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MODULE-3- Superconductivity:
Zero resistance state, Persistent current, Meissner effect, Critical temperature, Critical
current (Silsbee Effect) – Derivation for a cylindrical wire using ampere’s law, Critical field,
Formation of Cooper pairs - Mediation of phonons, Two-fluid model, BCS Theory - Phase
coherent state, Limitations of BCS theory, examples of systems with low and high electron-
phonon coupling, Type-I and Type-II superconductors, Formation of Vortices, Explanation for
upper critical field, Josephson junction, Flux quantization, DC and AC SQUID, Charge Qubit,
Numerical Problems.

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Superconductivity: Introduction to Superconductors

Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the phenomenon of superconductivity in the year 1911.
When he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance of Mercury at very low
temperature, he found that resistance of Mercury decreases with the decrease in temperature
up to a particular temperature 4.15K. At this temperature, the resistance of mercury abruptly
drops to zero. Between 4.15K and 0K, Mercury offered no resistance for the flow of electric
current. The phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal once again when
temperature was increased above 4.15K. He called this phenomenon as superconductivity and
material, which exhibited this property as superconductor. In subsequent decades,
superconductivity was observed in several other materials.
“The phenomenon in which electrical resistance of certain metals, alloys and compounds
drops to zero abruptly, below a certain temperature is called superconductivity”.

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Zero Resistant state:
` A zero-resistance state (ZRS) refers to a condition where a material or system conducts
electricity with no energy loss due to electrical resistance. The most common example is
a superconductor, a material that exhibits zero electrical resistance below a certain critical
temperature. However, ZRS also occurs in other systems, such as two-dimensional electron
systems (2DES) subjected to strong magnetic fields and microwave irradiation, where the
phenomenon is thought to be driven by radiation-induced effects that alter the electronic
system's dynamics.
A superconductor, below its critical temperature, becomes a zero-resistance state,
allowing electric current to flow indefinitely without any power dissipation .
Persistent current:
When a current of large magnitude is once induced in a superconducting ring then the
current persists in the ring even after the removal of the field as shown in fig.
This is due to the diamagnetic property (i.e.,) the magnetic flux inside the ring will be trapped
in it and hence the current persists.

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Meissner effect:
When a magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen at a temperature below
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critical temperature (TC), the magnetic flux lines are expelled from the interior of
superconductor. This phenomenon is called Meissner effect.
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When a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature (Tc), it undergoes a phase
transition and enters a superconducting state. In this state, the superconductor exhibits perfect
diamagnetism, meaning it repels any external magnetic field from its interior as shown in the
fig given below. This expulsion of magnetic flux is a characteristic feature of the Meissner effect.

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The magnetic susceptibility of a superconductor is –ve and equal to 1. (i.e Χ = -1 ).
Further, it is observed the Meissner effect is reversible. In a superconducting pure metal, the
magnetic flux is expelled from the sample, irrespective of its geometry and sequence in which
the magnetic field is applied.
The magnetization vector 𝑀 ⃗⃗ = magnetic dipole moment per unit volume) can be
⃗⃗ (𝑀
expressed in the following form,
⃗⃗ = 𝛸𝐻
𝑀 ⃗
Where, Χ is the magnetic susceptibility and 𝐻 ⃗ the magnetic field intensity.
For a super conductor, Χ = -1. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∴ 𝑀 = −𝐻 ⃗
Therefore, magnetization in a superconductor is equal and opposite to that of magnetic field
intensity.
Critical Temperature (Tc):
It is the temperature below which the material changes from normal conductor to
superconductor and is denoted as Tc. The critical temperature is also called transition
temperature.

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Critical current (Silsbee effect):
The Silsbee effect explains how a sufficiently large current in a superconductor destroys
its superconducting state.
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When a current flows through a superconductor, it generates its own magnetic field (self-
field). If this self-field, at the surface of the wire, reaches the material's critical magnetic field,
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the superconductivity will be destroyed, causing the material to become a normal
conductor. The maximum current that can flow before this occurs is the critical current (Ic).
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Critical Current (Ic):

Definition:
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The critical current (Ic) is the maximum current a superconductor can carry without
losing its superconductivity.
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Relationship to 𝑯𝒄 :
The value of Ic depends on the geometry of the superconductor and is related to the
critical magnetic field. For a cylindrical wire of radius 'r', the critical current is given by the
formula:
𝐼𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝑐
Where:
Ic is the critical current

r is the radius of the wire

Hc is the critical magnetic field strength

Significance:

The Silsbee effect is a fundamental principle in understanding the limits of

superconducting current carrying capacity. It helps explain why superconductors cannot carry
infinite currents and how their superconducting state can be quenched by excessive current.

