The Dirac Equation and Its Application

in Quantum Field Theories

Julio Cesar Jaramillo Quiceno∗
1
Departamento de Fı́sica, Universidad Nacional de Colombia,
Edificio Yu Takeuchi, Bogotá

Abstract
This work presents a comprehensive review of the Dirac equation and
its foundational role in the development of quantum field theories. Starting
from the incompatibility of the Schrödinger equation with special relativ-
ity, we derive the Dirac equation and explore its relativistic and covariant
formulations. We analyze the structure and properties of Dirac spinors,
gamma matrices, and conserved currents, highlighting their physical signif-
icance. The interaction of fermions with external electromagnetic fields is
addressed via minimal coupling, leading to the formulation of quantum elec-
trodynamics (QED). We examine charge conjugation and the emergence of
antiparticles, emphasizing the theoretical basis for positrons. The discus-
sion extends to gauge invariance, renormalization, and scattering amplitudes
through Feynman diagrams. Furthermore, we introduce quantum chromo-
dynamics (QCD) as the gauge theory of the strong interaction, detailing
its SU(3) symmetry, color confinement, and non-Abelian structure. Special
attention is given to the electroweak sector and neutrino physics, including
Dirac, Majorana, and Weyl neutrino formalisms, as well as their electro-
magnetic form factors. This exposition provides a unified and pedagogical
overview of the application of the Dirac formalism to modern quantum field
theory.

Keywords:
Dirac equation. QED, QCD, neutrinos
∗
jcjaramilloq@[Link]

1
1 The Dirac Equation
In the framework of nonrelativistic quantum mechanics, the equation describing
the dynamics of particles in a potential V (x, t) is the Schrodinger equation, which
is typically written as:

∂ ℏ2 2
iℏ ψ(x, t) = − ∇ ψ(x, t) + V (x, t)ψ(x, t). (1)
∂t 2m
It is evident that this equation is not compatible with Lorentz transforma-
tions. In the framework of special relativity, we define the space-time differential
operators as follows:
 
∂ ∂
pµ = iℏ∂µ := iℏ , −iℏ = (p0 , p). (2)
∂t ∂x
Recall that in equation (1), the Hamiltonian is:

p2
Ĥ = + V (x, t). (3)
2m
In the relativistic framework, the Hamiltonian becomes:
p
Ĥ = ± (pc)2 + (mc2 )2 + V (x, t), (4)
for a free particle, we have:
p
Ĥψ(x, t) = ± (pc)2 + (mc2 )2 ψ(x, t) = E, ψ(x, t) (5)
in terms of differential operators, equation (5) can be written as:

1 ∂2
 
2
−(ℏc) 2 2
2
− ∇ ψ(x, t) = (mc2 )2 ψ(x, t), (6)
c ∂t

2 The Dirac Equation (Continued)

Considering the following quantity:

ℏc = 197.327 MeV · fm. (7)

Equation (6) is known as the Klein-Gordon equation for free particles. The
characteristic feature of equation (6) is that it lacks a spin term, indicating that
the wave function ψ(x, t) describes scalar particles or particles with zero spin. To
describe spin-1/2 particles, we consider the linearization of equation (6) to include
spin terms. The equation describing spin-1/2 particles is the Dirac equation, whose
functional form is given by:

2
  
∂ ∂
iℏ ψ(x, t) = −iℏc αi ψ(x, t) + βmc2 ψ(x, t), (8)
∂t ∂xi
where αi , β (for i = 1, 2, 3) are matrices that must satisfy the following conditions:

• For a correct interpretation of the momentum and energy of a free relativistic

particle (E 2 = (pc)2 + (mc2 )2 ), the following must hold:

{αi , αj } = 2δij 1, (9)

{αi , β} = 0, (10)
αi2 = β 2 = 1. (11)

• The requirement H = H † implies that:

– αi , β are Hermitian matrices

– Tr(αi ) = Tr(β) = 0
– Their eigenvalues are ±1
– Their dimension must be even and greater than 2

The simplest dimension satisfying these conditions is 4. Therefore, the matrices

that satisfy these conditions are related to the Pauli matrices, and we define αi
and β as:
   
0 σi 1 0
αi = , β= , for i = 1, 2, 3. (12)
σi 0 0 −1
The wave function ψ(x, t) is a four-component column matrix:
The wave function in Dirac theory is represented as a four-component spinor:
 
ψ1 (x, t)  
ψ2 (x, t) ψ+ (x, t)
ψ(x, t) = ψ3 (x, t) = ψ− (x, t)
 (13)
ψ4 (x, t)
This object is called the Dirac spinor. In particle physics, the Dirac equation is
essential due to its relativistic nature in describing particle interactions. The Dirac
spinor describes two energy states - one with positive energy and p one with neg-
ative energy - which must satisfy the relativistic relation E = ± p2 c2 + (mc2 )2 ,
corresponding to particle and antiparticle states respectively.
Using relativistic notation, we can write the Dirac spinor simply as:

ψ(x) ≡ ψ(x, t) (14)

3
 In momentum space, the Dirac spinors describing a free electron are given by:

ψ(x) = u(p)e−ip·x/ℏ (15)

Upon quantization, these are interpreted as creation and annihilation operators.
Notably, squaring the Dirac operator yields the Klein-Gordon equation.

2.1 Charge and Current Conservation in the Dirac Equa-

tion
The Klein-Gordon equation admits a conserved current, which implies that the
Dirac equation must also have a conserved current. To derive this:

1. Start with equation (8) using a plane wave solution

2. Take the Hermitian conjugate of equation (8):

 
∂ † ∂
−iℏ ψ (x) = iℏc αi ψ † (x) + βmc2 ψ † (x) (16)
∂t ∂xi

Multiplying the original equation by ψ † (z) and the conjugated equation by

ψ(z), then subtracting, we obtain the following.
∂ †
(ψ (x)ψ(x)) = −∇ · (ψ † (x)αψ(x)). (17)
∂t
This corresponds to the continuity equation:
∂ρ
∂µ j µ = ∇ · j + = 0, (18)
∂t
where ρ = ψ † ψ is the probability density and j = cψ † αψ is the probability
current.

