CHAPTER

Probability
15
If we were to consider an India vs. Pakistan cricket match today, predicting the outcome involves
probability.

PROBABILITY
‰ The terms ‘Probably’ ‘in all likelihood’, ‘chance’, ‘odds in favor’, ‘odds against’ are too familiar
nowadays and they have their origin in a branch of Mathematics, known as Probability.
‰ Thus, it is a branch of mathematics that deals with quantifying uncertainty and analyzing the
likelihood of events occurring.
Probability

Subjective Probability Objective Probability

SUBJECTIVE PROBABILITY
‰ Subjective probability is based on an individual’s personal beliefs, judgments, and opinions
about the likelihood of an event.
‰ It is often used when there is limited or no historical data available to estimate probabilities
objectively.
‰ Subjective probabilities are influenced by personal experiences, biases, and perceptions.

OBJECTIVE PROBABILITY
‰ Objective probability, also known as frequentist probability, is based on observed or historical
data and the relative frequency of an event occurring in a large number of trials or observations.
‰ It is considered a more objective and data-driven approach to probability, as it relies on
empirical evidence.
‰ Objective probability can be expressed as a ratio of the number of favorable outcomes to the
total number of possible outcomes.
In order to develop a sound knowledge about probability, it is necessary to get ourselves
familiar with a few terms.
‰ EXPERIMENT: An experiment refers to the performance of certain tasks to produce certain
results.
‰ RANDOM EXPERIMENT: A random experiment is one in which the results depend solely
on chance and cannot be predicted with certainty.
‰ SAMPLE SPACE: The set of all possible distinct outcomes of a random experiment is known
as sample space. It is denoted by ‘S’.
E.g.: When a coin is tossed, then S = {H, T}
‰ EVENTS: Events are the results or outcomes of a random experiment. Sometimes, it gives a
combination of outcomes.
For example, {HH} represents the event of getting 2 heads.

TYPES OF EVENTS
1. Simple Event: An event consisting of a single outcome.
 Example: Rolling a 4 on a die (E = {4}).
2. Compound Event: An event consisting of multiple outcomes.
 Example: Rolling an even number on a die (E = {2, 4, 6}).
3. Certain Event: An event that is guaranteed to occur.
 Example: Rolling a number less than 7 on a die (E = S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}).
4. Impossible Event: An event that cannot occur.
 Example: Rolling a 7 on a standard die (E = j).

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS OR INCOMPATIBLE EVENTS

These are events that cannot occur simultaneously.
E.g.: Consider rolling a six-sided die. The events “rolling a 1” and “rolling a 2” are mutually
exclusive because it is impossible for both events to occur simultaneously.
‰ Two events A and B are mutually exclusive if P(A ∩ B) = 0, meaning there are no common
outcomes between A and B.
‰ Similarly, three events A, B, and C are mutually exclusive if P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 0, meaning there
are no common outcomes among all three events.
EXHAUSTIVE EVENTS
Exhaustive events are events that together cover all possible outcomes of an experiment.
E.g.:
1. In a coin toss, there are two exhaustive events: “Getting heads” or “Getting tails”.
2. In throwing a die, there are 6 exhaustive events: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
(a) Two events A and B are exhaustive if P(A ∪ B) = 1, meaning all possible outcomes are
covered by A and B.
(b) Similarly, three events A, B, and C are exhaustive if P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 1, meaning all possible
outcomes are covered by A, B, and C.
EQUALLY LIKELY EVENTS or Mutually Symmetric Events or Equi-Probable Events: Equally
likely events are events that have the same probability of occurring.
E.g.: In a fair coin toss, getting heads or tails is an example of equally likely events.
‰ Three events A, B, and C are equally likely if P(A) = P(B) = P(C), meaning the probabilities of
each event are the same.

738 Quantitative Aptitude PW

ABOUT PLAYING CARDS
TOTAL CARDS = 52
‰ Diamond (13) ‰ Club (13)
‰ Heart (13) ‰ Spade (13)

1. Total playing cards: 52 5. Number of King cards: 4

2. Total number of suits: 4 6. Number of Queen cards: 4
3. Number of cards in a suit: 13 7. Number of Jack cards: 4
4. Number of Ace cards: 4 8. Number of face cards: 12

CLASSICAL DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY OR

A PRIOR DEFINITION
FOR FINITE ELEMENTARY EVENTS
Let’s consider a random experiment that results in n finite elementary events, which are assumed
to be equally likely. If nA (≤ n) events are favorable to an event A, then the probability of occurrence
of event A is defined as the ratio of the number of events favorable to A to the total number of
events. This can be expressed as:
n A Number of events favorable to A
P(A)
= =
n Total number of events
FOR COMPOSITE EVENTS
In the case of composite events that are mutually exclusive, exhaustive, and equally likely, we can
consider m (≤ n) such events. If mA (≤ nA) represents the number of mutually exclusive, exhaustive,
and equally likely events favourable to A, then the probability of event A is given by:
Number of mutually exclusive, exhaustive,
mA and equally likely events favorable to A
P(A)
= =
m Total number of mutually exclusive, exhaustive,
and equally likely events
E.g.: Consider the rolling of a dice once. The sample space S is given by S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
We define events A, B and C as follows:
A: The event of getting an even number: A = {2, 4, 6}
B: The event of getting an odd number: B = {1, 3, 5}
C: The event of getting a multiple of 3: C = {3, 6}

Calculation of Probabilities
Now, let’s apply the classical definition of probability to the given example:
‰ P(A) is the probability of getting an even number. Since there are 3 even numbers in S and a
3 1
total of 6 sample points, we have P(A)= =
6 2 3 1
‰ P(B) is the probability of getting an odd number. There are 3 odd numbers in S, so P(B)= =
6 2

Probability 739
‰ P(C) is the probability of getting a multiple of 3. Among the 6 sample points, 2 of them are
2 1
multiples of 3. Therefore, P(C)= =
6 3
‰ Also, since P (A € B) = 0 since A € B = {2, 4, 6} € {1, 3, 5} = f
Thus, A and B are mutually exclusive events.

Example 1. A die is thrown, then the probability of getting a prime number is

1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
6 2 3
Sol. (b) When a die is thrown, then the sample space will be:
Total outcomes = 6
Now, event of getting a prime number is: {2, 3, 5}
i.e., Number of favourable outcomes = 3
3 1
Thus, the required probability = =
6 2
Hence, the correct option is (b).
Example 2. The probability that exactly one head appears in a single throw of two fair coins is
 (ICAI)
3 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
4 2 4
Sol. (b) The sample space of throwing two coins in a single time is given by: {(H, H); (H, T); (T, H);
(T, T)}
⇒ Total no. of possible outcomes = 4
Now, the outcomes of appearing exactly one head is (H, T); (T, H)
⇒ Total no. of favorable outcomes = 2
We know that,
Number of favorable outcomes
Probability =
Total number of outcomes
1
Hence, the correct option is (b) i.e.
.
2
Example 3. A bag contains 15 one rupee coins, 25 two rupee coins and 10 five rupee coins. If a coin
is selected at random from the bag, then the probability of not selecting a one rupee coin is
 (ICAI)
(a) 0.30 (b) 0.70 (c) 0.25 (d) 0.20
Sol. (b) We know that,
Number of favourable outcomes
Probability =
Total outcomes
Number of favourable outcomes = 25 + 10 = 35
Total outcomes = 25 + 10 + 15 = 50

740 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 35 7
=
Therefore, the required probability = = 0.7
50 10
Hence, the correct option is (b) i.e., 0.7
Example 4. Three coins are tossed together. The probability of getting three tails is (ICAI)
(a) 5/8 (b) 3/8 (c) 1/8 (d) None of these
Sol. (c) The sample space of tossing 3 coins is given by,
S = { HHH, TTT, HTT, THT, TTH, THH, HTH, HHT}
where, { H → Heads, T → Tails}
Here, total outcomes = 8
Favorable outcomes = { TTT} = 1
We know that,
Favorable Outcomes 1
Probability (P) = = .
Total Number of Outcomes 8
1
Hence, the correct answer is option (c) i.e., .
8
Example 5. A coin is tossed three times. What is the probability of getting:
(I) 2 tails (II) at least 2 tails
3 5 3 3 3 1
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d) None of these
8 8 8 8 8 8
Sol. (d) Given: A coin is tossed three times
Thus, the events are: {(HHH), (HHT), (HTH), (THH), (HTT), (THT), (TTH), (TTT)}
(I) Events of 2 tails: {(HTT), (THT), (TTH)}
3
Therefore, the required probability =
8
(II) Events of at least 2 tails: {(HTT), (THT), (TTH), (TTT)}
4 1
Therefore, the required probability= =
8 2
Hence, the correct option is (d).
Some key points related to the classical definition of probability:
1. The probability of an event lies between 0 and 1, inclusive. It cannot be negative or greater
than 1.
2. The non-occurrence of event A is denoted by A' or Ac or A and is known as the complementary
event of A. The event A and its complementary event A' form a set of mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events.
3. The ratio of the number of favourable events to the number of unfavourable events is known
as the odds in favour of event A. Its inverse ratio is known as the odds against event A. i.e. If
'p' be the number of favourable outcomes of an event and 'q' be the number of unfavourable
outcomes of the event, then

Probability 741
  p p q
Probability = where is the odds in favour of event and is the odds against the
p+q q p
event.
5
Example 6. If P(A) = , then the odds against the event A is (ICAI)
9
(a) 5 : 9 (b) 5 : 4 (c) 4 : 5 (d) 5 : 14
Sol. (c) We know that,
p
Probability of the event is given by
p+q
p q
where are the odds in favor of an event and are the odds against an event.
q p
5
Given, P(A) =
9
p 5
⇒ =
p+q 9
⇒ 9p = 5p + 5q
⇒ 4p = 5q
q 4
⇒ =
p 5
Hence, the correct option is (c).
Example 7. Three unbiased coins are tossed simultaneously, then the probability of getting at least
2 heads is
1 1 1 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 2 3 4
Sol. (b) Here, the sample space
= {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, TTH, THT, HTT, TTT}
Now, the number of favourable outcomes ={HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
4 1
Thus, the required probability= =
8 2
Hence, the correct option is (b).
Example 8. A dice is rolled twice. What is the probability of getting a difference of 5 points?
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
18 36 9
Sol. (a) A dice is rolled twice
Then the total number of outcomes,
n(S) = {(1, 1); (1, 2); (1, 3); (1, 4); (1, 5); (1, 6)
(2, 1); (2, 2); (2, 3); (2, 4); (2, 5); (2, 6)

742 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 (3, 1); (3, 2); (3, 3); (3, 4); (3, 5); (3, 6)
(4, 1); (4, 2); (4, 3); (4, 4); (4, 5); (4, 6)
(5, 1); (5, 2); (5, 3); (5, 4); (5, 5); (5, 6)
(6, 1); (6, 2); (6, 3); (6, 4); (6, 5); (6, 6)}
The favourable outcomes of getting a difference of 5 points are {(1, 6); (6,1)}
We know that,
Number of favorable outcomes
Probability = Total number of outcomes
n(A) 2 1
Then, p (getting difference of 5 points) = = =
n(S) 36 18
Hence, the correct option is (a).
Example 9. Find the probability that a four digit number comprising the digits 2, 5, 6 and 7 would
be divisible by 4.
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
4 3 24
Sol. (b) Given digits: 2, 5, 6, 7
Here, these 4 numbers can be form a 4 digit number in 4! = 24 ways
For a four digit number to be divisible by 4, its last two digits should also be divisible by 4.
So, the possible last digits: 52, 56, 72, 76.
Thus, if we have the last two digits as 52, so the 1st two places of the four digit number can
be filled up using the remaining 2 digits i.e., in 2! or 2 ways.
i.e., 6752 and 7652
Thus there are 2 four digit numbers that end with 52.
Similarly, the number of four digit numbers that are divisible by 4 is 4 × 2 = 8.
We know that,
Number of favorable outcomes
Probability =
Total number of outcomes
8 1
Thus, the required probability = =
24 3
Hence, the correct option is (b).
Example 10. A committee of 6 members is to be formed from a group comprising 6 gentlemen and
4 ladies. What is the probability that the committee would comprise:
(I) 3 ladies (II) at least 3 ladies
8 19 24 19 1 5
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d) None of these
21 42 110 42 21 21
Sol. (a) Given that,
Number of gentlemen = 6
Number of ladies = 4
Total members = 6 + 4 = 10

Probability 743
 (I) The committee has 3 ladies:
Total ways of selection of 6 members
10 10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7
= C6 = = = 10 × 3 × 7 = 210
6! × 4! 4!
Since, the committee should have 3 ladies thus the number of gentlemen would be 3.
6! 4!
Thus, the possible ways = 6 C 3 × 4 C 3 = × = 5 × 4 × 4 = 80
3! × 3! 3! × 1!
80 8
=
The required probability =
210 21
(II) At least 3 ladies:
Total ways of selection of 3 or more ladies = “3 ladies and 3 gentlemen’’ or “4 ladies and 2
gentlemen’’
= (6C3 × 4C3) + (6C2 × 4C4) = (20 × 4) + (15 × 1) = 80 + 15 = 95
95 19
The required probability= =
210 42
Hence the correct answer is option (a).

