subjected to large disturbance, it
will lead to large excursions of generator rotor angles.
▪ Since there are large rotor angle changes the power system
cannot be approximated by a linear representation like in the
case of small-disturbance stability.
▪ The time domain of interest in case of large-disturbance as
well as small-disturbance angle stability is any where
between 0.1- 10 s.
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Voltage stability
“It is the ability of the system to maintain steady state voltages at
all the system buses when subjected to a disturbance. If the
disturbance is large then it is called as large-disturbance voltage
stability and if the disturbance is small it is called as small-
disturbance voltage stability”.
▪ The main difference between voltage stability and angle
stability is that voltage stability depends on the balance of
reactive power demand and generation in the system
where as the angle stability mainly depends on the
balance between real power generation and demand.
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Voltage stability
▪ A system enters a state of voltage instability when a
disturbance, increase in load demand, or change in system
condition causes progressive and uncontrollable drop in voltage.
▪ The main factor causing instability is the inability of the power
system to meet the demand for reactive power..
▪ The heart of the problem is usually the voltage drop that occurs
when active power and reactive power flow through inductive
reactances associated with the transmission network.
▪ A criterion for voltage stability is that, at a given operating
condition for every bus in the system, the bus voltage magnitude
increases as the reactive power injection at the same bus is
increased.
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Voltage stability
▪ The purpose of analysis, it is useful to classify voltage stability
into the following two subclasses:
✓Large-disturbance voltage stability is concerned with
system’s ability to control voltages following large
disturbances such as system faults, loss of generation, or
circuit contingencies.
✓Small-disturbance voltage stability is concerned with a
system’s ability to control voltages following small
perturbations such as incremental changes in system load.
▪ Generally, the long-term and mid-term stability problems are
associated with inadequacies in equipment responses, poor
coordination of control and protection equipment, or insufficient
active/ reactive power reserves.
20
Frequency stability
▪ “It refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady
frequency following a severe disturbance between
generation and load”.
▪ It depends on the ability to restore equilibrium between
system generation and load, with minimum loss of load.
▪ Frequency instability may lead to sustained frequency
swings leading to tripping of generating units or loads.
▪ Thus, frequency stability analysis concentrates on studying
the overall system stability for sudden changes in the
generation-load balance.
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Frequency stability
▪The generation reduction yields a ≈0.5 Hz
frequency drop and a load voltage increase.
▪The load reduction yields a ≈0.5 Hz frequency
increase, and an even larger load voltage
increase, as the reactive power demand drops.
▪Observe that the AVR keeps the generator
terminal fairly stable and close to its set value.
22
Frequency stability
◼ These frequency excursions due to generation-load
imbalances are typical.
◼ It might lead to unstable conditions due to device
protections such as frequency relays in generators
and loads.
◼ Frequency problems may be solved manually by
operators or automatically through controls and/or
protections.
◼ Generator governors automatically regulate local
frequency excursions.
23
Frequency stability
◼ Centralized frequency regulators, such as automatic Area
Control Error(ACE) regulators, may be used to regulate
power exchanges among control areas by controlling the
frequency deviations on the interties.
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Application of Analytical methods to improve
power system stability limit
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Dynamics of synchronous machine
J Rotor moment of inertia in
kg-m2
𝜔𝑠𝑚 Synchronous speed in rad
(mech)/s
𝑃 Rotor speed in rad (elect)/s
𝜔𝑠 = 𝜔
2 𝑠𝑚
P Number of machine poles
M Moment of inertia in MJ –
s/elect rad
G Machine rating (base) in
MVA (3-phase)
H Inertia constant in MJ/MVA
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Dynamics of synchronous machine
▪ Generator:
✓Synchronous machine: AC stator and DC rotor.
✓Excitation system: DC generator or static converter
plus voltage regulator and stabilizer.
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Dynamics of synchronous machine
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Dynamics of synchronous machine
▪ The inertia constant H has a characteristic value or a range
of values for each class of machines.
▪ H varies from 1-10 depending on the type of generators.
▪ The value of H is considerably higher for steam turbo-
generator than for water wheel generator.
▪ In defining the inertia constant H, the MVA base used is the
rating of the machine.