2.2 Current and Charge Density

We define:

j = cψ † (x)αψ(x), ρ = ψ † (x)ψ(x) (19)

The physical interpretation is that the continuity equation implies conservation
of probability charge density and current, where ρ represents a positive-definite
probability charge density.

4
2.3 The Dirac Gamma Matrices
Starting with equation (8) and multiplying through by β:
∂
iℏβ ψ(x) = −iℏcβα · ∇ψ(x) + mc2 ψ(x), (20)
∂t
from this we define the Dirac gamma matrices:
   
0 1 0 0 σ
γ := β = , γ := βα = , (21)
0 −1 −σ 0
In covariant (4-vector) notation:

γ µ := (γ 0 , γ) (22)
These are known as the Dirac gamma matrices in the Weyl (or chiral) repre-
sentation. Mathematically, the gamma matrices satisfy a Clifford algebra through
the anticommutation relations:

{γ µ , γ ν } = γ µ γ ν + γ ν γ µ = 2g µν , (23)
where g µν is the Minkowski metric tensor. We also define the spin tensor:
i
σ µν = [γ µ , γ ν ] (24)
2
The Dirac gamma matrices satisfy several important properties:

5
 γ µγ ν = g µν − γ ν γ µ , (25)
γ µ γµ = 4 · 1, (26)
γ µ γ ν γµ = −2γ ν , (27)
γ µ γ ν γ ρ γµ = 4g νρ , (28)
γ µ γ ν γ ρ γ σ γµ = −2γ σ γ ρ γ ν , (29)
Tr(γ µ ) = 0, (30)
γ µ† = γ 0 γ µ γ 0 , (31)
(γ 0 )2 = 1, (32)
(γ i )2 = −1, (33)
0 0†
γ = γ , (34)
i i†
γ = −γ , (35)
µ ν ρ σ
Tr(γ γ γ γ ) = 4(g µν g ρσ − g µρ g νσ + g µσ g νρ ), (36)
Tr(γ µ γ ν ) = 4g µν , (37)
γ 5 := iγ 0 γ 1 γ 2 γ 3 , (38)
Tr(γ 5 ) = 0, (39)
[γ 5 , σ µν ] = 0, (40)
{γ 5 , γ µ } = 0, (41)
(γ 5 )2 = 1, (42)
{γ 5 , γ 0 } = 0. (43)

The matrix γ 5 is Dirac’s gamma-five matrix, which in neutrino physics repre-

sents the chirality matrix. We will examine it in more detail in Section 4. The
Dirac equation in terms of gamma matrices is given by:
∂  
⃗ + mc2 ψ(x)
iℏγ 0 ψ(x) = −iℏc ⃗γ · ∇ (44)
∂t
We will now write the Dirac equation in its covariant formulation.

2.4 Covariant Formulation of the Dirac Equation

Given the relativistic nature of the Dirac equation, we can express it using the
4-vector notation. If we use the space-time differential operators defined in (2)
and the definition of the gamma matrices (22), then equations like (25) become:

iℏcγ µ ∂µ ψ(x) = mc2 ψ(x), (45)

6
 or equivalently:
 mc 
γ µ pµ −ψ(x) = 0. (46)
ℏ
We can simplify the notation using Feynman’s slash notation. For any 4-vector
uµ :

γ µ uµ = gµν γ µ uν = γ 0 u0 − γ · u ≡ u/ (47)
Thus, the Dirac equation in Feynman slash notation becomes:
 mc   mc 
i∂/ − ψ(x) ≡ γ µ pµ − ψ(x) = 0. (48)
ℏ ℏ
This compact notation is widely used in quantum field theories, which we will
explore in Section 3.

2.5 Covariant Current Conservation

Starting with the Dirac equation (26) in natural units (ℏ = c = 1):

iγ µ ∂µ ψs (x) − ms ψs (x) = 0 (49)

(−i∂µ ψt† (x))(γ µ )† − mt ψt† (x) = 0, (50)

using property (31) on equation (50):

i∂µ ψt† (x)γ 0 γ µ γ 0 + mt ψt† (x) = 0, (51)

multiplying from the right by γ 0 :

i∂µ ψt† (x)γ 0 γ µ + mt ψt† (x)γ 0 = 0, (52)

introducing the Dirac adjoint ψ(x) ≡ ψ † (x)γ 0 :

i∂µ ψ t (x)γ µ + mt ψ t (x) = 0, (53)

multiplying from the right by ψs (x):

i∂µ ψ t (x)γ µ ψs (x) + mt ψ t (x)ψs (x) = 0, (54)

and multiplying from left to right by ψ̄t (x) in equation (49):

ψ̄t (x)iγ µ ∂µ ψs (x) − ms ψ̄t ψs (x) = 0, (55)

adding expressions (54) and (55) gives the result:

7
 i∂µ (ψ̄t (x)γ µ ψs (x)) = (mt − ms )ψ̄t (x)ψs (x). (56)
For the physical case where t = s, we obtain:

∂µ (ψ(x)γ µ ψ(x)) = 0 (57)

This corresponds to the continuity equation ∂µ j µ = 0, where:

j µ (x) = −eψ(x)γ µ ψ(x) (58)

This represents a conserved current. The term ψ k (x)ψk (x) is a Lorentz scalar,
and j µ transforms as a 4-vector. Equation (58) is known as the Dirac current.
Many texts include a factor of −e in the Dirac current, and in momentum space
it becomes:

j µ = −eu(p)γ µ u(p) (59)

which transforms as a vector under Lorentz transformations and satisfies the
continuity equation.