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Ampere’s law: Application to a infinite (long) straight cylindrical wire: (Derivation)

Consider an infinite long cylindrical wire. I is the current flows through the cylinder. To
get magnetic field inside and outside the cylindrical wire, we consider 4 points and each point
forms its amperian loop. Let’s say P1 outside the wire, P2 outer surface of the wire,P3 inside
the wire and P4 in the axis of the wire where there is no amperian loop can be formed.

We can take the point surface be at four different places.

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Case 1.
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Point P (say P1) outside the cylindrical wire where r>R
Case 2. At a point P (say P2) at the surface (outer layer) of the cylindrical wire where r=R
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Case 3. At point P (say P3) inside the cylindrical wire where r<R
Case 4. At point P (sayP4) at the axis of the wire where r=0
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Case 1. Point P (say P1) outside the cylindrical wire where r>R

When the point P (Say P1) lying outside the magnetic field and amperian loop (r>R) is tangential
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to the each other. Therefore 𝜃 = 0, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 cos 0 = 1

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By ampere’s law, ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜇0 𝐼

⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ ∮ 𝑑𝑙
𝑜𝑟 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝜋𝑟
s𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∮ 𝑑𝑙

⃗ . 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵

𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ =
𝐵 … … … … … … … (2)
2𝜋𝑟

So the magnetic field is directly proportional to

radius(r),

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⃗ 𝛼
𝐵 … … … … … … . 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃1
𝑟

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Case 2. At a point P (say P2) at the surface (outer layer) of the cylindrical wire where r=R

Now taking point P (say P2) is on the surface of the wire where r=R,

Put r=R in equation (2), we get

𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ =
𝐵 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 … … … … … … … (3)
2𝜋𝑅

We can tell from equation (3) is constant because at every point of the surface, the magnetic field is
constant. Hence magnetic field B is a Constant.

Case 3. At point P (say P3) inside the cylindrical wire where r<R

When point P (say P3) inside the wire, which is smaller than the present loop(P2) where
r<R. Therefore, current through the third amperion loop (P3) is not same as the present loop
(P2).

As current I flows uniformly, it flows across the cross-sectional area of πR2. While the

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closed path encloses only part of the current which passes across the cross-sectional area of πr2.

We know that the current flow I equal to Area of the wire, 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝐼
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Hence current density enclosed by the path,
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𝐼 𝐼
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ′𝑅′ 𝑖𝑠, , 𝐽 = =
𝐴 𝜋𝑅2
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𝐼 𝐼
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ′𝑟′ 𝑖𝑠, , 𝐽 = =
𝐴 𝜋𝑟 2

The current density remains the same inside and outside the loop,
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∴ 𝐽𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝐽𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝

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Total current density flowing through the 𝜋𝑟 2 area at that point P3

𝐼 𝐼𝑎𝑚𝑝
=
𝜋𝑅2 𝜋𝑟 2

𝐼. 𝑟 2
𝐼𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝐼′ = … … … … (4)
𝑅2

By ampere’s law at point P3,

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼′ … … … … . . (5)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵

2
Substitute equation (4) in (5) ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼.𝑟2
⃗ ∮ 𝑑𝑙
𝐵 𝑅

2
⃗ . 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼.𝑟2
𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝜋𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∮ 𝑑𝑙
𝑅

𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ =
𝐵 𝑟 … … … … … … . . (6)
2𝜋𝑅2
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It is clear that magnetic field inside the cylindrical wire is directly proportional to “r”

⃗ 𝛼 𝑟
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐵
𝜇0 𝐼
At the surface r=R both the expressions coincide and the surface field is ⃗ =
𝐵 2𝜋𝑅

A common practical criterion for critical current is that superconductivity is destroyed when the
magnetic induction at the surface reaches a threshold value.

Using the surface-field 𝐵 ⃗ =Bc condition and substitute the surface field from in the above equation and
solve for the critical current I=Ic, we get

𝜇0 𝐼𝑐
𝐵𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑎

We can get the critical current expression as ,

2𝜋𝑎 𝐵𝑐
𝐼𝑐 =
𝜇0

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Where Bc is the critical magnetic field.

This is the required expression for the Derivation of a cylindrical wire.

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Case 4: At point P (sayP4) at the axis of the wire where r=0
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When the point P (say P4) is at the axis of the cylindrical wire where r=0,
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⃗ = 0 … … … . (7)
Therefore, 𝐵

At the axis of the wire, there is no amperion loop we

can form. Hence, where there is no loop no current will be
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considered through the loop.