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (PART A)

1. A coin is tossed twice, what is the probability that at least one tail occurs?
1 1 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
2 3 4
2. Two broad divisions of probability are (ICAI)
(a) Subjective probability and objective probability
(b) Deductive probability and non–deductive probability
(c) Statistical probability and Mathematical probability
(d) None of these
3. A die is thrown, then the probability of getting a number greater than or equal to 3 is
4 1 5 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5 6 6 3
4. A bag contain 6 white and 5 black balls. One ball is drawn. The probability that it is white is
5 6 1
(a) (b) 1 (c) (d)
11 11 11
5. Two dice are thrown simultaneously, then the probability that sum on the faces is exactly 5 is
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
9 36 4
6. A bag contains 5 white, 6 red and 7 green balls. 3 balls are drawn at random. Find the probability
that balls are 2 white and 1 green.
35 1 35
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
136 6 408

744 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 7. Three unbiased coins are tossed simultaneously, then the probability of getting at most 2 tails is
1 1 7 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 8 8 4
8. A committee of 7 members is to be formed from a group comprising 8 gentlemen and 5 ladies.
What is the probability that the committee would comprise 2 ladies?
37 24 140
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
210 110 429
9. Three events A, B and C are mutually exclusive, exhaustive and equally likely. What is the
probability of the complementary event of (A’ – B) ?
1 2
(a) (b) (c) 1 (d) None of these
3 3
10 Two dice are thrown simultaneously. What is the probability that the sum of the numbers
rolled is a prime number?
5 1 7
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
12 4 12
11. 20 Books are placed at random in a shelf. Find the probability that a particular pair of books
is always together.
1 1
(a) 5 (b) (c) (d) None of these
10 10!
12. Two cards are drawn at random from a pack of 52 playing cards. The probability of getting
2 diamond cards is
1 2 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
17 17 13

Answer Key
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (b)

THIS CLASSICAL DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY HAS THE FOLLOWING

DEMERITS OR LIMITATIONS
1. It is applicable only when the total number of events is finite
2. It can be used only when the events are equally likely or equi-probable. This assumption is
made well before the experiment is performed.
3. This definition has only a limited field of application like coin tossing, dice throwing, drawing
cards etc. where the possible events are known well in advance. In the field of uncertainty or
where no prior knowledge is provided, this definition is inapplicable.

RELATIVE FREQUENCY DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY

KEY POINTERS TO STUDY
‰ Concept of Relative frequency was first developed by the British mathematicians in connection
with the survival probability of a group of people.

Probability 745
‰ If a random experiment is performed by repeating “n times” (under an identical set of
condition) then the probability of an event A can be defined as limiting value of the ratio of
event occurrence (fA) to number of times experiment is being repeated (n)
f
i.e. P(A) = lim A
n →∞ n

This statistical definition is applicable if the above limit exists and tends to a finite value.

Example 11. The following data relate to the distribution of salary of a group of employee:
Salary
30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
(Thousand `)
No. of Workers 12 23 24 32 19 11 8

If an employee is selected at random from the entire group of employees, what is the probability
that

(I) His Salary would be less than `30,000?

(a) 0 (b) 0.5 (c) 3 (d) 0.7
(II) His Salary would be less than `60,000?
(a) 0.3 (b) 0.457 (c) 0.8 (d) 0.44
(III) His Salary would be more than `100,000?
(a) 0 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.2 (d) 0.55
(IV) His salary would be between `40,000 and `80,000?
(a) 0.66 (b) 0.759 (c) 0.99 (d) 0.1
Sol. (I) (a) According to the given data there are no workers with a salary less than `30,000, so the
probability is 0.
Hence, the correct answer is option (a).
(II) (b) Total number of employees = (12 + 23 + 24 + 32 + 19 + 11 + 8) = 129
There are (12 + 23 + 24) workers whose salary is less than `60,000.
12 + 23 + 24 59
=
Thus, Probability = = 0.457
129 129
Hence, the correct answer is option (b).
(III) (a) According to the given data,
There are no workers with salaries more than `1,00,000, so the probability is 0.
Hence, the correct answer is option (a).
(IV) (b) There are (23 + 24 + 32 + 19) workers whose salary is between `40,000 and `80,000.
23 + 24 + 32 + 19 98
=
Thus, Probability = = 0.759
129 129
Hence, the correct answer is option (b).

746 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 AXIOMATIC OR MODERN DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY
The axiomatic or modern definition of probability states that for a sample space S and an event A
defined on S, the probability of A, denoted as P(A), is determined by the following axioms:
1. The probability of any event A is always greater than or equal to zero, i.e., P(A) ≥ 0 for every
A ⊆ S (subset).
2. The probability of the entire sample space S is equal to 1, i.e., P(S) = 1.
3. For any sequence of mutually exclusive events A1, A2, A3, ....., the probability of their union
is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities, i.e.,
P(A1 ~ A2 ~ A3 ~ ...) = P (A1) + P(A2) + P(A3) + ...

ADDITION THEOREMS OR THEOREMS ON TOTAL PROBABILITY

‰ THEOREM 1: For any two mutually exclusive events A and B, the probability that either A
or B occurs is given by the sum of individual probabilities of A and B. i.e. P (A ~ B) or P(A +
B) = P(A) + P(B) .......... or P(A or B) whenever A and B are mutually exclusive.
E.g.: Let’s consider the events A and B representing the outcomes of rolling a fair six-sided
die. If A is the event of getting an even number (2, 4 or 6), and B is the event of getting an odd
number (1, 3 or 5), then A and B are mutually exclusive. The probability of either getting an
even number or an odd number is given by:
3 3
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) = + =1
6 6
This means that the probability of getting either an even number or an odd number when
rolling the die is 1, which is the total probability of the entire sample space.
2 2
Example 12. If A and B are two mutually exclusive events such that P(A ∪ B) =, P(A) = , then
P(B) = 3 5
4 4 5 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15 9 9 15
2 2
Sol. (a) Given: P(A ∪ B) =and P(A) =
3 5
Since, A and B are two mutually exclusive events thus
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)
2 2
⇒ = + P(B)
3 5
2 2
⇒ P(B)= −
3 5
10 − 6 4
P(B)
⇒= =
15 15
4
Hence, the correct option is (a) i.e. .
15

Probability 747
Example 13. A number is selected from the first 20 natural numbers. What is the probability that
it would be divisible by 3 or 8?
(a) 0 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.33 (d) 0.75
Sol. (b) Total observations: 1, 2, 3, …… 20
Now, numbers divisible by 3 = 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18
Numbers divisible by 8 = 8, 16
Since, the events that the numbers would be divisible by 3 or 8 is a mutually exclusive events,
thus probability that the numbers would be divisible by 3 or 8 is given by:
P(3 or 8) = P(3) + P(8)
6 2 8
= + =
20 20 20
= 0.4
Hence, the correct answer is option (b).
‰ THEOREM 2: For any k (≥ 2) mutually exclusive events A1, A2, A3 ..., Ak then probability that
at least one of them occurs is given by the sum of the individual probabilities of the K events.
i.e. P (A1 ~ A2 ~ A3 ~....~ Ak) = P(A1) + P(A2) + ... + P(Ak)
‰ THEOREM 3: For any two events A and B, the probability that either A or B occurs is given
by the sum of individual probabilities of A and B less the probability of simultaneous occurrence
of the events A and B.
i.e., P(A ~ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A € B)

Example 14. A number is selected at random from the first 1000 natural numbers. What is the
probability that it would be a multiple of 3 or 7?
(a) 0 (b) 0.426 (c) 0.33 (d) 0.75
Sol. (b) Given, A number is selected at random from the first 1000 natural numbers.
According to the question, n(S) = 1000
Number of multiples of 7 in first 1000 natural numbers,
1000
P(A)
= = 142 (approx)
7
Number of multiples of 3 in first 1000 natural numbers,
1000
P(B)
= = 333(approx)
3
And, numbers divisible by 7 and 3 are
1000
P(A ∩ =B) = 47 (approx)
(3 × 7)
Therefore, the probability that the number so selected would be a multiple of 7 or 11
= P(A) + P(B) −P(A ∩ B)
142 333 47 142 + 333 − 47
= + − = = 0.426
1000 1000 1000 1000
Hence, the correct answer is option (b).

748 Quantitative Aptitude PW

‰ THEOREM 4: For any three events A, B and C, the probability that at least one of the events
occurs is given by: P(A ~ B ~ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) – P(A € B) – P(A € C) – P(B € C)
+ P(A € B € C)

VENN DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF PROBABILITY RULES

‰ P (Atleast one set)
P (A or B)
= P (A ∪ B)
= P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
U

A B

‰ P (A & B both)
= P(A ∩ B)
= P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∪ B)
U

A B

‰ P (Only A)
= P(A but not B)
= P(A – B)
= P(A ∩ B’)
= P(A) – P(A ∩ B)
U
A–B
A B

‰ P(Only B)
= P(B but not A)
= P(B – A)

Probability 749
 = P(B ∩ A’)
= P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
U

B–A
A B

‰ P(Neither A nor B)
= P A∩B ( )
= 1 – P(A ∪ B)
U

A B

‰ P(Not A or Not B)
= P A∪B ( )
= 1 – P(A ∩ B)
U

A B

Example 15. There are three persons A, B and C having different ages. The probability that A
survives another 5 years is 0.80, B survives another 5 years is 0.60 and C survives another 5 years
is 0.50. The probabilities that A and B survive another 5 years is 0.46, B and C survive another
5 years is 0.32 and A and C survive another 5 years 0.48. The probability that all these three persons
survive another 5 years is 0.26. Find the probability that at least one of them survives another
5 years.
(a) 1 (b) 0.9 (c) 0.5 (d) None of these
Sol. (b) According to the given information, we have
P(A) = 0.80, P(B) = 0.60, P(C) = 0.50,
P(A € B) = 0.46, P(B € C) = 0.32, P(A € C) = 0.48 and
P(A € B € C) = 0.26

750 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 Now, the probability that atleast one of them survives another 5 years is given by
P(A ~ B ~ C)
On substituting the values, we get
P(A ~ B ~ C)
= P(A) + P(B) + P(C) - P(A € B) - P(A € C) - P(B € C) + P(A € B € C)
= 0.80 +0.60 +0.50 -0.46 -0.32 -0.48 + 0.26
= 0.90
Therefore, the required probability is 0.9.
Hence, the correct option is (b).