▪ In multimachine system, the swing equation has to be solved
for each machine, in which case a common MVA base for the
system has to be chosen.
▪ The constant H of each machine must be consistent with the
system base.
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Dynamics of synchronous machine
▪ In the stability analysis of a multi machine system,
computation is considerably reduced if the number of swing
equations to be solved is reduced.
▪ Machines within a plant normally swing together after a
disturbance.
✓Such machines are called coherent machines and
can be replaced by a single equivalent machine, whose
dynamics reflects the dynamics of the plant.
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Swing equation of synchronous machine
▪ What is swing equation? The Swing Equation of generator
describes the relative motion between the rotor axis and the
synchronously rotating stator filed axis with respect to time.
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Swing equation of synchronous machine
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Swing equation of synchronous machine
The above equation is called as swing equation of synchronous machine
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Multi-machine system - Swing equation
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Multi-machine system - Swing equation
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Multi-machine system - Swing equation
36
With damper winding- Swing equation
▪ Why damper winding in alternator?
✓To eliminate hunting and
✓To suppress the negative(-ve) sequence field
37
Example
A 60 Hz, 4 pole turbo-generator rated 100MVA, 13.8 KV has inertia
constant of 10 MJ/MVA.
(a) Find stored energy in the rotor at synchronous speed.
(b)If the input to the generator is suddenly raised to 60 MW for an electrical
load of 50 MW, find rotor acceleration.
(c) If the rotor acceleration calculated in part (b) is maintained for 12
cycles, find the change in torque angle and rotor speed in rpm at the end of
this period.
(d)Another generator 150 MVA, having inertia constant 4 MJ/MVA is put in
parallel with above generator. Find the inertia constant for the equivalent
generator on a base 50 MVA.
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Exercises
1) A 50Hz, 4poles turbo alternator rated 150MVA, 11kV has an inertia
constant of 9MJ/MVA. Find the (a) stored energy at synchronous speed
(b) the rotor acceleration if the input mechanical power is raised to 100MW
when the electrical load is 75MW, (c ) the speed at the end of 10cycles if
acceleration is assumed constant at the initial value.
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Exercises
2) Two 50Hz generating units operate in parallel within the
same plant, with the followings ratings:
Unit 1: 500MVA, 0.8PF, 13.2kV, 3600rpm: H=4MJ/MVA
Unit 2: 1000MVA, 0.9PF, 13.8kV, 1800 rpm: H=5MJ/MVA
Calculate the equivalent H constant on a base of 100MVA.
40
Exercises
3) A 50 Hz four-pole turbogenerator rated 20 MVA, 13.2 kV has
an inertia constant of H = 9.0 kW-sec/kVA. Determine the K.E.
stored in the rotor at synchronous speed. Determine the
acceleration if the input less the rotational losses is 25000 HP
and the electric power developed is 15000 kW. If the
acceleration computed for the generator is constant for a period
of 15 cycles, determine the change in torque angle in that
period and the r.p.m. at the end of 15 cycles. Assume that the
generator is synchronized with a large system and has no
accelerating torque before the 15 cycle period begins.
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Power Angle Equation and Power Angle Curve
▪ Under normal conditions:
✓When a disturbance occurs, the rotor angle
deviates from its equilibrium position. The system
then undergoes oscillatory motion as the rotor
angle fluctuates around the new steady state
value
42
Power Angle Equation and Power Angle Curve
▪ Consider a synchronous machine connected to an infinite
bus through a transmission line of reactance X1 shown in a
figure below. Let us assume that the resistance and
capacitance are neglected.
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Power Angle Equation and Power Angle Curve
▪ Equivalent diagram of synchronous machine connected to
an infinite bus through a transmission line of series
reactance X1 is shown below:
V = V<0⁰ – voltage of infinite bus
E = E<δ – voltage behind the direct axis synchronous reactance
of the machine.
Xd = synchronous reactance of the machine
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Power Angle Equation
46
Power Angle Equation
47
Power Angle Curve
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Steady State Stability
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Application of Power Angle Curve
▪ The power-angle curve is crucial for transient
stability analysis.
▪ When a disturbance occurs in a power system, such
as a fault or sudden change in load, generators
experience transient oscillations.