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By the following cases, we can conclude that,

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1) 𝐵
⃗ 𝛼
𝑟
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃1 (𝑟 > 𝑅)
2) 𝐵
⃗ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃2, (𝑟 = 𝑅)
3) 𝐵 𝛼 𝑟, 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃3 (𝑟 < 𝑅)
4) 𝐵⃗ = 0, t the axis 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃4 (r = 0)

Hence we can conclude that as radius (r) is increasing

the magnetic field (B) also increase. The magnetic field becomes constant at r=R. As r>R, the magnetic
field is inversely proportional to radius ‘r’ as shown in graphically.

Critical field (Hc) and Temperature dependence of critical field:

The magnetic field plays a significant role in the observation of the phenomenon of
superconductivity. When superconductor is placed in a magnetic field, it expels magnetic lines
of force completely out of the body and becomes a perfectly diamagnetic material. However, if
the strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it is found that for a particular value of

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the magnetic field, material loses its superconducting property and becomes a normal
conductor.
The value of the magnetic field at which superconductivity is destroyed is called the
Critical magnetic field, denoted by Hc. It is different for different Superconductors. It was found
that by reducing the temperature of the material further, superconducting property of the
material could be restored. Thus, critical field does not destroy the superconducting property of
the material but only reduces the critical temperature of the material. The variation of critical
field with temperature for a given superconductor is shown below.

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The minimum field required to destroy the superconducting property is given by
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𝑇2
𝐻𝑐 = 𝐻0 (1 − 2 )
𝑇𝑐
Where, H0 is the field required to destroy the superconducting property at 0K, H c the
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minimum field required to destroy the superconducting property at T in K and Tc the transition
temperature of the material.
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Under the influence of a magnetic field whose strength is greater than H 0, the material
can never become superconductor however low the temperature may be.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of superconductors:
Temperature dependence of resistivity of superconductor is as given below.

The resistivity (ρ) decreases with decreasing temperature, similar to a normal metal,
until it reaches a critical temperature Tc. At critical temperature Tc, resistivity drops abruptly

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to zero signifying the transition from normal state to the superconducting state of the material
and it remains zero even up to 0 K.
Concept of Phonon:
Soviet physicist Igor Tamm introduced the concept of phonons in 1932. The name phonon
is taken from the Greek word ‘phone’ which translates to sound or voice, because long
wavelength phonons gives rise to sound.
“A phonon is the elementary excitation in the quantum mechanical treatment of
vibrations in a crystal lattice or the quantum unit of a crystal lattice vibration.”
A phonon is the quantum energy of the lattice vibration just like photons are the quantum
energy of electromagnetic radiations. The study of phonon is very important in solid-state
physics. They play a major role in many of the physical properties like thermal and electrical
conductivity as well as in models of neutron scattering and related effects.
In the free electron theory, electrons in a crystal are treated as if they move
independently, almost as if they were free particles in a metal. However, in reality, the crystal
lattice, which consists of atoms or ions held in a regular repeating pattern, is not completely

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still. The atoms or ions in the lattice are in constant motion, vibrating about their equilibrium
positions due to thermal energy. These vibrations give rise to what we call as phonons.
Phonons represent the vibrational modes of atoms or ions in a crystal lattice.
Phonons are quantized units of lattice vibrations, similar to how photons are quantized units
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of light. They carry both energy and momentum. When an electron moves through the crystal
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lattice, it can interact with phonons. These interactions can scatter electrons, leading to
phenomena like electrical resistance and heat conduction. Phonons play a crucial role in
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understanding the behavior of electrons in a crystal, especially in explaining why some

materials conduct electricity well while others do not.
Formation of Cooper pairs:
The formation of Cooper pairs is the fundamental concept of the Bardeen-Cooper-
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Schrieffer (BCS) theory, which explains the properties of superconductors, such as zero
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electrical resistance.
BCS theory (Qualitative)
Three scientists Barden, Cooper & Schrieffer in the year 1957, which is in short known
as BCS theory, gave this theory of superconductivity. The BCS theory is based on the formation
of Cooper pairs, which is purely a quantum mechanical concept. According to BCS theory, the
basic interaction responsible for superconductivity is that two electrons attract each other via
exchange of virtual phonons (they are called so because of their very short lifetime) which are
emitted by lattice distortion. This is explained as.
When an electron approaches a positive ion core, it undergoes attractive coulomb
interaction thus setting the ion in distortion which emits phonons. Smaller the mass of the
positive ion core, the greater will be the distortion. This interaction called the electron-phonon
interaction leads to scattering of the electron and causes electrical resistivity. The distortion
causes an increase in the density of ions in the region of distortion. The higher density of ions
in the distorted regions attracts, in its turn another electron. If a second electron comes near
distorted ion, the energy of the second electron is lowered by exchange of energy between with
lattice ion. Thus, a free electron exerts an attractive force on another electron through phonons.