Example 16. Which of the following pairs of events are mutually exclusive?
A: The team wins the football match.
(a)
B: The team lost the football match.
A: The card drawn is a heart.
(b)
B: The card drawn is a red card.
A: Anita is 20 years old.
(c) B: She is a great dancer.

A: The dice shows an even number.

(d)
B: The dice shows a prime number.
Sol. (a) We know that,
Mutually exclusive events are those events that do not occur at the same time.
We know that,
Mutually exclusive events are those events that do not occur at the same time.
Clearly, option (a) i.e., the team wins the football match and the team loses the football
match.
Hence, the correct answer is option (a).
1 1 2
Example 17. If two events A and B,=
P(A) = , P(B) and P(A ∪ B) =then find P(A ∩ B)
2 3 3
1 1 2 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 6 3 2
1 1 2
P(A)
Sol. (b) Given:= = , P(B) and P(A ∪ B) =
2 3 3
We know that,
P(A ∩ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∪ B)
1 1 2
⇒ P(A ∩ B) = + −
2 3 3
3+2−4
⇒ P(A ∩ B) =
6

Probability 751
 1
⇒ P(A ∩ B) =
6 1
Hence, the correct option is (b) i.e. .
6
Example 18. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then (ICAI)
(a) P(A) = P(A – B) (b) P(B) = P(A – B)
(c) P(A) = P(A ∩ B) (d) P(B) = P(A ∩ B)
Sol. (a) Given, A and B are mutually exclusive events.
Thus, A ∩ B = 0
We know that,
P(A – B) = P(A) – P(A ∩ B)
⇒ P(A – B) = P(A) [ P(A ∩ B) = 0]
Hence, the correct option is (a) i.e. P(A) = P(A – B).
Example 19. A coin is tossed thrice. What is the probability of getting 2 or more tails?
(a) 0 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.5 (d) 0.75
Sol. (c) Total cases: {TTT, HHH, HTT, THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH} = 8
Cases of getting 2 or more tails i.e., 2 tails or 3 tails
For 2 tails, favourable outcomes = {HTT, THT, TTH}
for 3 tails, favourable outcomes = {TTT}
Therefore, the required Probability = P(2 tails) + P(3 tails)
3 1 4
+ = = 0.5
8 8 8
Hence, the correct option is (c).
Example 20. A certain problem has odds of 5 to 2 against A solving it, and odds of 3 to 1 in favor
of B solving it. What is the probability of the problem being solved if both A and B attempt it?
13 15 9
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
14 28 14
Sol. (a) Given, Odds against A solving a certain problem are 5 to 2 and Odds in favour of B solving
the problem are 3 to 1.
5 5
Then, P(A)
= = (Probability to solve the problem)
5+2 7
5 2
P(A)' = 1 – P(A) =1 − =
7 7
3 3
P(B)
= = (Probability to solve the problem)
3+1 4
3 1
P(B)' = 1– P(B) =1 − =
4 4

752 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 Required Probability will be given as,
⇒ 1 – [P(A)' × P(B)']

2 1  2  28 − 2 26 13
=1 −  ×  =1 −   = = =
7 4   28  28 28 14
13
Hence, the correct answer is option (a) i.e., .
14

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (PART B)

1. A class consists of 10 boys and 20 girls of which half of boys and half the girls have blue eyes.
Find the probability that a student chosen at random is a boy and has blue eyes.
1 3 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
6 5 2
2. An event that can be split into further events is known as (ICAI)
(a) Complex event (b) Mixed event
(c) Simple event (d) Composite event
3. Which of the following pairs of events are mutually exclusive? (ICAI)
(a) A: The student reads in a school. B: He studies Philosophy.
(b) A: Raju was born in India. B: He is a fine Engineer.
(c) A: Ruma is 16 years old. B: She is a good singer.
(d) A: Peter is under 15 years of age. B: Peter is a voter of Kolkata.
4. If an unbiased coin is tossed once, then the two events Head and Tail are
(a) Mutually exclusive (b) Exhaustive
(c) Equally likely (d) All these (a), (b) and (c)
1
5. If P(A) = , then the odds against the event A is
3
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1 (c) 3 : 2 (d) 2 : 3
6. If a number is selected at random from the first 50 natural numbers, what will be the probability
that the selected number is a multiple of 3 and 4? (Dec 2022)
(a) 5/50 (b) 2/25 (c) 3/50 (d) 4/25
1 1 1
P(A) =
7. If A and B are events such that= , P(B) and P(A ∩ B) =, then P(A ∪ B) =
4 2 8
3 5 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
8 8 2
8. The probability that an applicant for an Accountant’s job has a [Link]. degree is 0.75. The
probability that they have knowledge of Tally is 0.40. The probability that they have a [Link].
degree or knowledge of Tally is 0.30. Out of 1000 applicants, how many would be [Link].
experts in Tally?
(a) 0 (b) 850 (c) 1150 (d) 750

Probability 753
 9. A, B, C are three mutually independent with probabilities 0.3, 0.2 and 0.4 respectively. What
is P(A ∩ B ∩ C)? (ICAI)
(a) 0.400 (b) 0.240 (c) 0.024 (d) 0.500
10. There are three persons A, B and C having different ages. The probability that A survives
another 5 years is 0.80, B survives another 5 years is 0.60 and C survives another 5 years is
0.50. The probabilities that A and B survive another 5 years is 0.46, B and C survive another
5 years is 0.32 and A and C survive another 5 years is 0.48. The probability that all these three
persons survive another 5 years is 0.26. Find the probability that at least one of them survives
another 5 years.
(a) 1.00 (b) 0.28 (c) 0.45 (d) 0.90
11. For any two events A and B,
(a) P(A) + P(B) > P(A ∩ B) (b) P(A) + P(B) < P(A ∩ B)
(c) P(A) + P(B) ≥ P(A ∩ B) (d) P(A) × P(B) ≤ P(A ∩ B)
12. A bag contains 12 balls which are numbered from 1 to 12. If a ball is selected at random, what
is the probability that the number of the ball will be a multiple of 5 or 6? (ICAI)
(a) 0.30 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.20 (d) 13
13. The probability of two events A and B are 0.25 and 0.50 respectively. The probability of their
simultaneous occurrence is 0.14. Find the probability that neither A nor B occurs.
(a) 0.39 (b) 0.61 (c) 0.75 (d) None
1 1
14. Let A and B be two possible outcomes of a random experiment and P(A) = , P(A ∪ B) =
3 2
and P(B) = x. For what value of x are A and B mutually exclusive events?
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 6 5 8
15. If P(A) = 0.65 and P(B) = 0.15, then P(A) + P(B) is:
(a) 1.2 (b) 1.5 (c) 0.8 (d) 0.35

Answer Key
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (a)

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY AND COMPOUND

THEOREM OF PROBABILITY
COMPOUND PROBABILITY OR JOINT PROBABILITY
The probability of an event, discussed so far, is technically known as unconditional or marginal
probability. But if there are two or more events occurring simultaneously, how to calculate the
probability.

754 Quantitative Aptitude PW

The probability of occurrence of two events A and B simultaneously is known as the Compound
Probability or Joint Probability of the events A and B and is denoted by P(A ∪ B).
In a similar manner, the probability of simultaneous occurrence of k events A1, A2, A3 ..., Ak, is
denoted by P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ ... ∪ Ak)

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Let A and B be two events and S be the sample space, then the probability of event B given that
event A has already occurred is called the conditional probability of B given A.
 B  P(A ∩ B)
It is denoted be P   =
A P(A)
E.g.: Let two unbiased coins be tossed then Sample space, S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Now,
Let A be the event of getting atleast one head = {HH, HT, TH}
B be the event of getting both head = {HH}
3 1
then, P(A) = and P(B) =
4 4
If it is known that A has already happened, then it is sure that TT cannot occur.
B 1
Thus, P   =
A 3
1
P(A ∩ B) 4 1
Also, = =
P(A) 3 3
4
 A  P(A ∩ B)
Similarly, P   =
B P(B)
1 3 1 A
P(A)
Example 21. If= = , P(B) and P(A ∩ B) =, then P   is
3 4 6 B
1 2 1 1
(a) (b) (d) (d)
6 9 2 8
1 3 1
Sol. (b) Given,=
P(A) = , P(B) and P(A ∩ B) =
3 4 6
 A  P(A ∩ B)
Thus, P   =
B P(B)
1
4 2
= 6= =
3 18 9
4
Hence, the correct option is (b).

Probability 755
 1 3 11 B
P(A)
Example 22. If= = , P(B) and P(A ∪ B) = , then P   is (Dec 2022)
3 4 12 A
1 4 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 9 2 8
1 3 11
P(A)
Sol. (c) Given,= = , P(B) and P(A ∪ B) =
3 4 12
We know that,
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
11 1 3
⇒ = + − P(A ∩ B)
12 3 4
1 3 11
⇒ P(A ∩ B) = + −
3 4 12
4 + 9 − 11
⇒ P(A ∩ B) =
12
2 1
⇒ P(A ∩ B) = =
12 6
1
 B  P(A ∩ B) 6 1
Thus, P  =  = =
A P(A) 1 2
3
Hence, the correct option is (c).
5 1 2
Example 23. If P(A ∪
= B) , P(A)
= and P(B) = , what is P(A ∪ B)? (ICAI)
6 2 3
5 2 4
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d)
6 3 9
5 1 2
Sol. (a) Given, P(A ∪
= B) , P(A)
= and P(B) =
6 2 3
We know that,
P(A ∪ B) =P(A ∩ B) =1 − P(A ∩ B)
5
⇒ =1 − P(A ∩ B)
6
5 1
⇒ P(A ∩ B) =1 − =
6 6
We also know that, P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
⇒ P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
1 2 1 7 1
= + − = − =1
2 3 6 6 6
Hence, the correct option is (a) i.e. 1.

756 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 INDEPENDENT EVENTS
Independent events are events in which the occurrence or outcome of one event does not affect the
probability of the other event. The probability of the second event happening is the same whether
the first event has occurred or not.
E.g.: Coin Flips Suppose you flip a fair coin twice. The outcome of the first coin flip (e.g., getting
heads) has no influence on the outcome of the second coin flip. The probability of getting heads
1
on the second flip remains , regardless of whether you got heads or tails on the first flip. These
2
events are independent.
Thus, if A and B are two independent events, then
A B
=P   P(A)
= and P   P(B)
B A
If A and B are independent events, then
P (A € B) = P (A) × P(B)
Similarly,
‰ P(A € C) = P(A) × P(C)
‰ P(B € C) = P(B) × P(C)
‰ P(A € B € C) = P(A) × P(B) × P(C)
If events A and B are independent, the pairs A and B’, A’ and B, and A’ and B’ are also
independent, where A’ represents the complement of event A and B’ represents the complement
of event B.
2 3 1
Example 24. For any two events A1, A2 : let P(A=
1) , P(A=
2) , P(A 1 ∩ A=
2) , then A1, A2 are
3 8 4
(a) Mutually Exclusive but not independent events
(b) Mutually Exclusive and independent events
(c) Independent but not mutually exclusive
(d) None of these
2 3 1
Sol. (c) Given, P(A
= 1) , P(A
= 2) and P(A 1 ∩ A
= 2)
3 8 4
As we know, for mutually exclusive events
P(A1 ∩ A2) = 0
On the contrary, given in the question,
1
P(A 1 ∩ A 2 ) = ≠ 0
4
Thus, they are not mutually exclusive events.
Now, for independent events: P(A1 ∩ A2) = P(A1) . P(A2)
Put the values and check for independent events,
1 2 3
⇒ = ×
4 3 8