2.6 Plane Wave Solutions for Free Particles

Consider an electron in its rest frame, which is an eigenstate of 3-momentum with
p = 0. The Dirac equation in this case reduces to:
∂ 0
iℏγ ψ = mc2 ψ (60)
∂t
We propose a Dirac spinor of the form:
 
χ
ψ= (61)
φ
This leads to coupled equations for the components:

2.7 Spinor Decomposition and Energy Solutions

We can add and subtract the coupled equations by introducing two new spinor
components:
1 1
ψ+ = √ (φ + χ), ψ− = √ (φ − χ) (62)
2 2
√
The 2 factor ensures proper normalization of the new Dirac spinors. With
these components, we obtain:

8
 ∂ψ+
iℏ = mc2 ψ+ (63)
∂t
∂ψ−
iℏ = −mc2 ψ− (64)
∂t
The positive energy solutions (E = +mc2 ) are:
 
ψ+ −imc2 t/ℏ
Ψ+ = e (65)
0
and the negative energy solutions (E = −mc2 ):
 
0 2
Ψ− = e+imc t/ℏ (66)
ψ−
The appearance of both energy values is a fundamental feature of relativistic
wave equations. We can write these solutions more generally as:
   
Ψ+ ψ+ i(λkx+ωt)
ψ= = e (67)
Ψ− ψ−
with λ = ±1. To obtain the complete solution of the Dirac equation for a free
electron, we substitute (67) into (25):
       
−λE 0 0 σ·p ψ 0
+ −m + = (68)
0 λE −σ · p 0 ψ− 0
This gives a system of coupled equations:

(λE − m)ψ+ − σ · p ψ− = 0 (56)

−(λE + m)ψ− + σ · p ψ+ = 0 (57)

Solving for ψ− (positive energy solutions) and ψ+ (negative energy solutions):

σ·p
ψ− = ψ+ (69)
E+m
−σ · p
ψ+ = ψ− (70)
E+m
For physical momentum p ̸= 0, we express (67) as:

9
  
ψ+
Ψ+ = N σ·p ei(Et−p·x)/ℏ (58)
ψ+
 E+m
−σ·p 
E+m
ψ− −i(Et−p·x)/ℏ
Ψ− = N e (59)
ψ−

We thus define the momentum-dependent spinors for positive and negative

energy states:

 
χs
u(λ = +1, p, s) = N σ·p (60)
E+m s
χ
 −σ·p 
E+m s
χ
u(λ = −1, p, s) = N (61)
χs

In general form:

 
(r) vσ
u (p) = N σ·pvσ (71)
 E+m
σ·p 
v
E+m σ ,
v (r) (p) = N (72)
vσ

For convenience, we write these spinors in the form:

u(λ, p, σ) = N u(λ, p)vσ (73)

where u(λ, p) is a 4×2 matrix acting on the two-component spinors vσ , yielding
the four-component Dirac spinors (71) and (72). Note that σ does not represent
eigenvalues along a fixed axis (e.g., the z-axis). Unlike the non-relativistic case,
Dirac spinors depend on the particle’s physical momentum. The factor N is a
normalization constant. The general solution of the Dirac equation can then be
expressed as:

ψσ (x) = u(λ, p, σ) exp [i(−λEt + p · x)] (74)

Using this formalism, we can compute the conserved current for transition pro-
cesses using perturbation theory to determine the corresponding probability am-
plitudes. Following the procedure from Section 2.5 but using the general solution
(74) for initial (i) and final (f ) states, with their respective energy eigenvalues,
physical momenta pi , pf , and spin indices σi , σf , the Dirac conserved current
becomes:

10
 jfµi (x) = uf γ µ ui exp(iqµ xµ ) (75)
where q µ = pµf − pµi is the four-momentum transfer. In momentum space:

−euf γ µ ui = −eu(λf , pf , σf )γ µ u(λi , pi , σi ) (76)

Applying the four-divergence to (75) yields:

∂µ jfµi (x) = qµ uf γ µ ui exp(iqµ xµ ) = 0 (77)

which gives the Ward identity:

qµ uf γ µ ui = 0 (78)
This identity will prove essential when examining the electromagnetic form
factors of neutrinos in Section 2.3.1 of the reference [1].

2.8 Electron in an External Electromagnetic Field

The Dirac equation for an electron in an external electromagnetic field is obtained
through the minimal coupling substitution:

E → E − eΦ, (79)
p → p − eA, (80)

In covariant formulation:

pµ → pµ − eAµ , (81)
where Aµ admits the gauge transformation:

Aµ → Aµ − ∂µ Λ, (82)
In electrodynamics, Aµ contains the complete information about the electric
and magnetic fields. The Dirac equation for an electron in an external electromag-
netic field becomes:
   
0 ∂ A
γ iℏ − eΦ ψ = cγ · −iℏ∇ − e ψ + mc2 ψ, (83)
∂t c
or in covariant form:

[γ µ (i∂µ − eAµ ) − m]ψ = 0, (84)

11
 we can rewrite this using the covariant derivative:

Dµ = ∂µ + ieAµ , (85)
thus, (84) becomes:

(iγ µ Dµ − m)ψ = 0. (86)

Physically, the covariant derivative describes the coupling between the electro-
magnetic field and the particle (in this case, the electron). The quantum field the-
ory describing this interaction is Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), which we will
examine in Section 3.1. An important application of the Dirac equation coupled
to electromagnetic fields is the analysis of spin-orbit interaction and the magnetic
moments of nucleons in the quark model, where nucleons are treated as Dirac
particles [2].