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This type of interaction, which is effective at very low temperature, is called electron – lattice
– electron interaction. This interaction causes two electrons of opposite spin & equal and
opposite momenta to attract each other in the presence of phonon field and forms a bound pair
called Cooper pair.
Suppose, an electron of wave vector K emits a virtual phonon q which is absorbed by
another electron having wave vector K1. Then they are scattered as K-q and K1+q as shown in
figure. The resulting electron-electron interaction becomes attractive interaction (Vph). Two
electrons interacting attractively in the phonon field to form a bonded pair is shown in figure.
At normal temperature, the
attractive force is too small and
pairing of electrons does not take
place. At lower temperature i.e.,
below the critical temperature T c ,
the apparent force of attraction
reaches a maximum value for two

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electrons of equal and opposite spins
and opposite momentum. This force
of attraction exceeds the Columbian C
force of repulsion between two
electrons and the electron stick
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together and move as pairs. These pairs of electrons of opposite momenta are called Cooper
pairs.
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A pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with opposite spin
and momenta in a phonon field is called a Cooper pair. The Cooper pair has a total spin of zero.
As a result, the electron pairs in a superconductor are bosons. Each Cooper pair possesses a
single wave function and wave functions associated with similar cooper pairs start overlapping
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and may extend over the entire super conductor. This dense cloud of Cooper pairs from a
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collective state where strong correlations arise among the motions of all pairs because of which
they drift cooperatively through the material.
This leads to union of vast number of cooper pairs resulting in the entire union moving
as a single unit. As we know that any number of Cooper pairs can occupy single energy state,
all Cooper pairs occupy lower energy state called superconducting state. Since the density of
Cooper pairs is quite high, even large currents require only a small velocity. The small velocity
of Cooper pairs combined with their precise ordering minimizes collision process and hence they
do not suffer any scattering. The extremely rare collisions of Cooper pairs with the lattice leads
to zero resistivity.
Advantages: BCS THEORY
1. Provides an explanation of the superconductivity of Type I superconductors.
2. Explains superconductivity within the realms of classical mechanics.
3. Explains the relative difference in superconductivity between metals, better conductors
at normal temperatures are terrible superconductors.
4. Provides an explanation of the superconductivity of Type I superconductors.

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Limitations of BCS theory: Disadvantages:
1. BCS theory cannot explain high Tc superconductivity.
2. BCS assumes only weak electron-electron interaction. In some materials, motion of
electron is strongly dependent on the position and spin of the neighbours’ electrons. This
strong interaction cannot be explained by BCS theory.
3. BCS theory is unable to predict new superconductors.
4. AC current affects the formation of cooper pairs. BCS theory cannot explain the cooper
pairs are formed not only due to electron-phonon (or electron-lattice) interaction.
5. There are some other mechanisms such as d -wave pairing, p-wave pairing, BCS theory
fails to explain the formation of cooper pairs by these mechanisms.
Mediations of Phonons:
We find that phonon-mediated superconductivity explains the main experimental
findings, namely the displacement field and doping level dependence of the critical
temperature, and the presence of two superconducting regions with different pairing
symmetries that depend on the parent normal state.

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Two fluid model:
When a material is cooled
below its superconducting C
transition temperature Tc, it
proceeds immediately into the
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superconducting phase. As the
materials cools down below Tc, not
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all electrons in the materials jump into the superconducting phase at once. They become
superconducting one by one (or rather pair –by–pair). As the material becomes colder, more
electrons enters into the superconducting phase. There exists normal electrons and
superconducting electrons simultaneously. The presence of two types of electrons, coexisting in
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the superconductor can be treated as two fluids of electrons. This is called two-fluid model.
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The term fluid originates from Drude’s classical fee electron theory where free electrons
as treated as ‘Fluid’.
So, the two fluid model of a superconductor treats each electron in the superconductor as
participating in one of the two fluids: say the normal fluid or the superconducting fluid. These
two fluids coexists, and they both flow simultaneously and in parallel through the
superconducting fluid. The number density of electrons in normal fluid state Nn and that in
superconducting fluid state Ns depends on the temperature. As temperature decreases Nn
decreases and Ns increases.
According to this model, conduction electrons in a superconductor below its transition
temperature divide into two types: super-electrons and normal electrons. Super electrons can
move in a superconductor without any resistance, whereas normal electrons behave in the usual
fashion suffering collisions and thereby experience resistance. The number of super-electrons
is a function of temperature and can be expressed as
𝑻 𝟒
𝑵𝒔 = 𝑵𝒏 [𝟏 − ( ) ]
𝑻𝑪
Where, Nn is the total number of density of electrons.
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Explanation:
Fig. shows the temperature variation of the fraction of super-electrons in a
superconductor. Note that at absolute zero, all conduction electrons behave like super-electrons.
As temperature increases, some of them start
behaving like normal electrons I dependence of the
and at the transition temperature, all the electrons
become normal and superconductivity disappears.
Number of super-electrons relative to normal
electrons in superconducting state below the
transition temperature, current can be carried by
normal as well as super-electrons, You may ask: Why
then we do not observe any resistance? In fact, the
super-electrons short circuit normal electrons and we
observe zero resistance. A superconducting specimen
essentially behaves like two conductors connected in