Probability 757
 6 1 1
= ⇒ = (verified)
24 4 4
Thus, they are independent events however they are not mutually exclusive events.
Hence, the correct answer is option (c) i.e., Independent but not mutually exclusive.
Example 25. If events A and B are given to be independent such that P(A) = 0.2, P(A ∪ B) = 0.6,
then P(B) is
(a) 0.4 (b) 0.5 (c) 0.7 (d) None of these
Sol. (b) Given, A and B are independent events such that P(A) = 0.2, P(A ∪ B) = 0.6
We know,
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
⇒ P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A) . P(B)
⇒ 0.6 = 0.2 + P(B) – 0.2 × P(B)
⇒ 0.4 = 0.8 × P(B)
0.4 1
⇒ P(B) = == 0.5
0.8 2
Hence, the correct option is (b).
Example 26. A problem in mathematics is given to three students whose chances of solving it are
1 1 1
, , respectively. What is the probability that the problem will be solved?
2 3 4
1 3 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
2 4 5
1 1 1
Sol. (b) Let A, B and C be the events such that= P(A) = , P(B) and
= P(C)
2 3 4
Clearly, A, B and c are independent events.
Thus, the probability that the problem will be solved = 1 – P(problem is not solved)
= 1 – P(A')P(B')P(C')
 1  1  1
=1 −  1 −   1 −   1 − 
 2  3  4
1 2 3 1 3
=1− × × =1− =
2 3 4 4 4
Hence, the correct option is (b).
Example 27. Ronaldo is known as one of the football players to hit 4 goals out of 10 shots whereas
Messi is known to hit 5 goals out of 11 shots. What is the probability that the target would be hit
once they both have hit for the penalty shootout?
(a) 0 (b) 0.67 (c) 0.33 (d) 0.75
Sol. (b) Probability of Ronaldo hitting the goal, P(A) = 0.4
5
Probability of Messi hitting the goal, P(B)
= = 0.45
11

758 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 Thus, P(A’) = 1 - P(A) and P(B’) = 1 - P(B)
Probability that the target would be hit once they both have hit for the penalty shootout
= P(A) P(B’) + P(A’) · P(B) + P(A) . P(B)
= 0.4(1 - 0.45) + (1 - 0.4)0.45 + (0.4)(0.45)
= 0.22 + 0.27 + 0.18 = 0.67
Hence, the correct answer is option (b).

DEPENDENT EVENTS
Dependent events are events in which the outcome of one event does affect the probability of the
other event. The probability of the second event happening is influenced by the outcome of the
first event.
E.g.: Drawing Cards
Suppose you have a deck of 52 playing cards. If you draw a card and do not replace it before
drawing the next card, these events are dependent. For example, if you draw an Ace of Spades as
the first card, there are now only 51 cards left in the deck, and the probability of drawing another
1 1
Ace of Spades as the second card is , not as it was initially. The probabilities change because
51 52
the events are dependent on each other.

THEOREMS OF COMPOUND PROBABILITY

‰ Theorem 5: For any two events A and B, the probability that A and B occur simultaneously
is given by the product of the unconditional probability of A and the conditional probability
of B given that A has already occurred i.e.,
B
P(A € B) = P(A) × P   , provided P(A) > 0
A
‰ Theorem 6: For any three events A, B and C, the probability that they occur jointly is given
by
B  C 
P(A € B € C) = P(A) × P   × P   , provided P(A € B) > 0
A  A ∩B 

Example 28. If for two events A and B, P(A ∩ B) ≠ P(A) × P(B), then the two events A and B are
(a) Independent (b) Dependent
(c) Not equally likely (d) Not exhaustive
Sol. (b) We know that,
For two events A and B to be dependent, happening of one affect the happening of other i.e.,
P(A ∩ B) ≠ P(A) × P(B)
Hence, the correct option is (b).
Example 29. In a group of 15 males and 10 females, 5 males and 7 females are service holders.
What is the probability that a person selected at random from the group is not a service holder
given that the selected person is a female?
(a) 0 (b) 0.5 (c) 0.3 (d) 0.75

Probability 759
Sol. (c) Given, Total number of males = 15
Total number of females = 10
Number of female service holders = 7
Number of male service holders = 5
Let A be the event that a person selected is female and B be the event that a person is not a
service holder.
 B  P(B ∩ A)
To find: P   =
A P(A)
Probability that the person is not a service holder and a female:
3 3
P(B ∩ A) = = = 0.12
15 + 10 25
Probability that the person is female:
10
P(A)
= = 0.4
25
0.12
=
Therefore, the required probability = 0.3.
0.4
Hence, the correct answer is option (c).
Example 30. A card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards, the card drawn is a red card. What is the
probability of its being a card of diamond?
1 1 2 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 2 3 5
Sol. (b) Let A be the event of drawing a red card and B be the event of drawing a diamond.
26
Thus, P(A) =
52
13
Now, probability that the card is red and card of diamond is: P(A ∩ B) =
52
Now, probability of its being a card of diamond given that it is red card is:
 B  P(A ∩ B)
P  =
A P(A)
13
B 13 52 1
⇒ P   = 52 = × =
 A  26 52 26 2
52
1
Therefore, the required probability is .
2
Hence, the correct answer is option (b).
Example 31. A pair of dice is thrown together and the sum of points of the two dice is noted to be
9. What is the probability that one of the two dice has shown the point 4?
(a) 0 (b) 0.5 (c) 0.33 (d) 0.75

760 Quantitative Aptitude PW

Sol. (b) Since, sum of points of the two dice is 9
Here, Possible ways to get 9 as a sum = (4, 5); (5, 4); (3, 6); (6, 3) i.e., total outcomes = 4
Number of favourable outcomes (one of the two dice has shown the point 4) = 2
2
Therefore, probability= = 0.5
4
Hence, the correct option is (b).

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (PART C)

A
1. If A and B are two events such that P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.3 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.2, then P   =
2 1 2 B
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
3 3 5
A
2. If P(B) = 0.5 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.32, then P   =
B
25 16 7
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
16 25 16
3. Events A and B are given to be independent such that P(A) = 0.40 and P(A ∪ B) = 0.70, then
P(B) =
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.5 (d) 1
4. In connection with a random experiment, it is found that
1 2 3
P(A)
= , P(B)
= and P(A ∪=
B)
3 5 4
Evaluate the following probabilities: (ICAI)
(I) P(A/B) (II) P(B/A) (III) P(A’/ B)
(IV) P(A/ B’) (V) P(A’/ B’)
5. The probability of the occurrence of a number greater than 2 in a throw of a die if it is known
that only even numbers can occur is
1 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
3 2 3
3 2 3 A
6. Given that for two events A and B, P(A)
= , P(B)
= and P(A ∪=
B) , what is P   ?
5 3 5 B
13 60
(a) 0.655 (b) (c) (d) 0.775
60 31
Answer Key
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (I) 13/18 (II) 13/20 (III) 5/18 (IV) 7/12 (V) 5/12
5. (c) 6. (d)

Probability 761
Example 32. If P(A ∩ B) = 0, then the two events A and B are
(a) Mutually exclusive (b) Exhaustive
(c) Equally likely (d) Independent
Sol. (a) If P(A ∩ B) = 0, it means the probability of the intersection of events A and B is 0, which
implies that events A and B have no common outcomes.
In such a case, the events A and B are considered mutually exclusive.
Hence, the correct option is (a).
Example 33. If A, B and C are mutually exclusive, independent and exhaustive events then what
is the probability that they occur simultaneously?
(a) 1 (b) 0.50
(c) 0 (d) any value between 0 and 1
Sol. (c) If events A, B, and C are mutually exclusive, it means that they cannot occur simultaneously.
This implies that the probability of all three events occurring simultaneously is 0.
Hence, the correct option is (c).
2 2
Example 34. If for two independent events A and B, P(A ∪ B) =and P(A) = , what is P(B)?
3 5
4 4 5 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15 9 9 15
Sol. (a) We know that,
P(B) = P(A ∪ B) + P(A) + P(A ∩ B)
Here, P(A ∩ B) is 0 as they are independent events.
2 2
Thus, P(B) = − + 0
3 5
Hence, the correct answer is option (a).
Example 35. For three events A, B and C, the probability that only A occur is
(a) P(A) (b) P(A ∪ B ∪ C)
(c) P(A' ∩ B ∩ C) (d) P(A ∩ B' ∩ C')
Sol. (d) We know that,
For sets A, B and C the probability of occurrence of event A only is given by:
P(A ∩ B' ∩ C')
Hence, the correct option is (d).
Example 36. The probability that is leap year has 53 Monday is: (Dec 2022)
1 2 2 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7 3 7 5
Sol. (c) We know that,
In a year there are 52 weeks, thus in a leap year there are 52 weeks and 2 odd days.
The two odd days can be:

762 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 (Saturday, Sunday),
(Sunday, Monday),
(Monday, Tuesday),
(Tuesday, Wednesday),
(Wednesday, Thursday),
(Thursday, Friday),
(Friday, Saturday)
So, there are 7 possibilities out of which 2 have Monday.
2
Therefore, Probability of 2 Monday =
7
Hence, the correct answer is option (c).
Example 37. There are three boxes with the following composition:
Box I: 5 Red + 7 White + 6 Blue balls
Box II: 4 Red + 8 White + 6 Blue balls
Box III: 3 Red + 4 White + 2 Blue balls
If one ball is drawn at random, then what is the probability that they would be of the same colour?
89 97 82 23
(a) (b) (c) (d)
729 729 729 32
Sol. (a) Given, There are three boxes with the following composition:
Box I: 5 Red + 7 White + 6 Blue balls
Box II: 4 Red + 4 White + 6 Blue balls
Box III: 3 Red + 4 White + 2 Blue balls
Here,
5 5
The probability of selection of red ball from box 1 is =
5 + 7 + 6 18
4 4
The probability of selection of red ball from box 2 is =
4 + 8 + 6 18
3 3
The probability of selection of red ball from box 3 is =
3+4+2 9
Now,
7
The probability of selection of white ball from box
18
8
The probability of selection of white ball from box 2 is
18
4
The probability of selection of white ball from box 3 is
9
Now,

Probability 763
 6
The probability of selection of blue ball from box 1 is
18
6
The probability of selection of blue ball from box 2 is
18
2
The probability of selection of blue ball from box 3 is
9
Now,
By using multiplication theorem of probability we get, the required probability as
5 4 3 7 8 4 6 6 2
⇒ × × + × × + × ×
18 18 9 18 18 9 18 18 9
89
⇒
729
Hence, the final option is (a).
Example 38. A problem in probability was given to three CA students A, B and C whose chances
1 1 1
of solving it are , and respectively. What is the probability that the problem would be solved?
3 5 2
4 7 8 11
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15 8 15 15
Sol. (d) Given: Probability was given to three CA students A, B and C whose chances of solving it
1 1 1
are , and respectively.
3 5 2
1 1 1
P(A) =
i.e.,= , P(B) and P(C) =
3 5 2
Thus,
1 2
P(A) =1 − =
3 3
1 4
P(B) =1 − =
5 5
1 1
P(C) =1 − =
2 2
Thus, the probability that the problem would not be solved if none of them solved the problem
is given by P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
Since, they are independent events thus P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
= P(A) × P(B) × P(C)
2 4 1 4
P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = × × =
3 5 2 15
Therefore, the probability that the problem would be solved
=1 – Probability (problem not solved)
4 11
=1 − =
15 15
Hence, the correct answer is option (d).