2.9 Charge Conjugation

The ”hole theory” provides a framework for interpreting negative energy states
while respecting the Pauli exclusion principle. This theory describes the vacuum
state where all positive energy states are unoccupied, while negative energy states
are completely filled - known in the literature as the Dirac sea. Phenomenologi-
cally:

• A negative-energy electron absorbs radiation and gets excited to a positive

energy state

• This leaves both:

– An electron with charge −|e| and energy +E

– A hole in the Dirac sea (absence of an electron with charge −|e| and
energy −E)

• To an observer, this hole appears as a particle with charge +|e| and energy
+E - the positron

This reveals a fundamental symmetry: every particle has an antiparticle (for

electrons, the positron). This symmetry is called charge conjugation.
Quantitatively, we examine the charge conjugation of (84):

[γ µ (∂µ + ieAµ ) − m]ψ ∗ (x) = 0. (87)

We require an invertible matrix Cγ 0 satisfying:

12
 (Cγ 0 )γ µ∗ (Cγ 0 )−1 = −γ µ ⇒ γ µ∗ = −(Cγ 0 )γ µ (Cγ 0 )−1 , (88)
Substituting (88) into (87):

−(Cγ 0 )γ µ (∂µ + ieAµ )(Cγ 0 )−1 − m ψ ∗ (x) = 0,

 
(89)
this yields:

[γ µ (∂µ + ieAµ ) − m] (Cγ 0 )−1 ψ ∗ (x) = 0, (90)

ee define the charge-conjugated spinor:

ψ c (x) = (Cγ 0 )−1 ψ ∗ (x), (91)

thus:

(γ µ ∂µ + ieγ µ Aµ − m)ψ c (x) = 0. (92)

Comparing equations (90) and (92), we observe that the fundamental differ-
ence lies in the sign of the electric charge. The charge-conjugated spinor ψ c (x) can
be naturally extended to neutrino physics, where it becomes essential for char-
acterizing Majorana neutrinos a subject we will explore in Section 4. From an
experimental perspective, the positron was first discovered in 1933 through cosmic
ray experiments. This seminal discovery led to Dirac and Schrödinger being jointly
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936

3 Quantum Field Theories

Quantum field theories (QFTs) emerge from the fundamental idea of describing
particle interactions through fields. The Dirac equation has an inherent limitation
- it cannot by itself describe interactions between particles, making a field theory
purely based on electrons impossible. Historically, the photon concept predated
the 1950s, with key experiments leading to electromagnetic field quantization in-
cluding:

• The photoelectric effect

• Compton scattering

• Radiation-matter interactions

13
 Following Dirac’s equation, Feynman, Schwinger, Tomonaga, and Dyson (be-
tween 1915-1985) developed perturbative extensions known as Quantum Electrody-
namics (QED). However, QED cannot describe strong interactions, necessitating
the development of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) - the theory of strong in-
teractions between quarks mediated by gluons (the QCD analogs of photons). All
modern field theories are formulated covariantly.

3.1 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)

QED describes the interaction of charged particles with electromagnetic fields and
stands as one of physics’ most precise theories, achieving predictions up to 20
significant digits. Its key experimental verifications include:
• The electron and muon magnetic moments

• The Lamb shift in hydrogen energy levels

Theoretically, QED provides a detailed framework for photon-fermion interac-
tions, particularly for electrons. It describes fundamental processes like:
• Rutherford scattering

• Møller scattering (e− e− → e− e− )

• Bhabha scattering (e+ e− → e+ e− )

• Electron-proton scattering (e− p → e− p)

• Hadron production in e+ e− collisions

• Compton scattering
The formal foundation begins with approximate solutions to the Dirac equation
in external electromagnetic fields (86), The complete solution of the Dirac equation
in an external field can be expressed as:

ψ(x) =
Z Z Z
4 2 4
ψ0 (x)−iϵ d y DF (x−y)A/(y)ψ(y)+(−iϵ) d y DF (x−y)A/(y) d4 y1 DF (y−y1 )ψ(y1 )+· · ·
(93)

where:
• ψ(x) is the full interacting solution

14
 • ψ0 (x) is the free Dirac equation solution

• DF (x − y) is the Feynman propagator

• A(y) represents the external electromagnetic field

Quantum field theory reduces this problem to a perturbative expansion in

powers of the coupling constant ϵ, enabling precise calculations of scattering cross-
sections. Each term in this expansion admits a graphical representation known as
Feynman diagrams. Therefore, the lowest-order transition matrix element in QED
is:
Z
Sf i ≈ δf i ∓ iϵ d4 y ψ f (y)A/(y)ψi (y), (94)

and at second order:

Z Z
4 2
Sf i ≃ δf i ∓iϵ d y ψ f (y)A/(y)ψi (y)∓(−iϵ) d4 y1 d4 y2 ψ f (y1 )A/(y1 )DF (y1 −y2 )A/(y2 )ψi (y2 )+· · · .
(95)
From these, we derive the differential cross-section for electromagnetic pro-
cesses ab → cd [2, 3]

d3 pc d3 pd
dσ ≃ |Mf i |2 δ 4 (pc + pd − pa − pb ) , (96)
(2π)6 2Ec 2Ed
for fermionic particles abcd interacting via the electromagnetic field, equation
(93) describes the scattering cross-section, which depends on the Feynman invari-
ant amplitude |M|2 and the reference frame of the reaction. Considering electron-
positron interactions specifically, we establish Feynman rules for amplitude calcu-
lations. The matrix element can be derived from Green’s functions or propagators
DF , yielding:

Sf i = δ 4 (pc + pd − pa − pb )M, (97)

where the invariant Feynman amplitude is:
 
µ −igµν
iM ≈ (−ieγ )ac (−ieγ ν )bd , (98)
q 2 + iϵ
with q = pd − pb being the momentum transfer. This amplitude is computed
using Feynman diagrams.