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parallel; one having a normal resistance and the other
zero resistance. This model could qualitatively explain
zero resistance. But it failed to explain Meissner effect
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and other properties of superconductors. Moreover,
this model is not based on basic principles.
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London theory of superconductivity deals with
the discussion on electromagnetic principles of superconductors and could explain the Meissner
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effect. It also used the two-fluid model and is semi-phenomenological as it uses an equation
which at that time could not be derived from the first principles. The more comprehensive
theory of superconductivity was proposed by BCS, which is capable of explaining all the
observed phenomena relating to conventional superconductors. It starts with first principles
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and using quantum concepts, explains the occurrence of zero resistance, the Meissner effect,
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the observed temperature dependence of heat capacity and so on. Since meaningful discussion
of BCS theory is possible only using advanced quantum mechanical concepts and mathematical
techniques, for simplicity, we discuss it here only qualitatively.
Phase coherent state in superconductors:
The electrons in a cooper pairs have opposite spins so that the total spin is zero and the
pair behaves as bosons (Bosons means particle having zero spin). Any number of them can exist
in the same quantum state at the same time. All the pairs are in the same ground state and
can be explained by a single wave function. This is known as Phase coherence state.
In superconductors, the phase-coherent state refers to a macroscopic quantum state
where the Cooper pairs; formed by two electrons, act as a single entity, behaving like bosons. In
this state, the phase of the superconducting order parameter—the collective wave function of
the Cooper pairs—is well defined and uniform throughout the material. This collective, phase-
locked behavior is responsible for superconductivity's defining characteristics, such
as dissipation less and super fluidity.
The ability of the superconductor to flow without resistance is a direct consequence of
this phase-coherent state.

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Formation of the Coherent State:

These Cooper pairs then condense into a single, macroscopic quantum state.
In this state, the quantum mechanical phase of the electronic wave function is not
random but is "rigid," meaning the phase is uniform and consistent across the entire
superconductor. This unified phase is known as the phase-coherent state.
Quantum Tunneling:
The phase coherence allows for quantum effects like the Josephson effect, where a
supercurrent can tunnel through a thin insulating barrier between two superconductors. The
cooper pairs can tunnel through the insulator (without being destroyed) giving a current from
one superconductor into the other. This is known as quantum tunneling or Cooper pair
tunneling. Also called as Josephson Effect.
Electron - phonon coupling: Definition:

Electron-phonon coupling (EPC) also provides in a fundamental way an attractive

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electron-electron interaction, which is always present and, in many metals, is the origin of the
electron pairing underlying the macroscopic quantum phenomenon of superconductivity. The
interaction between electron and quantized lattice vibrations (or phonons) is known as electron-
phonon coupling. It can be weak or strong.
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Examples of systems with low and high electron-phonon coupling:
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Examples of systems with low electron-phonon coupling include gold and other simple
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noble metals, which exhibit weak interactions between electrons and lattice vibrations, while
high coupling examples include superconductors like cuprates and complex materials such
as MgB2 and aluminum, where the electron-phonon interaction is strong enough to
significantly influence material properties like superconductivity and electron mobility.
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Low Electron-Phonon Coupling Systems:

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In weak interaction, there is no scattering of electrons, they move easily, and hence the
conductivity is high. Example; Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu) etc...

Gold is a well-known example of a material with low electron-phonon coupling. This is

evident in its phonon dynamics, where phonon-phonon interactions are comparatively stronger
than electron-phonon interactions.

High Electron-Phonon Coupling Systems:

In strong interactions (high electron-phonon coupling) , electrons strongly affected by the

lattice vibrations and hence cooper pairs are formed thereby materials becomes superconductor,
Examples: Lead (Pb), Aluminum (Al), some high pressure hydrides and etc…

Aluminum:
Aluminum exhibits a relatively strong electron-phonon coupling, particularly for longitudinal
phonon modes, which couple more significantly to electrons than other phonon branches.