764 Quantitative Aptitude PW

Example 39. For a group of subjects 30%, 40% and 50% failed in Physics, Chemistry and at least
one of the two subjects respectively. If an examinee is selected at random, what is the probability
that he passed in Physics if it is known that he failed in Chemistry? (ICAI)
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 3 4 6
Sol. (a) Let A be the event that a student fails in Physics.
Let B be the event that a student fails in Chemistry.
According to the question,
Then, P(A) = 0.30, P(B) = 0.40
Also, the probability of failing in at least one of the subjects is 0.50
⇒ P(A ∪ B) = 0.50
We know that,
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
⇒ P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B) = 0.50
⇒ 0.30 + 0.40 – P(A ∩ B) = 0.50
⇒ P(A ∩ B) = 0.70 – 0.50
⇒ P(A ∩ B) = 0.20
Now, the probability that if student pass in Physics then he will fail in chemistry is denoted
A
by P  
B
We know that,
 A  P(A ∩ B)
P  =
B P(B)
Here, P(A ∩ B)= P(B) − P(A ∩ B)
= 0.40 – 0.20 = 0.20
 A  0.20 1
⇒ P  = =
 B  0.40 2
1
Hence, the correct answer is option (a) i.e., .
2
Example 40. An article consists of two parts A and B. The manufacturing process of each part is
such that probability of defect in A is 0.08 and that B is 0.05. What is the probability that the
assembled product will not have any defect?
(a) 0.934 (b) 0.864 (c) 0.85 (d) 0.874
Sol. (d) Given, Probability of defect in A, P(A) = 0.08
Probability of defect in B, P(B) = 0.05
Now, Probability that part A will have no defect,
P(A)' = 1 – 0.08 = 0.92

Probability 765
 Now, Probability that part B will have no defect,
P(B)' = 1 – 0.05 = 0.95
Now, Products are non defective will be given as,
P(A' ∩ B') = P(A)' × P(B)'
⇒ 0.92 × 0.95
⇒ 0.874
Hence, the correct answer is option (d) i.e., 0.874.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (PART D)

1. If for two events A and B, P(A ∩ B) ≠ P(A) × P(B), then the two events A and B are
(a) Independent (b) Dependent
(c) Not equally likely (d) Not exhaustive
2. If two events A and B are independent, then
(a) They can be mutually exclusive
(b) They cannot be mutually exclusive
(c) They cannot be exhaustive
(d) Both (b) and (c)
A
3. If P   = P(A), then
B
(a) A is independent of B (b) B is independent of A
(c) B is dependent of A (d) Both (a) and (b).
4. If P(A – B) = P(B – A), then the two events A and B satisfy the condition
(a) P(A) = P(B) (b) P(A) + P(B) = 1
(c) P(A ∩ B) = 0 (d) P(A ∪ B) = 1
1 3 11 B
5. If=P(A) = , P(B) and P(A ∪ B) = , then P   is (Dec 2022)
3 4 12 A
1 4 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 9 2 8
5 1 2
6. If P(A ∪
= B) , P(A)
= and P(B)
= , what is P(A ~ B)?
6 2 3
1 5 2 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 6 3 9
7. If two unbiased dice are rolled, what is the probability of getting points neither 6 nor 9?
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50 (c) 0.75 (d) 0.80
8. A machine is made of two parts A and B. The manufacturing process of each part is such that
probability of defective in part A is 0.08 and that B is 0.05. What is the probability that the
assembled part will not have any defect? (Dec 2022)
(a) 0.934 (b) 0.864 (c) 0.85 (d) 0.874

766 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 5 1 2
9. If P(A ∪
= B) , P(A)
= and P(B)
= , what is P(A ∪ B)?
6 2 3
5 2 4
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d)
6 3 9
10. The probability of winning of a person is 6 and at a result he gets `77. The expectation of
this person is 11
(a) `35 (b) `42 (c) `58 (d) None of these
11. In a class 40% students read Mathematics, 25% Biology and 15% both Mathematics and Biology.
One student is selected at random. The probability that he reads Mathematics if it is known
that he reads Biology is
2 3 4
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
5 5 5
12. Two cards are drawn from a pack of 52 cards. The probability that one is a spade and one is
a heart; is
29 3 47 13
(a) (b) (c) (d)
34 20 100 102
13. A father had three sons namely, Kailash3, Harish and Prakash. All are above 65 years in age.
Prakash happens to be the eldest while Kailash as youngest. As per the health history, it is
4
estimated that the probability tha Kailash survives another 5 years is , Harish survives
5
3 1
another 5 years is and Prakash survives another 5 years is . The probabilities that Kailash
5 2
and Harish survive another 5 years is 0.46, Harish and Prakash survive another 5 years is 0.32
and Kailash and Prakash survive another 5 years is 0.48. The probability that all three sons
survive another 5 years is 0.26. What shall be the probability that at least one of them survives
another 5 years?
7 9
(a) 0.72 (b) 0.78 (c) (d)
10 10

Answer Key
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (d)

RANDOM VARIABLE - PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

A random variable or stochastic variable is a function defined on a sample space associated with
a random experiment assuming any value from R and assigning a real number to each and every
sample point of the random experiment.
A random variable is denoted by a capital letter.

Probability 767
E.g.: Consider the experiment of tossing a coin three times. Let X represent the number of heads
obtained. In this case, the sample space is given by:
{HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}.
The different values of X would be:
X = 0 (no heads)
X = 1 (one head)
X = 2 (two heads)
X = 3 (three heads)

TYPE OF RANDOM VARIABLE

Discrete Random Variable Continuous Random Variable
A random variable from the discrete sample A random variable from the continuous sample
space is called a discrete random variable. space is called a discrete random variable.
For example, consider the experiment of tossing For example, consider the experiment of
a coin three times. measuring the height of a randomly selected
person.
Let X represent the number of heads obtained. Let X represent the height in centimeters.
In this case, the sample space is given by: {HHH, The values of X would be any real number
HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT} The within a certain range, such as 150 cm to
different values of X would be: 200 cm.

Discrete Random Variable Continuous Random Variable

X = 0 (no heads) Since the height can take on any value within
X = 1 (one head) the interval, X is a continuous random variable
X = 2 (two heads)
X = 3 (three heads)

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF A RANDOM VARIABLE

It may be defined as a statement where we take different values for random variables with their
corresponding probabilities. Writing it mathematically, if a random variable X assumes n finite
values X1, X2, X3, ....., Xn with corresponding probabilities P1, P2, P3, ........, Pn such that
1. Pi ≥ 0 (for every i)
2. ∑Pi = 1 (over all i)
then the probability distribution of the random variable X is given by
X: X1 X2 X3 ... Xn Total
P: P1 P2 P3 ... Pn 1

For example, if an unbiased coin is tossed three times and if X denotes the number of heads then,
as we have already discussed, X is a random variable and its probability distribution is given by:
Probability Distribution of X (Number of heads when a coin is tossed thrice)

768 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 X 0 1 2 3 Total
1 3 3 1
P 1
8 8 8 8

PROBABILITY MASS FUNCTION (PMF) OF X

If a function f(X) exists which defines the probability (P) as a function of X, where X is discrete
random variable, where f(X) satisfies the below given condition:
1. f(X) ≥ 0 for every X
2. ∑f(X) = 1
where, f(X) is given by f(X) = P(X = x)
Example 41. Which of the following set of function define a probability space on S = {a1, a2, a3}?
1 1 1
P(a1 ) =
(a)= , P(a 2 ) = , P(a 3 )
3 2 4
1 1 1
(b)=P(a1 ) = , P(a 2 ) = , P(a 3 )
3 6 6
2 2 1
(c)=
P(a1 ) = , P(a 2 ) = , P(a 3 )
3 3 4
(d) None of these
Sol. (b) Given, S = {a1, a2, a3}
As we know that, the sum of all the probabilities is equal to 1.
For option (a):
1 1 1 13
⇒ + + = ≠1
3 2 4 12
Here, the sum of probabilities is not equal to 1.
For option (b):
1 1 1 6
⇒ + + = =1
3 6 2 6
Therefore, the sum of probabilities is equal to 1.
For option (c):
2 2 1 19
⇒ + + = ≠1
3 3 4 12
Here, the sum of probabilities is not equal to 1.
Hence, the correct option is (b).
1 1
Example 42. Let P be a probability function on S = {X1, X2, X3} if=
P(X 1 ) = , P(X 3 ) then P(X2)
is 4 3

5 7 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
12 12 4

Probability 769
 1 1
Sol. (a) Given,
= P(X 1 ) = and P(X 3 )
4 3
We know that, the sum of all probabilities of all the elements of the sample space is 1.
Thus, P(X1) + P(X2) + P(X3) = 1
1 1
⇒ + P(X 2 ) + = 1
4 3
7 5
⇒ P(X 2 ) =1 − =
12 12
5
⇒ P(X 2 ) =
12
5
Hence, the correct option is (a) i.e. .
12
Example 43. The probability distribution of a random variable is as follows:
x 1 2 3 4 5
P 3k 2k 3k k k
Find the value of k and P (x ≤ 3).
1 1 1
(a) , 0.2 (b) , 0.5 (c) , 1.5 (d) None of these
10 10 5
Sol. (b) As it is given as probability distribution function,
⇒ ΣP = 1
⇒ 10k = 1
1
⇒ k=
10
Now, P(x < 3) = P(x = 1) + P(x = 2)
= 3k + 2k = 5k
 1  1
= 5  = = 0.5
 10  2
Hence, the correct option is (a) i.e., 0.5.
Example 44. A random variable X taking values 0, 1, 2 has the following probability distribution
for some number k.
P(X) = k if X = 0
= 2k if X = 1
= 3k if X = 2
Find the value of k.
1 1
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d) None of these
3 6
Sol. (c) As it is given as probability distribution function,
⇒ ΣP(X) = 1

770 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 ⇒ P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2) = 1
⇒ k + 2k + 3k = 1
⇒ 6k = 1
1
⇒ k=
6
1
Therefore, the value of k is .
6
Hence, the correct option is (c).
Example 45. A random variable X has the following probability distribution:
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P(X) 0 2k 3k k 2k k2 7k2 2
2k + k
Find the value of k.
1
(a) 10 (b) –1 (c) (d) None of these
10
Sol. (c) We know that,
ΣP(X) = 1
⇒ 0 + 2k + 3k + k + 2k + k2 + 7k2 + 2k2 + k = 1
⇒ 10k2 + 9k – 1 = 0
⇒ 10k2 + 10k – k – 1 = 0
⇒ 10k(k + 1) – (k + 1) = 0
⇒ (10k – 1)(k + 1) = 0
⇒ 10k – 1 = 0, k + 1 = 0
1
k
⇒= , −1
10
Since, k cannot be negative.
1
Therefore, the value of k is .
10
Hence, the correct option is (c).

PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION (PDF)

When x is a continuous random variable defined over an interval [α, β], where β > α, then x can
assume an infinite number of values from its interval. And in such cases we assign intervals of
values to probability rather than assigning individual probability to every mass point x.
Then, if a function f(x) exists such that it defines the probability. It will be called as probability
density function if it satisfies the below given condition:
1. f(x) ≥ 0 for x U [α, β]
2. and if the probability that x lies between two specified values a and b, where α ≤ a < b ≤ β is
b
given by ∫a f(x)dx
Probability 771
 cx 2 , 0 < x < 1
Example 46. If f(x)=   , elsewhere is the probability density function of a continuous
0, elsewhere 
random variable X, find the value of c.
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) None of these
 2 
Sol. (a) Given function, f(x)= cx , 0 < x < 1 Since, f(x) represents probability density function of
0, elsewhere 
a random variable X, then
1 1 2
∫ 0f(x) =
1 ⇒ ∫ cx
0
1
=
1
 x3 
⇒ c  = 1
 3  0
c
⇒ [(1)3 − (0)3 ] =1
3
c
⇒ [1 − 0] = 1 ⇒ c = 3
3
Therefore, the value of x is 3.
Hence, the correct option is (a).