15
3.2 Decay Rates in QED
Pn
For a decay process a → k=1 fk (where fk are final state particles), the decay
rate per unit time is:
n n
!
1 2
Y d3 pi 4 4
X
dΓ = |M| (2π) δ pa − pk , (99)
2Ea i=1
2Ei (2π)3 k=1

For the special case of two-body decay in the rest frame:

Z
pf
Γ(a → 1 + 2) ≃ 2 dΩ |M|2 , (100)
ma
the particle’s lifetime is then τ = Γ−1 .

3.3 Gauge Invariance in QED

QED is a gauge theory requiring invariance under local U(1) transformations. The
free Lagrangian:

L = ψ̄(iγ µ ∂µ − m)ψ, (101)

transforms under:

ψ(x) → e−ieα(x) ψ(x), (102)

necessitating the introduction of the gauge covariant derivative:
1
∂µ → Dµ = ∂µ − ieAµ , Aµ → Aµ + ∂µ α, (103)
e
thus, the QED Lagrangian is given by:
1
LQED = ψ̄(iγ µ Dµ − m)ψ − F µν Fµν , (104)
4
here, F µν is the electromagnetic field tensor. It is important to note that quan-
tum electrodynamics does not provide specific predictions about what will happen
in a given experiment, but rather probabilities of different outcomes for a partic-
ular type of situation. That is why experiments use a relatively large number of
particles, which are scattered statistically in accordance with the probabilities pre-
dicted by the theory. From the distribution of scattered particles, one can measure
the effective cross-section and compare it with the predictions of the theory. The
predictions of quantum electrodynamics have been confirmed by experiments to
an extraordinary level of precision: typically, one obtains experimental results that
agree to 12 decimal places with the theoretical predictions. This makes quantum

16
electrodynamics one of the most precise theories ever developed by humankind.
The dynamics and fundamental properties of a field theory are determined by the
form of its Lagrangian. The selection of the Lagrangian depends on the symmetry
of the gauge group and the requirement that the theory describes the interac-
tion among charged fermions. In a theory describing fermionic fields interacting
through a bosonic gauge field associated with massless particles (photons), whose
gauge group is commutative, the Lagrangian in (94) can be taken as the start-
ing point. The physical interpretation is that ψ and its adjoint ψ̄ represent the
charged fermionic fields, more specifically the electron and the positron through
the Dirac spinor. The electromagnetic part of the Lagrangian contains the elec-
tromagnetic field tensor that describes the evolution of the electromagnetic field,
while the covariant derivative Dµ in the Dirac equation describes the free evolution
of fermionic fields, along with their interaction with the electromagnetic field. The
equations of motion are obtained by applying the Euler–Lagrange equations to the
covariant formulation:

(iγ µ Dµ − m)ψ = 0, (105)

∂ν F µν = eψ̄γ µ ψ. (106)

A problem that arises in QED is the renormalization in Feynman rules. The

Feynman rules relate terms and diagrams with the most divergent amplitudes. The
renormalization procedure establishes precise relations between calculated terms
and physical observables, providing additional rules to ”regularize” calculations
and ensure finite numerical results comparable with experimental data. QED
is a renormalizable theory, meaning it contains rules to eliminate unobservable
divergent terms and yield finite physical predictions.

3.4 Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)

Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) extends the framework of QED to describe
nucleon interactions through quark-gluon dynamics, where gluons serve as the
QCD analogs of photons. The strong interaction is characterized by:

• SU(3) color charge symmetry, with quark fields transforming as SU(3) triplets

• Asymptotic freedom - quarks behave as nearly free particles at short dis-

tances

• Increasing interaction strength with separation distance (contrasting QED)

• Gluon self-interactions (unlike photons in QED)

17
 • Color charge conservation via Noether’s theorem

• Color confinement due to gluon self-coupling

• Short interaction range compared to QED

The QCD Lagrangian is given by:

1
LQCD = q̄(iγ µ Dµ − m)q − Gaµν Gµν
a (107)
4
with local gauge transformation:
a
q(x) → e−iαa (x)T q(x) (108)
The covariant derivative in QCD takes the form:
1
Dµ = ∂µ + igT a Gaµ , Gaµ → Gaµ − ∂µ αa − f abc Gbµ αc (109)
g
where Gaµν represents the gluonic field strength tensor (QCD analog of the
electromagnetic tensor):

Gaµν = ∂µ Gaν − ∂ν Gaµ − gf abc Gbµ Gcν (110)

The f abc represent the structure constants of the SU(3) Lie algebra, where
indices a, b, c range from 1 to 8 denoting gluon types. The Gaµ correspond to
the eight vector potential components, with g as the color field coupling con-
stant. The three color charges are conventionally labeled R (red), B (blue), and G
(green) - though these designations are purely formal and unrelated to visual color
(an electromagnetic phenomenon associated with specific wavelengths). When
perturbative methods fail, lattice QCD provides an alternative formulation using
discretized spacetime, originally proposed by Kenneth Wilson in 1974 [3]. This
non-perturbative approach enables numerical computations through:

• Discretization of QCD on a spacetime lattice

• Monte Carlo integration techniques

• Supercomputing implementations.