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MgB2:
This material shows strong electron-phonon coupling in specific phonon modes, such as the
E2g in-plane phonons near the zone center, which strongly couple with sigma-bonding states.
Cuprates (High-Temperature Superconductors):
Electron-phonon coupling has been proposed as a significant component for high-temperature
superconductivity in cuprates. While not the sole mechanism, strong electron-boson coupling
is spectroscopically observed.
Semiconductors (e.g., MoSe2):
In semiconductor photo catalysts like MoSe2, electron-phonon interactions slow
electron mobility, increasing their effective mass, which influences device performance and
efficiency.
Types of Super Conductors:

Superconductors are classified into two types;

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1. Type I Superconductor or Soft Superconductor.
2. Type II Superconductor or Hard Superconductor.
Type-I Superconductor (Soft Superconductors) C
Type I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner’s Effect. The graph of magnetic
moment V/s magnetic field is as shown in the Figure 1. As the field strength increases, the
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material becomes more diamagnetic until H becomes equal to Hc. Above Hc the material allows
the magnetic flux to pass through and exhibits normal conductivity. The value of critical field
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Hc is very small for soft superconductors. Therefore, soft superconductors cannot withstand
high magnetic fields. Therefore, they cannot be used for making superconducting magnets. Ex.
Hg, Pb and Zn.
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Figure 1
Type-II Superconductors (Hard Superconductors):
They do not exhibit complete Meissner effect. The superconductors are characterized by
two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2 namely lower critical field and upper critical filed respectively.
The graph of magnetic moment V/s magnetic field is as shown in the Figure 2. When H<Hc1
material exhibits perfect diamagnetism. Beyond Hc1 partial flux penetrates and the material is

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said to be Vortex State. Thus flux penetration occurs through small-channelized regions called
filaments. As H>Hc1 more and more flux fills the body and thereby decreasing the diamagnetic
property of the material. At Hc2 the flux fills the body completely and material losses its
diamagnetic property as well as superconducting property completely. The H c2 value is greater
than Hc of soft superconductors. Therefore, they are used for making powerful superconducting
magnets. Examples: NbTi, Nb3Sn.

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Figure-2

Difference between Type-I and Type-II superconductors.

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Formation of Vortices:
Vortices form in Type-II
superconductors above a critical magnetic field
strength (Hc1) when an external magnetic field
penetrates the material in discrete flux tubes,
called Abrikosov vortices, which contain a non-
superconducting core surrounded by
circulating supercurrents. This mixed
state allows for magnetic flux to be partially
expelled from the bulk of the superconductor,
while the remaining flux is confined to these
vortices arranged in a lattice to minimize
system energy. This process enables the superconductor to remain superconducting to a higher
applied magnetic field (Hc2) than Type-I superconductors, which exhibit complete magnetic
expulsion.

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Upper critical field (Hc2):

The upper critical field (Hc2) is the maximum magnetic field strength at which a
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material remains superconducting at a given temperature and pressure. Above Hc2,
superconductivity is destroyed, and the material returns to its normal (non-superconducting)
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state. .
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Explanation for upper critical field:

The upper critical field (Hc2) is the maximum magnetic field strength at which a type-II
superconductor can still maintain its superconducting state at a given temperature; above this
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field, superconductivity is completely destroyed.

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This value is a crucial characteristic for both understanding the fundamental properties
of a superconductor, such as the pairing mechanism of electrons, and for practical applications
like superconducting magnets.

It is temperature-dependent, decreasing as temperature increases towards the critical

temperature (Tc), and is influenced by factors such as the material's coherence length, Pauli
paramagnetism (spin-related effects), and orbital effects (magnetic field interactions).

This property is crucial for the practical applications of superconductors, defining their
operational limits in devices like superconducting magnets. It is a temperature-dependent
function, and the value at absolute zero (0 K) is often considered for theoretical analysis.

Josephson Junctions (Qualitative)

In 1962, B.D. Josephson predicted a number of remarkable phenomena about
superconductivity, which are used to understand the superconducting properties. Persistent
current in dc voltage is the principle used in Josephson device.

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An insulating material of thickness nearly 1 to 2 nm sandwiched between two different
superconducting materials (S1 and S2) is known as Josephson device or Josephson junction. The
Josephson device is shown in figure, where S 1 and S2 are the two different superconductors.