EXPECTED VALUE OF A RANDOM VARIABLE

Expected value or Mathematical Expectation or Expectation of a random variable may be defined
as the sum of products of the different values taken by the random variable and the corresponding
probabilities.
Note: Expected value gives the mean of all values.
Hence, if a random variable x assumes n values x1, x2, x3, ..., xn with corresponding probabilities
p1, p2, p3, ..., pn, where pi satisfies
1. pi (xi) ≥ 0 for every X
2. ∑pi xi = 1
then the expected value of x is given by µ = E(x) = ∑pi xi
‰ Expected Value of x2 is given by E(x2) = ∑pixi2
In particular expected value of a monotonic function g(x) is given by E[g(x)] = ∑pi E(xi)
‰ Variance of x, to be denoted by, σ2 is given by
V(x) = σ2 = E(x – µ)2 = E(x2) – µ2
The positive square root of variance is known as standard deviation and is denoted by σ.
‰ If y = a + bx, for two random variables x and y and for a pair of constants a and b, then the
mean i.e., expected value of y is given by:
µy = a + bµx
and the standard deviation of y is given by:
σy = |b| × σx

772 Quantitative Aptitude PW

Now, when x is discrete random variable and f(x) is the probability mass function, then the expected
value (i.e. Mean) is given by
µ E(x)
= = ∑ xf(x)
x
Its variance is given by s2 = E(x2) – m2, where, E(x ) = ∑ x f(x)
2 2

x
If x is continuous random variable defined in (–∞, ∞), then the expected value is given by
∞ 2
E(x)
= ∫−∞ xf(x)dx and=
σ E(x 2 ) − µ 2
2 ∞
where, E(x ) = ∫ x 2 f(x)dx
−∞

PROPERTIES OF EXPECTED VALUES

1. Expectation of a constant k is k i.e., if all values of x is equal to k, then the expected value will
be equal to E(k) = k for any constant k.
2. Expectation of sum of two random variables is the sum of their expectations
i.e., E(x + y) = E(x) + E(y) for any two random variables x and y.
3. Expectation of the product of a constant and a random variable is the product of the constant
and the expectation of the random variable.
i.e., E(kx) = k.E(x) for any constant k.
4. Expectation of the product of two random variables is the product of the expectation of the
two random variables, provided the two variables are independent.
i.e., E(xy) = E(x) × E(y) where x and y are independent.

Example 47. If x and y are random variables having expected values as 4.5 and 2.5 respectively,
then the expected value of (x – y) is (ICAI)
(a) 2 (b) 7 (c) 6 (d) 0
Sol. (a) Given, x and y are random variables having expected values as 4.5 and 2.5
⇒ E(x) = 4.5 and E(y) = 2.5
∴ Expected value of (x – y)
= E(x – y) = E(x) – E(y)
= 4.5 – 2.5 = 2
Therefore, the required expected value is 2.
Hence, the correct option is (a) i.e. 2.
Example 48. The probability that there is at least one error in an account statement prepared by 3
persons A, B and C are 0.2, 0.3 and 0.1 respectively. If A, B and C prepare 60, 70 and 90 such
statements, then the expected number of correct statement is (ICAI)
(a) 170 (b) 176 (c) 178 (d) 180

Probability 773
Sol. (c) Given, The probability that there is at least one error in an account statement prepared by
3 persons A, B and C are 0.2, 0.3 and 0.1 respectively.
P(A) 0.2,
= = P(B) 0.3,
= P(C) 0.1
So, probability that there is no error will be
P(A) =−
1 P(A) =−
1 0.2 =0.8

P(B) =−
1 P(B) =−
1 0.3 =0.7

P(C) =1 − P(C) =1 − 0.1 =0.9

If A, B and C prepare 60, 70 and 90 such statements, so the expected correct statement is given
as follows:
X 60 70 90
P(X) 0.8 0.7 0.9

Thus, E(X) = SXP(X)

Expected value = 60 × 0.8 + 70 × 0.7 + 90 × 0.9 = 48 + 49 + 81 = 178
Here, the correct answer is option (c) i.e., 178.
Example 49. A wholesaler can make a profit of `12,000 or incur a loss of `8,000. The probabilities
of making profit or incurring loss, from the past experience, are known to be 0.8 and 0.2 respectively.
What is his expected profit?
(a) `8,000 (b) `12,000 (c) `4,000 (d) None of these
Sol. (a) According to the given information,
X 12,000 8,000
P 0.8 0.2
Thus, the expected profit is given by:
E(X) = 12,000(0.8) + (–8,000) (0.2)
E(X) = 9,600 – 1,600
E(X) = 8,000
Therefore, his expected profit is `8,000.
Hence, the correct option is (a).
Example 50. A number is selected at random from a set containing the first 50 natural numbers
and another number is selected at random from another set containing the first 100 natural numbers.
What is the expected value of
(I) the sum (II) the product
5151 8151 9158 5190
(a) 76, (b) 66, (c) 50, (d) 45,
2 2 2 2

774 Quantitative Aptitude PW

Sol. (a) According to the given information,
X 1 2 3 4 .... 50
1 1 1 1 1
Pi ....
50 50 50 50 50

1 2 3 4 50
PiXi .... =1
50 50 50 50 50

Y 1 2 3 4 .... 100
1 1 1 1 1
Pi ....
100 100 100 100 100

1 2 3 4 100
PiYi .... =1
100 100 100 100 100

(I) Sum = E(X + Y) = ∑ Pi Xi + ∑ Pi Yi

1 2 3 50   1 2 3 100 
=  + + +………+  +  + + +……... 
 50 50 50 50   100 100 100 100 
1 + 2 + 3 ……+ 50 1 + 2 + 3 +………+ 100
=
+
50 100
50(50 + 1) 100(100 + 1)
= 2 + 2
50 100
51 101 152
= + = =76
2 2 2
= E(XY)
(II) Product = ( ∑ Pi Xi )( ∑ Pi Yi )
51 101 5151
= × =
2 2 2
Hence, the correct answer is option (a).

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (PART E)

1. A random variable has the following probability distribution:
X 4 5 7 8 10
P 0.15 0.20 0.40 0.15 0.10
Find E[x – E(x)]2 . Also obtain v(3x – 4).
(a) 3.04, 17.36 (b) 3.04, 27.36
(c) 4.15, 37.65 (d) None of these

Probability 775
 2. A box contains 10 tubelights of which 3 are defective. A man selects four tube lights at random.
What is the expected number of defective tube lights in his selection?
(a) 1.21 (b) 1.69 (c) 1.71 (d) 1.20
3. Raju draws 2 balls from a bag containing 3 white and 5 Red balls. He gets `500 if he draws a
white ball and `200 if he draws a red ball. What is his expectation? But here are the twists, for
each game he has to pay `400 for participating in the game, would he consider it a fair game
and participate?
(a) Yes, the game is fair and should participate
(b) No, the game is not fair
(c) Cannot be determined
(d) None of these
4. A dice is thrown repeatedly till a ‘1’ appears. Write down the sample space. Also find the
expected number of throws.
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 6 (d) None of these
5. A random variable x has the following probability distribution:
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P(X) 0 2k 3k k 2k k2 7k2 2k2 + k

Find:
(I) P(x ≤ 2) (II) P(x > 3) (III) P (3 ≤ x < 6)
(a) 0.50, 0.40, 0.30 (b) 0.40, 0.40, 0.30
(c) 0.50, 0.40, 0.30 (d) 0.50, 0.40, 0.30
6. If all the values taken by a random variable are equal then
(a) its expected value is zero
(b) its standard deviation is zero
(c) its standard deviation is positive
(d) its standard deviation is a real number
7. If x and y are independent, then
(a) E(xy) = E(x) x E(y) (b) E(xy) = E(x) + E(y)
(c) E(x – y) = E(x) + E(y) (d) E(x – y) = E(x) + x E(y)
8. If two random variables x and y are related by y = 2 – 3x, then the SD of y is given by
(a) –3 × SD of x (b) 3 × SD of x (ICAI)
(c) 9 × SD of x (d) 2 × SD of x
9. If an unbiased die is rolled once, the odds in favour of getting a point which is a multiple of
3 is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 3 (d) 3 : 1

776 Quantitative Aptitude PW

10. If a random variable x assumes the values 0, 1 and 2 with probabilities 0.30, 0.50 and 0.20, then
its expected value is (ICAI)
(a) 1.50 (b) 3 (c) 0.90 (d) 1

Answer Key
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (c)

FULL CHAPTER PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. When 2 – dice are thrown simultaneously then the probability of getting at least one 5 is
11 5 8 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
36 36 15 7
2. If a coin is tossed 5 times then the probability of getting tail and head occurs alternatively is
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 16 32 64
3. Two event A and B are such that do not occurs simultaneously then they are called ________
events
(a) Mutually exhaustive (b) Mutually exclusive
(c) Mutually independent (d) Equally likely
4. If Y ≥ X then mathematical expectation is
(a) E(X) > E(Y) (b) E(X) ≤ E(Y) (c) E(X) = E(Y) (d) E(X) . E(Y) = 1
5. If P(A ~ B) = 0.8 and P (A € B) = 0.3, then P(A) + P(B)
(a) 0.3 (b) 0.5 (c) 0.7 (d) 0.9
6. Two different dice are thrown simultaneously, then the probability that the sum of the numbers
appearing on the top of dice ids 9 is
8 1 7
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
9 9 9
7. Ram is known to hit a target in 2 out of 3 shots whereas Shyam is known to hit the same target
in 5 out of 11 shots. What is the probability that the target would be hit if they both try?
9 3 10 6
(a) (b) (c) (d)
11 11 33 11
8. A coin is tossed six times, then the probability of obtaining heads and tails alternatively is
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 64 32 16
9. The Probability that a non-leap year has 53 Wednesday is
2 3 2 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7 7 3 7
1 1 1
10. If P(A)
= , P(B)
= , and P(A ∩=B) , then P(A ∪ B) is equal to
2 3 4
11 10 7 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
12 12 12 6

Probability 777
11. Sum of all probability mutually exclusive and exhaustive events is equal to
1 1
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d) 1
2 4
12. What is the probability of having at least one ‘six’ from 3 throws of a perfect die?
3 3 3
5 5 1 5
(a) (b)   (c) 1 −   (d) 1 −  
6 6 6 6
13. If two random variables x and y are related by y = 2 - 3x, then the SD of y is given by
(a) –3 × SD of x (b) 3 × SD of x
(c) 9 × SD of x (d) 2 × SD of x
14. Variance a random variable x is given by
(a) E(X – m)2 (b) E[X – E(X)]2 (c) E(X2 – m) (d) (a) or (b)
15. The theorem of compound probability states that for any two events A and B
(a) P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B/A) (b) P(A ∪ B) = P(A) × P(B/A)
(c) P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B) (d) P(A ∪ B) = P(A) × P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
16. The term “chance” and probability are synonyms (ICAI)
(a) True (b) False (c) Both (d) None of these
17. Two broad divisions of probability are (ICAI)
(a) Subjective probability and objective probability
(b) Deductive probability and mathematical Probability
(c) Statistical probability and mathematical probability
(d) None of these
1 1 1
18. Given P(A)
= , P(B)
= and P(A ∩=
B) , the value of P(A/B) is
2 3 4
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/6 (c) 2/3 (d) 3/4
19. The Probability distribution of the demand for a commodity is given below:
Demands (x) 5 6 7 8 9 10
Probability [P(x)] 0.05 0.10 0.30 0.40 0.10 0.05
The expected value of demands will be
(a) 7.55 (b) 7.85 (c) 1.25 (d) 8.35
2 2
20. If for two mutually exclusive events A and B, P(A
= ∪ B) and
= P(A) , then what is the
3 5
value of P(B)?
4 4 5 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15 9 9 15
2 1 1
21. Let A and B are two events with P(A)
= , P(B)
= and P(A ∩=B) , then P(B/A) will be
3 4 12
(a) 7/8 (b) 1/3 (c) 1/8 (d) 8/7

778 Quantitative Aptitude PW

22. If a coin is tossed 10 times, what is the probability of getting at least 7 tails?
(a) 0.1719 (b) 0.3438 (d) 0.5000 (d) 0.8281
2 3 1
23. For two events A,B let P(A)
= , P(B)
= and P(A ∩=
B) , then A and B are
3 8 4
(a) Mutually exclusive but not independent
(b) Independence but not mutually exclusive
(c) Mutually exclusive and independent
(d) None of these
24. A bag contains 6 white and 5 red balls. One ball is drawn. The probability that it is red is
5 1 2 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
11 6 3 2
25. If two unbiased dice are rolled, what is the probability of getting points neither 3 nor 6?
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50 (c) 0.75 (d) 0.80
26. Three coins are tossed together, the probability of getting exactly two head is:
5 3 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
8 8 8
27. A bag contain 15 one rupee coins, 25 two rupees coins and 10 five rupees coins, if a coin is
selected at random then probability for not selecting a one rupee coin is:
(a) 0.30 (b) 0.20 (c) 0.25 (d) 0.70
28. If a random variable x assumes the values x1, x2, x3, x4 with corresponding probabilities p1,
p2, p3, p4; then the expected value of x is (ICAI)
(a) p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 (b) x1p1 + x2p3 + x3p2 + x4p4
(c) p1x1 + p2x2 + p3x3 + p4x4 (d) None of these
29. When two fair dice are thrown, what is the probability of getting a sum that is a multiple of 7?
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
12 36 6 18
30. If there are 20 cars, 14 of them are SUVs and 6 of them are sedans, then the probability of
randomly selecting 4 cars that include 2 SUVs and 2 sedans is
(a) 0.04 (b) 0.17 (c) 0.28 (d) 0.23
31. Let X be a random variable having following Probability distribution:
x –3 6 9
1 1 1
P(x)
6 2 3

Find E(X) and E(X2).