▪ The power-angle curve helps analyze the evolution
of the rotor angle during the above oscillations,
indicating whether the system can return to a stable
operating point.
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Steady State Stability
Maximum power transfer is given by
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Equal area criterion
▪ The equal area criterion is a simple graphical method for concluding
the transient stability of two-machine systems or a single machine
against an infinite bus.
▪ Starting with swing equation
Where, M = Angular Momentum
Pe = Electrical Power
Pm = Mechanical Power (Pm)
Pa = accelerating power
δm= Load Angle
52
Equal area criterion
53
Equal area criterion
54
Equal area criterion
55
Equal area criterion
56
Equal area criterion
57
Equal area criterion
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Critical Clearing Angle
▪ The critical clearing angle is defined as the maximum
change in the load angle curve before clearing the fault
without loss of synchronism.
▪ In other words, when the fault occurs in the system
the load angle curve begin to increase, and the system
becomes unstable.
▪ The maximum angle at which the fault can be cleared and
the system becomes stable is called critical clearing
angle.
61
Critical Clearing Angle
62
Critical Clearing Angle
63
Critical Clearing Angle
Where CCT: Critical Clearing Time; CCA: Critical Clearing Angle
64
Application of Equal Area Criterion
❖ Sudden increase in mechanical power
❖ One of the parallel line suddenly switched off
▪ EAC is used to study the rotor angle stability or
transient stability analysis of a single machine
connected to infinite bus system
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Examples
1. Find the maximum steady-state power capability of a
system consisting of a generator equivalent reactance of
0.4pu connected to an infinite bus through a series
reactance of 1.0 p.u. The terminal voltage of the
generator is held at 1.10 p.u. and the voltage of the
infinite bus is 1.0 p.u.
66
Examples
A temporary three phase fault occurs at the sending end of the line
at point F. When the fault is cleared both lines are intact. Determine
the critical clearing angle and the critical fault clearing time
67
The steady state limit
The steady state limit is increased because of the two reasons:
▪ By increasing the excitation of a generator or motor or both.
✓The excitation increase the internal emf and consequently
the maximum powered transferred between the two
machines increases.
✓Further with the increased value of internal EMFs, the
load angle δ decreases.
▪ Reducing the transfer Reactance
✓The reactance is reduced by increasing the parallel line
between the transmission points.
✓The use of bundle conductor is the other method of
reducing the reactance of the line.
✓The reactance can also be decreased by using the
capacitance in series with the line. 68
Voltage Control Equipment
▪ Use of Generators: Excitation System
✓ The excitation system is used to control the terminal voltage and MVAr production
of the generator.
▪ The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) senses the voltage level at the generator
terminals via a potential transformer (PT). Circuitry is included in the voltage regulator
to compare the voltage measured to a setpoint voltage.
▪ If the measured voltage is lower than the set point the AVR will cause the excitation
system to increase the DC excitation current. This DC current is applied to the
generator’s rotor field winding.
69
Voltage Control Equipment
▪Synchronous condenser: Synchronous motor
working at over excited condition. When the
projection of the phasor EA onto Vφ (EAcosδ) is
shorter than Vφ, a synchronous motor has a lagging
current and consumes Q.
▪Since the field current is small in this situation, the
motor is said to be under-excited.
▪Capacitors and reactors can be designed to be a
permanent part of the system (fixed, not switchable)
or be switched in and out-of service via circuit
breakers.
70
Voltage Control Equipment
▪Capacitors are viewed as sources of reactive power.
Capacitors can be connected to the power system in
either a shunt or series connection.
▪ Shunt capacitors are used to supply reactive power
to the system.
▪Series capacitors are used to reduce the impedance
of the path in which they are inserted.
71
Voltage Control Equipment
Series Capacitors
▪Series capacitors are installed in transmission lines to reduce
the line’s natural inductive reactance.
▪The reactance of a series capacitor is out-of phase with a
transmission line’s inductive reactance.
▪The series capacitor reactance subtracts from the line’s
inductive reactance, reducing the overall line reactance.
72
Voltage Control Equipment
Series Capacitors
▪A utility could completely eliminate the line’s reactance and
maximize transfer capability by adding enough series
reactance capacitors to completely cancel the line’s inductive
reactance X=XL-XC).