DC Josephson Effect:
The pair of electrons present in a superconducting material is in the same phase.
Whenever a Josephson junction is formed by sandwiching an insulator in between two different
superconductors, the Cooper pairs present in two different superconducting materials need not

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be in the same phase and their density may also be different. There will be a tunnelling of
superconducting electrons from one side with higher electron density to another side with lower
electron density across the junction. Due to this tunnelling of electrons, a dc voltage appears
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across the Josephson device, even though no field is applied there. This phenomenon is said to
be DC Josephson effect.
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The insulating layer introduces a phase difference () between wave function of cooper
pairs on either side and hence super current appears even though the applied voltage is zero.
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Super current (or junction current) is given by

𝐼𝐽 = 𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
Where, Ic is the maximum junction current that depends on the thickness of insulating
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layer. It is quite small (between 1μA to 1mA).

AC Josephson Effect:
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If we apply DC voltage across the Josephson junction, it introduces an additional phase

difference between the Cooper pairs and an alternating current is generated. This is known as
AC Josephson Effect. The frequency of alternating current is directly proportional to applied
voltage V and is given by
2𝑒𝑉
𝜈=
ℎ
The photon energy of emission or absorption at the junction is hν = 2eV
2𝑒𝑉 2 × 1.602 × 10−19
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝜈 = =
ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
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ν = 483.5 × 10 V Hz
For an applied voltage of 1µV, the frequency of the ac signal is
ν = 483.5 × 1012 V = 483.5 × 1012 × 10−6 =
ν = 483.5 MHz
By measuring the frequency of the AC signal accurately, the value of e/h and the photon
energy, 2eV are accurately measured.

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SQUIDS: DC and RF SQUIDs (Qualitative)
SQUID is an acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It is based on
the principle of Josephson effect. SQUID is basically a sensitive magnetometer and it is used
to measure extremely weak magnetic fields as small as 10 -21T.

There are two types of SQUID namely

 DC SQUID and
 RF SQUID (or AC SQUID).
DC-SQUID:
DC-SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions (P and Q) arranged in parallel to form a
loop and a DC source is connected across X and Y as shown in the figure. As a result, biasing
current enters at X and leaves at Y. Let I1 and I2 be the tunneling currents across P and Q.
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the arrangement, a phase difference is
introduced between I1 and I2 and they overlap to produce interference effect (very much similar
to Young’s double slit experiment). In superconductors the current is caused by the Cooper

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pairs. Cooper pairs are associated with de-Broglie waves. Applied magnetic field introduces
phase shift between these waves and hence they interfere when arrive at Y. The resultant
current is C
𝜋𝜙
𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
0
𝐼𝑟 =
𝜋𝜙
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𝜙0
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ℎ
Where,  is the flux linked with the SQUID and 𝜙0 = (2𝑒 = 2.06 × 10−15 𝑤𝑏/𝑚2 )𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥𝑜𝑖𝑑.
𝐼𝑟 𝜙
A graph of 𝑉/𝑆 is as shown above. The graph is exactly similar to intensity distribution
𝐼𝐶 𝜙0
0 in single slit diffraction of light. By measuring the resultant current in the SQUID, one can
determine the applied magnetic field. It is possible to measure very small magnetic fields
using this arrangement.

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RF-SQUID (or) AC-SQUID:
The RF (Radio Frequency) SQUID is a
one-junction SQUID loop and is used as a
magnetic field detector. Although it is less
sensitive than the DC SQUID, it is cheaper and
easier to manufacture and is therefore more
commonly used. It is as shown in fig (i).

RF SQUID loop is placed near a LC circuit which is connected to RF AC source as shown in Fig
(ii).

The loop is immersed in a

magnetic field whose flux is 
(to be measured).
Now pass an oscillating current

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(I) through LC circuit from the
RF source. It induces magnetic
flux RF. This flux is coupled
with the loop. The total external
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flux is
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𝑒𝑥 𝑅𝐹
The loop is linked to circuit through mutual inductance. By chance if the flux in the loop
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() changes, there will be corresponding changes in ex. Any changes in the total flux  ex will
induce emf (according to Faraday’s law) in the LC circuit and hence voltage (V) across LC
changes. By measuring the change in voltage V, one can measure the magnetic flux () and its
variation w.r.t. time.
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SQUIDS are used in

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 Measurement of magnetic fields as small as 10-21T produced by biological currents such

as in human heart and brain.
 Geophysical measurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
 Nondestructive testing (testing the material without damaging it)
 Fabrication of qubits (in quantum computing)
Applications in Quantum Computing:
Charge Qubit:
In quantum computing, a charge qubit ia also known as cooper pairs box. It is a qubit
whose basis states are charge states. The states represent the presence of absence of excess
cooper pairs in the island (dotted region in the figure). In superconducting quantum computing,
a charge qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting is an coupled by Josephson junction to a
superconducting reservoir.