18
3.5 Hadronic Electrodynamics
3.5.1 Hadronic Currents
The hadronic current emerges as a phenomenological quantity constructed from
general kinematic constraints, independent of specific dynamical assumptions. For
quark transitions, we replace the current with an appropriate transition matrix
element incorporating strong interaction effects:

⟨p(p′ )|hµ (0)|n(p)⟩, (111)

where hµ (x) = q̄(x)γ µ q(x) represents the quark current. The general hadronic
matrix element combines vector and axial-vector components:

hµ (x) = V µ (x) − Aµ (x). (112)

3.5.2 Neutrino-Proton Scattering

For neutrino-proton interactions (with both particles treated as free fermions), the
momentum-space Dirac equations govern their behavior:

(p/ − m)p(pn ) = 0, (113)

(p/ − m)n(pn ) = 0. (114)

Considering the most general bilinear spinor form ū(p′ )Γµ u(p), the hadronic
vector current matrix element takes the form:

⟨p(p′ )|V µ (0)|n(p)⟩ ≃ ū(p′ ) f1 (q 2 )γ µ + f2 (q 2 )σ µν qν + f3 (q 2 )q µ u(p),

 
(115)

where q µ = p′µ − pµ is the momentum transfer and fi (q 2 ) are form factors char-
acterizing the hadronic structure. The form factors f1 (q 2 ), f2 (q 2 ), f3 (q 2 ) depend
on the Lorentz-invariant quantity constructed from pn and pp :
1
pn · pp = [m2n + m2p − q 2 ] where q µ := pµp − pµn , (116)
2
here mp and mn are the constant proton and neutron masses, making the form
factors depend solely on q 2 . Applying the Dirac equation for spinors yields:
 µ
pp + pµn (mn + mp )γ µ

µ
ūp (pp )γ un (pn ) = ūp (pp ) − un (pn ). (117)
2mN 2mN
Using the approximation mp ≈ mn ≃ mN (nucleon mass), we rewrite (115) as:

19
 σ µν qν qµ
 
µ µ 2 2 2
⟨p(pp )|V (0)|n(pn )⟩ ≃ ūp (pp ) γ F1 (Q ) + i F2 (Q ) + F3 (Q ) un (pn ).
2mN mN
(118)
Similarly, the axial-vector current becomes:

qµ 5 pµp + pµn 5
 
µ µ 5 2 2 2
⟨p(pp )|A (0)|n(pn )⟩ ≃ ūp (pp ) γ γ GA (Q ) + γ GP (Q ) + γ G3 (Q ) un (pn ).
mN mN
(119)

3.6 Kinematic Constraints and Symmetries

The form factors are typically expressed as functions of Q2 := −q 2 . For neutron
decay (q 2 > 0), the kinematic range is:

m2e ≤ q 2 ≤ (mn − mp )2 (me ≃ 0.51 MeV, mn − mp ≃ 1.29 MeV) (120)

Key symmetry implications:

• Time-reversal invariance of strong interactions requires F1 , F2 , F3 , GA , GP , G3
to be real

• Isospin symmetry implies F3 (Q2 ) = 0 and G3 (Q2 ) = 0 (second-class currents)

Thus, the simplified vector and axial matrix elements become:

σ µν qν
 
′ µ µ ′ 2 2
⟨p(p )|V (0)|n(p)⟩ ≃ ūp (p ) γ F1 (Q ) + i F2 (Q ) un (p), (121)
2mN

qµ 5
 
′ µ ′µ 5 2 2
⟨p(p )|A (0)|n(p)⟩ ≃ ūp (p ) γ γ GA (Q ) + γ GP (Q ) un (p). (122)
mN
The complete nuclear matrix element for beta decay combines these currents:

σ µν qν
 
µ 2 2
γ F1 (Q ) + i F2 (Q ),

 

2m

′ µ ′ N
⟨p(p )|h (0)|n(p)⟩ ≃ ūp (p ) un (p), (123)
µ 5 2 qµ 5 2 
− γ γ G (Q ) − γ G (Q )

 
 A P 
mN
here F1 , F2 , GA , and GP are the weak charged current form factors of nucleons.

20
3.7 Electromagnetic Current Analogy
The vector hadronic current relates to the electromagnetic current through:

σ µν qν N 2
 
′ µ ′ µ N 2
⟨N (p )|jem |N (p)⟩ ≃ ūN (p ) γ F1 (Q ) + i F (Q ) uN (p), (124)
2mN 2
µ
where N = p, n and jem represents the quark electromagnetic current:

µ 2 X 1 X
jem = q̄a γ µ qa − q̄a γ µ qa , (125)
3 a=u,c,t 3 a=d,s,b

The isovector combinations Fip−n (Q2 ) ≡ Fip (Q2 ) − Fin (Q2 ) are known as the
Dirac (F1 ) and Pauli (F2 ) electromagnetic form factors. The conservation of elec-
µ
tromagnetic current (∂µ jem = 0) eliminates terms proportional to q µ ūN (p′ )uN (p).

3.7.1 Special Case q 2 = 0

Using the spinor normalization convention:
′ ′
ū(s ) (p)γ 0 u(s) (p) = 2Ep δ s s (126)
we derive the form factor constraints at zero momentum transfer:

0
⟨N (p)|jem |N (p)⟩ = 2Ep F1N (0) (127)
Z
1
= d3 x⟨N (p)|e−ip·x jem
0
(x)eip·x |N (p)⟩ (128)
V
1
= ⟨N (p)|Q|N (p)⟩ (129)
V
= 2Ep qN , (130)

Thus, the Dirac form factors yield the nucleon electric charges:

F1p (0) = 1, F1n (0) = 0, (131)

while the Pauli form factors give the anomalous magnetic moments:

µp
F2p (0) = − 1 ≃ 1.792, (132)
µN
µn
F2n (0) = ≃ −1.913, (133)
µN

21
 where µN = eℏ/2mp is the nuclear magneton, and the measured values are:

µp ≃ 2.792µN , (134)
µn ≃ −1.913µN . (135)

3.8 Sachs Form Factors

We define the Sachs electromagnetic form factors:

Q2 N 2
GN 2 N 2
E (Q ) = F1 (Q ) − F (Q ), (136)
4m2N 2
GN 2 N 2 N 2
M (Q ) = F1 (Q ) + F2 (Q ), (137)

which provide:
• GN 2
E (Q ): Electric charge distribution

• GN 2
M (Q ): Magnetic moment distribution

The Sachs form factors satisfy the following normalization conditions:

GpE (0) = 1, (138)

GnE (0) = 0, (139)
µp
GpM (0) = , (140)
µN
µn
GnM (0) = . (141)
µN

3.9 Dipole Form Factor Parameterization

Electron scattering data are typically parameterized using the dipole form factor
GD (Q2 ) for nucleon electromagnetic structure:

GpE (Q2 ) = GD (Q2 ), (142)

GnE (Q2 ) = 0, (143)
µp
GpM (Q2 ) = GD (Q2 ), (144)
µN
n 2 µn
GM (Q ) = GD (Q2 ), (145)
µN

22
 where the dipole form factor is defined as:
−2
Q2

2
GD (Q ) = 1 + 2 , MV ≈ 0.84 GeV. (146)
MV

3.10 Breit Frame Analysis

The electromagnetic form factors characterize the current matrix
p elements in the
Breit frame (special reference frame where q 0 = 0 and |q| = Q2 ):

0
⟨N (pf )|jem |N (pi )⟩ = ūN (pf )γ 0 uN (pi )GN 2
E (Q ), (136)
⟨N (pf )|j em |N (pi )⟩ = ūN (pf )γuN (pi )GN 2
M (Q ). (147)
The form factor GN 2
E (Q ) can be interpreted as the Fourier transform of a spher-
ically symmetric charge distribution ρN (r):
Z
GE (Q ) = d3 r eiq·r ρN (r),
N 2

p
The electric form factor can be expanded for small momentum transfers ( Q2 <
1 GeV):

Z Z
−iq·r sin(|q|r) 1
GN 2
E (Q ) = 3
d r ρN (r)e ≈ 4π dr r2 ρN (r) ≈ 1 − Q2 ⟨rE2 ⟩ (148)
|q|r 6
where ⟨rE2 ⟩ represents the mean squared charge radius. For the proton’s dipole
form factor approximation, the electric charge radius is approximately 1 fm [4].

4 Neutrino Physics
4.1 Neutrino Properties
Neutrinos (a term coined by Enrico Fermi meaning ”little neutral ones” in Italian)
are spin-1/2 fermions with:
• Zero electric charge
• Measured masses mν ≈ 5.34 eV (from recent experiments)
• Mass eigenstates determined by the neutrino mass terms in the Lagrangian
The discovery of neutrino mass emerged from the 1957 Wu experiment (con-
firming parity violation) and subsequent solar neutrino observations.

23
4.2 Dirac Neutrino Dynamics
For Dirac neutrinos, the dynamics are described by:

(iγ µ ∂µ − mν )ν(x) = 0, (149)

where ν(x) is the Dirac spinor. We can decompose it into Weyl spinors:
 
νL (x)
ν(x) = . (150)
νR (x)
These chiral components are eigenstates of γ 5 :

−νL (x) = γ 5 νL (x), (151)

+νR (x) = γ 5 νR (x). (152)

For a generic spinor ψ = ψL + ψR , the projection operators yield:

1 + γ5
νR (x) = νR (x), (153)
2
1 − γ5
νL (x) = νL (x), (154)
2
1±γ 5
where 2
are the projection operators. The Dirac Lagrangian for neutrinos
is:

LD = ν̄(x)(iγ µ ∂µ − m)ν(x), (155)

Substituting (155) into the Euler-Lagrange equations yields:

iγ µ ∂µ νL (x) − mνR (x) = 0, (156)

iγ µ ∂µ νR (x) − mνL (x) = 0. (157)

For massless neutrinos:

iγ µ ∂µ νL (x) = 0, (158)
iγ µ ∂µ νR (x) = 0. (159)

These are known as the Weyl equations. Decomposing (158) and (159):

(γ 0 E − γ · p)νR (x) = 0, (160)

24
 (−γ 0 E − γ · p)νL (x) = 0, (161)
multiplying by γ 5 gives:

Σ · p νR = γ 5 EνR , (162)

Σ · p νL = −γ 5 EνL , (163)
Equations (162) and (163) describe massless chiral fields in terms of the helicity
operator Σ. The chiral fields can be momentum-dependent. The interpretation is
as follows: If the chiral fields are right-handed, the helicity has a positive value,
while left-handed chiral fields have negative helicity. For Majorana neutrinos, we
define a complex spinor satisfying the Dirac equation (149):

ν c (x) = C ν̄ T (x), (164)

where C is the charge conjugation matrix. The Dirac equation (149) can be
written as:

(iγ µ ∂µ − m)ν c (x) = 0. (165)

The charge conjugation matrix satisfies the following relations with gamma
matrices:

C † = C T = C −1 = −C, (166)
µT −1 µ
Cγ C = −γ , (167)
5T −1 5
Cγ C =γ , (168)
Cγ µ γ 5 C −1 = −(γ µ γ 5 )T . (169)

There are also important properties for the complex spinors:

(ν c )c = ν, (170)
νc = ν T C, (171)
ν 1 ν2c = ν c2 ν1 , (172)
(νL )c = (ν c )R , (173)
(νR )c = (ν c )L . (174)

The gamma matrices in the Majorana representation are known as Majorana

matrices. Comparing (149) with (165) we find:

25
 ν(x) = (ν(x))c (175)
This is known as the Majorana condition. In contrast to Dirac neutrinos, three
important consequences emerge:

i) If the field νL (x) is independent of νR (x), it is called a Dirac Neutrino

ii) If νL = (νR )c it is called a Majorana Neutrino

iii) If m = 0 we recover the Weyl equations

Another important but unaddressed aspect is the mass problem for Majorana
vs. Dirac neutrinos. Phenomenologically, the Dirac and Majorana mass matrices
are obtained from the Dirac Lagrangian using diagonalizable unitary matrices
that can be interpreted as neutrino flavor mixing. Note that the unitary mixing
matrices differ between Dirac and Majorana neutrinos.