73
Voltage Control Equipment
▪ Shunt capacitors are a source of MVAr that are installed in close
proximity to the point they are needed.
▪ Shunt capacitor switching is often used to control normal daily
fluctuations in system voltage levels due to load changes.
The usage of shunt capacitor banks suffers from the following
drawbacks:
[Link] capacitors do not affect current or power factor beyond their point of application.
[Link] reactive power supplied by the shunt capacitor banks is directly proportional to the bus
voltage.
[Link] the reactive power required is less on light loads, capacitor bank output will be
high. This disadvantage can be eliminated by connecting a number of capacitors in parallel
and then capacitance can be varied by switching ON or OFF depending upon load
requirement. 74
Voltage Control Equipment
▪ Reactors can be viewed as absorbers or sinks of reactive power. Reactors
can be connected to the power system in either a shunt or series
connection.
▪ Shunt reactors are used to absorb reactive power from the system. Series
reactors are used to increase the reactance of the path in which they are
inserted.
▪ Shunt reactor banks are used to absorb excessive reactive power from the
power system and thereby reduce system voltages. When high voltage
transmission lines are built, fixed and switchable reactor banks are often
installed to help reduce the overvoltages caused by lightly loaded high
voltage lines.
75
Voltage Control Equipment
▪Reactors can also be installed in series. Series
reactor installations are not uncommon in the
distribution system or within older power plants.
▪Series reactors add inductive reactance to a path
thereby increasing the overall path impedance.
The primary use of series reactors is to limit fault
current.
76
Voltage Control Equipment
Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
▪ A static VAR compensator (SVC) is similar to a
synchronous condenser in that it is also used to supply
or absorb reactive power.
▪ However in an SVC there are no rotating parts, every
element is static.
Static synchronous compensators (STATCOMs)
▪ The STATCOM is a solid-state shunt device that generates or absorbs reactive power
and is one member of a family of devices known as flexible AC transmission system
(FACTS).
▪ The exchange of reactive power between the converter and the ac system can be
controlled by varying the amplitude of the 3-phase output voltage of the STATCOM.
▪ The STATCOM rather than using conventional capacitors and inductors, the STATCOM
uses power electronics to synthesize the reactive power output.
77
Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
▪ A Power System Stabilizer is a control device used in power
systems to improve the stability of the system by providing
additional damping to power system oscillations.
▪ A Power System Stabilizer is typically a part of the generator
control system and works by modulating the generator's
excitation system. It helps in stabilizing the power system
during disturbances and preventing the occurrence of low-
frequency oscillations.
78
Application of Equal Area Criterion
𝛿1
𝐴1 = 𝑎𝑃 𝛿 𝑑𝛿 = Positive / Accelerating Area 𝑃𝑚 > 𝑃𝑒
0
𝛿2
𝐴2 = 𝑎𝑃 𝛿 𝑑𝛿 = Negative / Deaccelerating Area 𝑃𝑚 < 𝑃𝑒
1
▪ Since for stable operation positive area or accelerating area 𝐴1
should be equal to negative or deaccelerating area 𝐴2 it is called
Equal Area Criterion.
▪ It provides the following information:
✓It is any easy way of finding maximum angle of swing
✓An estimate of whether synchronism be maintained
✓The maximum allowable torque angle at which it is to be operated
in transient stability
79
Small signal stability analysis
▪ Small-signal stability is the ability of the system to be in synchronism
when subjected to small disturbances.
▪ The disturbances can be switching of small loads, generators or
transmission line tripping etc. The small-signal instability can lead to
oscillations in the system. There are three modes of oscillations due to
small disturbances:
✓Local modes of oscillations are due to a single generator or group of
generators oscillating against the rest of the system.
✓Intra-plant modes of oscillations are due to oscillations among the
generators in the same plant. The typical frequencies of oscillations
of local and intra plant modes are in the range of 1 Hz to 2 Hz.
✓ Inter area modes of oscillations are due to a group of generator in
one area oscillating together against another group of generators in
a different area. The typical frequency range of inter area mode of
oscillations are 0.1 Hz to 0.8 Hz.