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Flux Qubit:
Flux qubits (also called as persistent current
qubits) are micrometer sized loops of superconducting
metal that is interrupted by a number of Josephson
junctions. These devices function as quantum bits.
The Josephson junctions are designed so that the
persistent current will flow continuously when
external magnetic field is applied. Only integer
number of flux quanta are allowed to penetrate the
superconducting ring.
Phase Qubit:
A phase qubit is a current-biased Josephson
junction, operated in the zero voltage state with a non-
zero current bias. This employs a single Josephson
junction and the two levels are defined by quantum

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oscillations of the phase different between the
electrodes of the junction. DC squid is a type of phase
qubit. C
1. Low temperature superconductors:
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When the transition temperature is low (<20 K), such superconductors are called as low
temperature superconductors and they have no practical use.
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2. High temperature superconductors:

When the transition temperature is high, (>20 K) they are called as high temperature
superconductors.
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High Temperature superconductivity:

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Superconducting materials which exhibit superconductivity at relatively higher

temperatures are called high temperature superconductors. Thus high temperature
superconductors posses higher value of critical temperature compared to conventional
superconductors. Most of the high temperature superconductors are found to fall into the
category of ceramics. All high temperature superconductors are oxides of copper and bear
Perovskite crystal structure characterized by large number of copper-oxygen layers. It was
found that addition of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the critical temperature Tc to higher
values. The super currents are strong in the copper-oxygen layer and weak in the direction
perpendicular to the planes. Ex: in 1986, George Bednorz and Alex Muller discovered a
compound containing Lanthanum, Barium, Copper and Oxygen having Tc =30K was developed.
In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is an oxide of the form YBa2Cu3O7 which is
referred to as 1-2-3 compound with Tc > 90K was discovered. Following is the list of High
Temperature Superconductors.
High temperature superconductors:
The low temperature superconductors usually have transition temperatures below 30K
and must be cooled using liquid helium (4K) in order to achieve superconductivity. High

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temperature superconductors have been observed with transition temperatures as high as 134
K and can be cooled to superconductivity using liquid nitrogen (77K) which is much cheaper
and easily accessible as compared to liquid helium.
• 1986, George Bednorz and Karl Müller at IBM, Zurich confirmed superconductivity in
Perovskite structured lanthanum based cuprate oxide material Tc= 35 K).
• 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of “high temperature” superconductivity in
ceramic materials.
• Examples of High temperature superconductors.
• YBa2Cu3O7 (92K), Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O6 (110K), Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 (125K) and HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8
(134K).
• The chemical substitution in perovskite cuprates push the transition temperatures well
beyond 35 Kelvin. The reason of superconductivity in high temperature superconductors cannot
be explained using BCS theory. Several models emerged for explaining high temperature
superconductivity but none of them fully explained the phenomenon.

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MODULE 3 – SUPERCONDUCTIVITY - NUMERICALS

1. The critical temperature of Nb is 9.15K. At zero kelvin, the critical field is 0.196T.
Calculate the critical field at 8K?
𝑇 2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐
8 2
𝐻𝐶 = 0.196 [1 − ( ) ]
9.15
𝐻𝐶 = 0.046 𝑇
2. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead is 7.26 K. The initial field at 0K is
50 × 103 𝐴𝑚𝑝 𝑚– 1. Calculate the critical field at 6 K.
(CSE Stream, JAN/FEB – 2024 | 22S)

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑇𝑐 = 7.26𝐾, 𝑇 = 6𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻0 = 50 × 103 𝐴𝑚−1

𝑇 2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]

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𝑇𝑐
6 2
𝐻𝐶 = 50 × 103 [1 − ( ) ]
C 7.26
𝐻𝐶 = 15849.32 𝑇 𝑂𝑟 15.849 × 103 𝐴𝑚𝑝 𝑚−1
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3. Lead in the superconducting state has a critical temperature of 6.2K at zero magnetic
field and a critical field of 0.064Mam-1 at 0K. Determine the critical filed at 4K.
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𝑇 2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐
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4 2
𝐻𝐶 = 0.064 [1 − ( ) ]
6.2
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𝐻𝐶 = 0.0373 𝑇
4. The superconducting transition temperature of lead of 7.26 K. The initial field at 0 K is
64 × 103 Amp m–1. Calculate the critical field at 5 K.

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5. Calculate the critical current and current density for a wire of a lead having a diameter
of 1 mm at 4.2 K. The critical temperature for lead is 7.18 K and H = 6.5 × 10 4 Am–1.

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6. Find the critical current which can pass through a long thin superconducting wire of
aluminum of diameter 2 mm, the critical magnetic field for aluminum is 7.9 × 103 A m–1.

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7. Calculate the critical current, which can flow through a long thin super
conducting wire of diameter 1 mm. The critical magnetic field is 7.9 ×
103 Amp m.

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