4.2.1 Electromagnetic Form Factors for Neutrinos

Dirac Neutrino Form Factors For Dirac neutrinos, we consider the current
matrix element ⟨p′ , s′ |jµ (0)|p, s⟩ at x = 0:

⟨p′ , s′ |jµ (0)|p, s⟩ = ūs′ (p′ )Γµ (p′ , p)us (p). (176)

The effective Lagrangian’s hermiticity requires:

Γ†µ = γ0 Γµ (p′ , p)γ0 , (177)

Originally this matrix element is given by:

⟨p′ , s′ |jµ (x)|p, s⟩ = ūs′ (p′ )Γµ (p′ , p)us (p)eiq·x , (178)
applying the 4-derivative:

µx
⟨p′ , s′ |∂ µ jµ (x)|p, s⟩ = ūs′ (p′ )Γµ (p′ , p)us (p)∂ µ eiq µ

µx
, = ūs′ (p′ )q µ Γµ (p′ , p)us (p)eiq µ
,

this implies current conservation, where q µ = pµ − p′µ . The matrix element

for the effective electromagnetic interaction current, expressed via the Gordon
identity, is given by:

Γµ (q, q ′ ) ≃ (q 2 γµ − qµ/q)[F0 (q 2 ) + F1 (q 2 )γ5 ] + σµν q ν [G0 (q 2 ) + iG1 (q 2 )γ5 ] (179)

26
 Here F0 , F1 , G0 , and G1 represent the Lorentz-invariant form factors dependent
on q 2 . Their physical meaning becomes apparent in the non-relativistic limit when
using plane-wave solutions and Dirac gamma matrices:
• G0 (0)B · σ reveals G0 (0) := DM (q 2 ) ≡ µm as the magnetic dipole moment.
• G1 (q 2 ) := DE (q 2 ) ≡ µe as the electric dipole moment.
• F0 (q 2 ) := R(q 2 ) corresponds to the charge radius.
• F1 (q 2 ) := rA (q 2 ) represents the axial charge radius.

4.2.2 Form Factors for Majorana Neutrinos

For Majorana neutrinos, the form factors must satisfy:

R = DM = DE = 0, (180)
leading to:

Γν (q, q ′ ) ≃ (q 2 γν − qν /q)F1 (q 2 )γ5 . (181)

2
The charge radius term R(q ) originates from interactions involving a fermion
bilinear ψ̄γ5 ψ coupled to the electromagnetic field (photon). Similarly:
• The axial charge radius emerges from ψ̄γν γ5 ψ interactions
• The magnetic dipole moment DM from ψ̄σµν ψ
• The electric dipole moment from ψ̄σµν γ5 ψ
Considering the bilinear ψ̄γν γ5 ψ, we define a 4 × 4 matrix F satisfying:

ψ̄F ψ = ψ̄CF T C −1 ψ. (182)

For the specific case F = γµ γ5 :

γµ γ5 = C(γµ γ5 )T C −1 . (183)
Following an analogous procedure to Dirac neutrino form factors, we examine
the matrix element:

⟨p′ , s′ |ψ̄F ψ|p, s⟩ = ūv (p′ )F uv (p) − v̄v (p′ )F vv (p), (184)
alternatively expressed through matrix F :

⟨p′ , s′ |ψ̄F ψ|p, s⟩ = ūv (p′ )(F + CF T C −1 )uv (p). (185)

This shows that Majorana neutrino form factors are associated with dipole
moments from the fermion bilinear ψ̄σµν γ5 ψ.

27
4.3 Form Factors for Weyl Neutrinos
Electromagnetic form factors for Weyl neutrinos involve the bilinears ψ̄σµν ψ and
ψ̄σµν γ5 ψ for dipole moments. Using chiral projection operators:

ψ̄σµν ψ = ψ̄R σµν ψL + ψ̄L σµν ψR (186)

ψ̄σµν γ5 ψ = ψ̄R σµν γ5 ψL + ψ̄L σµν γ5 ψR . (187)
Neglecting charge and axial radii, the form factors reduce to:

    
1 − γ5 1 + γ5
ψ̄γµ (R − r) + (R + r) ψ ≃ ψ̄L γµ [R−r]ψL + ψ̄R γµ [R+r]ψR .
2 2
(188)

4.4 Key Physical Aspects

Two crucial features emerge:
• Weyl neutrinos possess non-zero electromagnetic form factors, similar to
Majorana neutrinos, combining Lorentz-covariant and gauge-invariant struc-
tures
• Neutrino dipole moments must vanish in the massless limit. For massive
neutrinos, dipole moments scale proportionally with mass - lighter neutrinos
exhibit smaller dipole moments [4, 5].

References
[1] M. De Sanctis. An Introduction to Relativistic Quantum Mechanics I. From
Relativity to Dirac Equation. arXiv:0708.0052v3 [[Link]-ph] 30 Sep 2011
[2] Bjorken. J. D, Drell. S.D. Relativistic Quantum Mechanics. McGraw Hill
(1965)
[3] Francis. H, Martin. A. Quarks and Leptons: An Introductory Course in Mod-
ern Particle Physics. John Wiley and Sons. (1984)
[4] Giunti. C, Kim. C. Fundamental of Neutrino Physics on Astrophysics. Oxford
University Press
[5] Mohapatra.R, Palash.P. Massive Neutrinos in Physics and Astrophysics Third
Edition (2004). World Scientific

28