11 93 17 75 11 97
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d) None of these
2 2 2 2 3 3

Probability 779
Answer Key
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (d) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (c) 30. (c)
31. (a)

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION (PYQ’S)

1. If y ≥ x, then mathematical expectation is (June 2019)
(a) E(x) > E(y) (b) E(x) ≤ E(y) (c) E(x) = E(y) (d) E(x).E(y) = 1
2. Two events A and B are such that they do not occurs simultaneously then they are called
____________ events. (June 2019)
(a) Mutually exhaustive (b) Mutually exclusive
(c) Mutually independent (d) Equally likely
3. If a coin is tossed 5 times, then the probability of getting tail and head occurs alternatively is
 (June 2019)
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 16 32 64
4. When 2-dice are thrown simultaneously then the probability of getting at least one 5 is
 (June 2019)
11 5 8 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
36 36 15 7
5. If two letters are taken at random from the word HOME, what is the probability that none of
the letters would be vowels ? (Dec 2019)
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 2 3 4
6. The chance of getting 7 or 11 in a throw of 2 dice is  (Dec 2019)
7 5 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
9 9 9
7. A bag contains 15 one rupee coins, 25 two rupee coins and 10 five rupee coins. If a coin is
selected at random from the bag, then the probability of not selecting a one rupee coins is
 (Dec 2019)
(a) 0.30 (b) 0.70 (c) 0.25 (d) 0.20
8. When 2 fair dice are thrown what is the probability of getting the sum which is a multiple of
3? (Dec 2020)
4 8 2 12
(a) (b) (c) (d)
36 36 36 36

780 Quantitative Aptitude PW

 9. When two coins are tossed simultaneously, then the probability of getting atleast one tail is
 (Dec 2020)
(a) 1 (b) 0.75 (c) 0.5 (d) 0.25
10. When 3 dice are rolled simultaneously, the probability on the third die is greater than the sum
of the numbers on two dice is (Dec 2020)
12 36 48 60
(a) (b) (c) (d)
216 216 216 216
11. If A speaks 75% of truth and B speaks 80% of truth. In what percentage both of them likely
contradict each other in narrating the same questions? (Dec 2020)
(a) 0.60 (b) 0.45 (c) 0.65 (d) 0.35
12. An event that can be sub-divided into further events is called as  (Jan 2021)
(a) A composite event (b) A complex event
(c) A mixed event (d) A simple event
13. Three identical and balanced dice are rolled. The probability that the same number will appear
on each of them is (Jan 2021)
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 18 36 24
14. A basket contains 15 white balls, 25 red balls and 10 blue balls. If a ball is selected at random,
the probability of selecting not a white ball is (Jan 2021)
(a) 0.20 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.60 (d) 0.70
15. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. The probability of a total score of 5 from the outcomes
of dice is (Jan 2021)
1 1 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
18 12 9 5
16. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. The probability of a total score of 5 from the outcomes
of dice is (July 2021)
1 1 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
18 12 9 5
17. A biased coin is such that the probability of getting a head is thrice the probability of getting
a tail. If the coin is tossed 4 times, what is the probability of getting a head all the times?
 (July 2021)
2 81 81 81
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5 128 256 64
18. If there are 16 phones, 10 of them are Android and 6 of them are of Apple, then the probability
of 4 randomly selected phones to include 2 Android and 2 Apple phone is
 (July 2021)
(a) 0.47 (b) 0.51 (c) 0.37 (d) 0.27

Probability 781
19. If there are 48 marbles marked with numbers 1 to 48, then the probability of selecting a marble
having the number divisible by 4 is (July 2021)
1 2 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 3 3 4
20. If in a class, 60% of the student study Mathematics and Science and 90% of the student study
Science, then the probability of a student Mathematics given that he/she is already studying
Science is (July 2021)
1 2 1
(a) (b) (c) 1 (d)
4 3 2
21. A bag contains 7 blue and 5 green balls. One ball is drawn at random. The probability of
getting a blue ball is (July 2021)
5 12 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)0
12 35 12
3
22. The probability that a football team losing a match at Kolkata is and winning a match at
5
6
Bengaluru is , then the probability of the team winning at least one match is (July 2021)
7
3 18 32 17
(a) (b) (c) (d)
35 35 35 35
5 6 10
23. For any two dependent events A and B, P(A) = and P(B) = and P(A ∩ B) = . What are
9 11 33
A B
the values of P   and P   ? (Dec 2021)
B A
5 6 5 6 1 2 2 4
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d) ,
9 11 6 11 9 9 9 9
24. Which of the following pair of events E and F are mutually exclusive? (Dec 2021)
(a) E = {Ram’s age is 13} and F = {Ram is studying in a college}
(b) E = {Sita studies in a school} and F = {Sita is a playback singer}
(c) E = {Raju is an elder brother in a family} and F = {Raju’s father has more than one son}
(d) E = {Banu studied B.A. English literature} and F = {Banu can read English novels}
25. Four unbiased coins are tossed simultaneously. The expected number of heads is
 (Dec 2021)
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
26. Assume that the probability for rain on a day is 0.4. An umbrella salesman can earn Rs 400
per day in case of rain on the day and will lose Rs 100 per day if there is no rain. The expected
earnings (in Rs.) per day of the salesman is (Dec 2021)
(a) 400 (b) 200 (c) 100 (d) 0

782 Quantitative Aptitude PW

27. The probability distribution of a random variable x is given below: (Dec 2021)
x: 1 2 4 5 6
P: 0.15 0.25 0.2 0.3 0.1
What is the standard deviation of x?
(a) 1.49 (b) 1.56 (c) 1.69 (d) 1.72
28. In a group of 20 males and 15 females, 12 males and 8 females are service holders. What is the
probability that a person selected at random from the group is a service holder given that the
selected person is a male? (Dec 2021)
(a) 0.40 (b) 0.60 (c) 0.45 (d) 0.55
29. There are 3 boxes with the following composition:
Box I: 7 Red + 5 White + 4 Blue balls
Box II: 5 Red + 6 White + 3 Blue balls
Box III: 4 Red + 3 White + 2 Blue balls
One of the boxes is selected at random and a ball is drawn from it. What is the probability the
drawn ball is red? (Dec 2021)
1249 1247 1147 1
(a) (b) (d) (d)
3024 3004 3024 2
Xi
30. For a probability distribution, probability is given by=
P(X) = ; X i 1, 2, ...., 9 . The value of
k
k is (Dec 2021)
(a) 55 (b) 9 (c) 45 (d) 81
B
31. If P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.8 and P   = 0.5 . Find P (A ∪ B). (June 2022)
A
(a) 0.7 (b) 0.95 (c) 0.60 (d) 0.59
32. What is the chance that a leap year selected at random will contain 53 Fridays?
 (June 2022)
3 1 2 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7 7 7 7
x
33. Two balanced dice are rolled. The probability of getting 1 in at least one dice is , where x is
36
 (June 2022)
(a) 12 (b) 1 (c) 11 (d) 2
34. Thirty balls are serially numbered and placed in a bag. Find the chance that the first ball drawn
is a multiple of 3 or 5. (June 2022)
8 2 1 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15 15 2 15

Probability 783
35. The odds in favour of an event A is 2 : 3 and odds against an event B is 6:4, the probability
y
that only one of A and B occurs is , where y is (June 2022)
25
(a) 12 (b) 15 (c) 18 (d) 9
36. The odds in favour of event A in a trial is 3 : 1. In a three independent trials, the probability
of no occurence of the event A is (June 2022)
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
64 32 27 8
37. A machine is made of two parts A and B. The manufacturing process of each part is such that
probability of defective in part A is 0.08 and that B is 0.05. What is the probability that the
assembled part will not have any defect? (Dec 2022)
(a) 0.934 (b) 0.864 (c) 0.85 (d) 0.874
1 3 11 B
P (A )
38. If= = ,P (B) and P ( A ∪ B ) = then P   is  (Dec 2022)
3 4 12 A
1 4 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 9 2 8
39. The probability that a leap year has 53 Monday is (Dec 2022)
1 2 2 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7 3 7 5
40. Suppose A and B are two independent events that probabilities P (A) ≠ 0 and P (B) ≠ 0. Let A'
and B' be their complements. Which one of the following statements is false? (Dec 2022)
A
(a) P ( A ∩ B ) =
P ( A ) .P ( B ) (b) P   = P ( A )
B
(c) P ( A ∪ B=
) P (A ) + P (B) (d) P ( A′ ∩ B′ ) =
P ( A′ ) .P ( B′ )
41. The theorem of Compound Probability states that for any events A and B is
 (Dec 2022)
B B
) P ( A ) × P  
(a) P ( A ∩ B= ) P ( A ) × P  
(b) P ( A ∪ B=
A A
(c) P ( A ∩ B=
) P (A ) × P (B) (d) P ( A ∪ B=
) P (A ) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)
42. If a number is selected at random from the first 50 natural numbers, what will be the probability
that the selected is a multiple of 3 or 4? (Dec 2022)
5 2 3 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
50 25 50 25
43. If three coins are tossed simultaneously, what is the probability of getting two heads together?
 (Dec 2022)
1 1 5 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 8 8 8