80
Small signal stability analysis
▪ Local, intra-plant and inter-area are electromechanical modes of
oscillations in which the rotor angle and the speed of the generators
oscillate. Apart from electromechanical modes of oscillations there can be
control modes, due to lack of proper tuning of controller like voltage
regulator of an excitation system, and torsional mode of oscillations due
to oscillations in the turbine-generator shafts.
▪ The main idea behind small signal stability analysis is that the power
system, which is nonlinear, for small disturbances can be linearized
around the steady state operating point as the system will be oscillating in
a small area around the steady state operating point.
▪ Once the nonlinear system is linearized around an operating point linear
control theory can be applied to assess the stability of the system. Before
understanding how to asses small signal stability of a system some terms
used in control theory should be defined.
81
Small signal stability analysis
▪ Eigenvalue Analysis: Perform an eigenvalue analysis on
the linearized state-space model.
▪ The eigenvalues represent the system's modes of
oscillation.
▪ If the real parts of the eigenvalues are negative, the system
is stable; if any eigenvalue has a positive real part, it
indicates instability.
82
Small signal stability analysis
▪ A device called as power system stabilizer is used for
overcoming the negative damping effect of the high gain
exciter.
▪ The power system stabilizer acts as a supplementary
controller to the excitation system. Inputs to the power
system stabilizer can be change in frequency, speed, power
or a combination of these.
▪ The output is a voltage signal introduced in the excitation
system to control the output of the exciter. The basic idea of
the power system stabilizer is to introduce a pure damping
term so as to counter the negative damping effect of the
exciter
83
Impedance analysis
▪ The main advantage of the impedance-based method is that stability
can be analyzed from measurement/simulations in a single point in
the system.
▪ Apparent impedance stability analysis is a small signal method. The
objective is to estimate all eigenvalues of the system based on
sampled values of Z.
▪ Impedance-based stability analysis is widely adopted for small-signal
stability demonstration of power electronics dominated power systems.
✓ Stability assessment can be performed using either nodal admittance
or bus admittance (i.e. equivalent admittance of a network viewed from
a specific bus).
84
Methods of Improving Transient Stability
1. High Speed fault clearing : The amount of kinetic energy gained during a fault is
directly proportional to the fault duration hence faster the clearing better the stability.
Fast acting circuit breakers can be used for clearing the fault within 2 cycles through
better communication and fast acting relays.
2. Reduction of transmission system reactance: The stability improves with reduction
in system reactance as it enhances the synchronizing torque. This can be done by
series compensation of transmission lines. Also transformers with lower leakage
reactance can be used.
3. Regulated Shunt Compensation: Shunt Compensators like SVC, STATCOM can be
used for improving the voltage profile there by synchronizing power among inter-
connected generators.
4. Dynamic braking: During a fault the input mechanical power to the generator is
greater than the output electrical power leading to acceleration of the generator rotor.
Instead the excess power available due to mismatch between the input and output
powers can be absorbed by resistors, which can be connected to the generator
terminals during the fault. These are called as braking resistors as they will decrease
the acceleration of the rotor by absorbing the excess power. The disadvantage is that
the power is lost in the form of heat dissipation of the resistors. 85
Methods of Improving Transient Stability
5. Independent pole operation of circuit breakers: Instead of switching out all the
three phases for every fault only the faulted phase may be switched out. This will
significantly improve the stability.
6. Single pole switching: Again instead of tripping all 3 phase and then reclosing all
three simultaneously each phase can be tripped and re-closed with 0.5 to 1.5 seconds.
So that other two phase are still working in case of single line to ground fault as they are
the most common faults.
7. Fast valve operation: It is a technique applicable to thermal units to assist in
maintaining power system stability. It involves rapid closing and opening of steam valves
in a prescribed manner to reduce the generator accelerating or decelerating power
following the reception of a severe transmission system fault.
8. Tripping of generator: Selective tripping of generating unit for severe transmission
system contingencies has been used as method of improving system stability for many
years.
9. Using supplementary damping controllers: Like power system stabilizer or
supplementary feedback controllers to FACTS devices can improve small signal stability.
10. Using HVDC links: HVDC links can also improve small signal stability. By modulating
power in the DC link the small signal oscillations can be damped. 86
Thank You for your attention！
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