784 Quantitative Aptitude PW

44. Company ‘A’ produces 10% defective products, company ‘B’ produces 20% defective products
and company ‘C’ produces 5% defective products. If choosing a company is an equally likely
event, what is the probability that the product chosen is free from defect? (June 2023)
(a) 0.88 (b) 0.80 (c) 0.79 (d) 0.78
2 3 1
45. For any two events, ‘A’ and ‘B’ it is known that P(A) = , P(B) = and P(A ∩ B) = , then
3 8 4
the events A and B are; (June 2023)
(a) Mutually exclusive and independent
(b) Mutually not exclusive and independent
(c) Mutually exclusive but not independent
(d) Neither independent nor mutually exclusive
46. The probability that a four digit number comprising the digits 2, 5, 6, and 7, without repetition
of digits, would be divisible by 4 is: (June 2023)
1 3 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 4 4 3
47. Four persons are chosen at random from a group of 3 men, 2 women and 4 children. The
probability that exactly 2 of them are children is: (June 2023)
10 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
21 12 5 9
1 1 A 1 B
P (A )
48. If= = ,P (B) ,=
P  , the probability P   is: (June 2023)
3 4 B 6 A
1 1 3 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 4 8 2
49. A number is selected from the first 30 natural numbers. What is the probability that it would
be divisible by 3 or 8? (Dec 2023)
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.6 (d) 0.8
1 5 1
50. If P ( A ∩=
B) , P ( A ∪=
B) (
, P= B) , then P ( A ) = ? (Dec 2023)
3 6 2
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.6 (d) 0.8
51. If a card is drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards, what is the chance of getting a club or
king? (Dec 2023)
13 4 17 16
(a) (b) (c) (d)
52 52 52 52
1 1 1
52. If P (=
A) ( B ) , P ( A ∪=
, P= B) , then find P ( A ∩ B ) ? (Dec 2023)
2 4 6
1 2 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 3 6 2

Probability 785
53. A box contains 20 electrical bulbs out of which 4 are defective. Two bulbs are chosen at random
from this box. The probability that at least one of them is defective is
 (Dec 2023)
7 8 3 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
19 20 16 19
54. A number is selected at random from the first 100 natural numbers. What is the probability
that it would be a multiple of 3 or 7? (Dec 2023)
33 4 21 43
(a) (b) (c) (d)
100 100 100 100
55. A random variable has the following probability distribution: (June 2024)
X 2 3 5
P K 2K 2K
1 2 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 5 5 3
56. A number is selected at random from the set {1, 2, ....., 99}. The probability that it is divisible
by 9 or 11 is (June 2024)
19 19 10 10
(a) (b) (c) (d)
100 99 100 99
57. The following table gives the probability function of X: (June 2024)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
6 5 13 1 1 1
f(x)
30 30 30 15 10 30

The expectation of X is
(a) 1.8 (b) 1.7 (c) 1.5 (d) 1.6
58. From a bag containing 4 red, 5 blue and 6 white caps, two caps are drawn without replacement.
What is the probability that the caps are of different colours? (June 2024)
74 37 94 31
(a) (b) (c) (d)
105 105 105 105
59. A question in statistics is given to three students A, B and C. Their chances of solving the
1 1 1
question are , and respectively. The probability that the question would be solved is:
3 5 7
 (June 2024)
19 1 16 104
(a) (b) (c) (d)
35 105 35 105
60. A company produces two types of products A and B. The probability of a defective product
in type A is 0.05 and in type B is 0.03. If the company produces 60% type A and 40% type B,
what is the probability of a randomly selected product being defective? (June 2024)
(a) 0.042 (b) 0.048 (c) 0.050 (d) 0.052

786 Quantitative Aptitude PW

61. Which of the following pairs of events are mutually exclusive? (Sept 2024)
(a) A: The student studies in a school.
B: He studies Geography.
(b) A: Archna was born in India.
B: She is a fine lawyer.
(c) A: Sita is 16 years old.
B: She is a good folk dancer.
(d) A: Imran is under 15 years of age.
B: He is a voter of Delhi.
62. Which one holds correct for any two events A and B ? (Sept 2024)
(a) P(A – B) = P(A) – P(B) (b) P(A – B) = P(A) – P(A∩B)
(c) P(A – B) = P(B) – P(A∩B) (d) P(A – B) = P(B) + P(A∩B)
63. Eight labourers are working at a construction site with the following wages for each day of
working (in Rs):
500, 620, 400, 700, 450, 560, 320, 450
If one of the workers is selected at random, what is the probability that his wage would be
less than the average wage? (Sept 2024)
(a) 0.625 (b) 0.375 (c) 0.500 (d) 0.450
64. A box contains shoe pairs of same pattern of different sizes numbered from 1 to 12. If a shoe
pair is selected at random, what is the probability that the number on the shoe pair will be a
multiple of 5 or 6 ? (Sept 2024)
(a) 0.33 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.20 (d) 0.375
65. Two cards are drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards. The probability of getting either both
the red cards or both Kings cards is: (Sept 2024)
(a) 0.2488 (b) 0.4288 (c) 0.8248 (d) 0.8428
1 1 1
66. The probability of success of three students in CA Foundation examination are , and
5 4 3
respectively. Find the probability that at least two students will get success. (Sept 2024)
2 3 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5 4 6 5
67. If P(A) = 0.65 and P(B) = 0.15, then P(A) + P(B) is: (Sept 2024)
(a) 1.5 (b) 1.2 (c) 0.8 (d) 0.35
1 3
68. Let P(A) =
5
( )
and P B = . If A and B are mutually exclusive events then P(A ∪ B) is
5
 (Jan 2025)
3 1 2 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5 5 5 5

Probability 787
 1 1
69. Let A and B be two possible outcomes of a random experiment and P(A) = , P(A∪B) =
3 2
and P(B) = x. For what value of x are A and B mutually exclusive events? (Jan 2025)
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 4 5 8
70. A random variable X has the following probability density function; f(x) = 6x(1 – x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
then the mean is (Jan 2025)
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 12 4 2
71. A random variable has the following probability distribution: (Jan 2025)
X 0 1 2 3
1 1 1 1
P
2 3 4 5
Find the expected value of X.
(a) 1.20 (b) 1.43 (c) 1.80 (d) 2.00
72. A number is selected from the first 20 natural numbers. Find the probability that it would be
divisible by 3 or 7. (May 2025)
7 12 24 8
(a) (b) (c) (d)
20 37 67 20
73. A father had three sons namely, Kailash, Harish and Prakash. All are above 65 years in age.
Prakash happens to be the eldest while Kailash as youngest. As per the health history, it is
4
estimated that the probability that Kailash survives another 5 years is . Harish survives
5
3 1
another 5 years is and Prakash survives another 5 years is . The probabilities that Kailash
5 2
and Harish survive another 5 years is 0.46, Harish and Prakash survive another 5 years is 0.32
and Kailash and Prakash survive another 5 years is 0.48. The probability that all three sons
survive another 5 years is 0.26. What shall be the probability that at least one of them survives
another 5 years? (May 2025)
7 9
(a) 0.78 (b) 0.72 (c) (d)
10 10
74. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. Find the probability that the sum of digits on the two
dice would be 8 or more. (May 2025)
5 5 5 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
18 13 36 12
75. Two cards are drawn from a pack of 52 cards. The probability that one is a spade and one is
a heart; is (May 2025)
3 29 47 13
(a) (b) (c) (d)
20 34 100 102

788 Quantitative Aptitude PW

76. A problem is given to 5 students P, Q, R, S and T. If the probability of solving the problem
1 1 2 1 1
individually is , , , and respectively then find the probability that the problem is
2 3 3 5 6
solved. (May 2025)
(a) 0.47 (b) 0.93 (c) 0.57 (d) 0.27
77. In a leap year, what is the probability that there will be 53 Sundays? (May 2025)
53 1 3 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
365 7 7 7
78. In a class, there are 15 boys and 10 girls. Three students are selected at random. The probability
that 1 girl and 2 boys are selected is (May 2025)
21 25 1 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
46 17 50 25
79. Two-person X and Y appear in an interview for two vacancies for the same post. The probability
1 1
of X’s selection is and that of Y’s selection is . The probability that none of them will be
5 3
selected is (Sept 2025)
7 8 9 10
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15 15 15 15
80. Three components A, B and C are manufactured separately and then assembled into a finished
product. While producing the three components, it is found that 5 percent of component A,
4 percent of component B and 1 percent of component C are defective. What is the probability
that the assembled product is free from defects? (Sept 2025)
(a) 0.75 (b) 0.8 (c) 0.85 (d) 0.9
81. Two persons are playing a set of matches. The winner of 4 matches is declared as the winner.
Any player has 50% chance to win a match. The probability that the game comes to an end at
the fourth match is _______. (Sept 2025)
5 4 3 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 8 8 8
82. A number is selected at random from the first 50 natural numbers. What is the probability
that it would be either a two-digit prime number or a composite number lying between 5 and
40? (Sept 2025)
(a) 0.54 (b) 0.48 (c) 0.64 (d) 0.72
83. Some dice with six faces have numbers written from Four to Nine. Two such dice are thrown
simultaneously. Find the probability that the sum of numbers on the two dice would be 14 or
less. (Sept 2025)
11 13 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
18 18 6 9

Probability 789
84. The probability mass function of a distribution is given below in a tabular form: (Sept 2025)
X 0 1 2 3 4
P(x) k 2k + k2 3k 2k + k2 k
Where k is a non-negative constant. The median of the distribution is
(a) 3k (b) 2 (c) 2k (d) 3

Answer Key
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (a) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (c)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. (a) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (a) 48. (a) 49. (b) 50. (b)
51. (d) 52. (c) 53. (a) 54. (d) 55. (c) 56. (b) 57. (a) 58. (a) 59. (a) 60. (a)
61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (c) 64. (a) 65. (a) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (a) 69. (a) 70. (d)
71. (b) 72. (d) 73. (d) 74. (b) 75. (d) 76. (b) 77. (d) 78. (a) 79. (b) 80. (d)
81. (d) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (b)

SUMMARY
‰ Experiment: An experiment may be described as a performance that produces certain results.
‰ Random Experiment: An experiment is defined to be random if the results of the experiment
depend on chance only.
‰ Events: The results or outcomes of a random experiment are known as events. Sometimes
events may be a combination of outcomes.
‰ The events are of two types:
(i) Simple or Elementary,
(ii) Composite or Compound.
‰ Mutually Exclusive Events or Incompatible Events: A set of events A1, A2, A3, .... is known
to be mutually exclusive if not more than one of them can occur simultaneously.
‰ Exhaustive Events: The events A1, A2, A3, .... are known to form an exhaustive set if one of
these events must necessarily occur.
‰ Equally Likely Events or Mutually Symmetric Events or Equi-Probable Events: The events
of a random experiment are known to be equally likely when all necessary evidence are taken
into account, no event is expected to occur more frequently as compared to the other events
of the set of events.
‰ The probability of occurrence of the event is defined as the ratio of the number of events
favorable to A to the total number of events. Denoting this by P(A), we have
No. of equally likely favorable events
P(A) =
Total no. of equally likely events

790 Quantitative Aptitude PW

‰ The probability of an event lies between 0 and 1, both inclusive i.e., 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1.
‰ When P(A) = 0, A is known to be an impossible event and when P(A) = 1, A is known to be a
sure event.
c
‰ Non-occurrence of event A is denoted by A’ or A or A and it is known as complimentary
event of A. The event A along with its complementary A’ forms a set of mutually exclusive
and exhaustive events.
‰ The ratio of no. of favorable events to the no. of unfavorable events is known as odds in favor
of the event and its inverse ratio is known as odds against event A.
i.e. odds in favor of A = mA : (m – mA)
and odds in against A = (m – mA) : mA
‰ For any two mutually exclusive events A and B, the probability that either A or B occurs is
given by the sum of individual probabilities of A and B.
i.e. or P(A + B) = P(A) + P(B)
‰ For any two events A and B, the probability that either A or B occurs is given by the sum of
individual probabilities of A and B less the probability of simultaneous occurrence of the
events A and B.
i.e. P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
P(A ∩ B)
Conditional Probability: P(B /A) =
P(A)
‰ For any two events A and B, the probability that A and B occur simultaneously is given by
the product of the unconditional probability of A and the conditional probability of B given
that A has already occurred i.e., Compound Probability or Joint Probability Provided.
‰ A random variable or stochastic variable is a function defined on a sample space associated
with a random experiment assuming any value from R and assigning a real number to each
and every sample point of the random experiment.
‰ Expected value or Mathematical Expectation or Expectation of a random variable may be
defined as the sum of products of the different values taken by the random variable and the
corresponding probabilities.


Probability 791