Physics

CHAPTER - 1
What is Physics?
Physics is the most ancient branch of science. It is because scientists started studying &
practicing astronomy, the most important branch of physics, before other branches of science had
flourished. Besides, being the oldest branch, physics can said to be the most fundamental branch
of science.

The branch of science that tries to understand matter & energy & the interactions between them
is called physics.

Physics does not refer to only the visible things around us but also the things such as molecules-
atoms, electrons, protons, neutrons, quarks or string etc. Again, energy may encompass strong &
weak nuclear energy apart from our known potential energy, kinetic energy, gravitational energy or
electromagnetic energy.
Scope of Physics
Since physics is the oldest & the most fundamental branch & other branches somehow
flourished on the basis of physics, it is very natural that the scope of physics is very vast. Not
only that, different technologies have flourished based on different laws of physics & we are
using these in our daily lives. At present the greatest contribution behind civilization is of
electronics & physics has the greatest contribution of war to space exploration, the
contribution of physics is present. Not only that, by the combination of other branches of
science & physics, newer branches have developed. For example, astrophysics consists of
astronomy & physics. In order to, explain organic processes, biophysics has been built up by
the combination of chemistry & physics. Use of physics in Geology has developed
Geophysics. Medical physics has flourished using physics. Therefore, the area of physics is
very vast & deep as well.
Scope of Physics
Physics is divided into 2 Principal parts. They are –
❑ Classical Physics – This contains mechanics, sounds, heat & thermodynamics, electricity
& magnetism & optics.
❑ Modern Physics – Modern physics has been developed using Quantum mechanics &
Theory of relativity. These are molecular & atomic physics, nuclear physics, solid state
physics & particle physics.

Physics was not built in a single day, it took hundreds of years to develop. The physics tried to
explain, with the help of laws, the mysterious world around them. Sometimes those laws were
accepted, changed or rejected through experiments.
Development of Physics
Modern civilization is the contribution of science. This advancement of science has not been
achieved in a day. The modern science reached its present state gradually following tireless labour
of scientists & researchers. It has to be remembered that, in ancient time the exchange of
information was not so easy, it was very difficult to convey the results of research to one another,
books were written by hand form & the number of such books were very few. Courage was need to
express views against conventional faiths.

History of
Physics

Introduction to
Rising Stage of Contemporary
Initial Stage Modern
Science Physics
Physics
Development of Physics (Cont.)
Initial Stages (Greek, Indian Subcontinent, China & The Contribution of Muslim Civilization

The name of the Greek scientist Thales

(624-586 BC) can be mentioned specially,
because he was the first to deny
explanations which were only based on
religion, myth and extrasensory
perception but without logic. Thales
predicted about the solar eclipse and
knew about the magnetic property of
loadstone.
Development of Physics (Cont.)
Initial Stages (Greek, Indian Subcontinent, China & The Contribution of Muslim Civilization

Pythagoras (527 BC) was remarkable

among the mathematicians and scientists
of that time. He had fundamental works on
vibrating wire along with geometry.
Development of Physics (Cont.)
Initial Stages (Greek, Indian Subcontinent, China & The Contribution of Muslim Civilization

Greek philosopher Democritus ( 460 BC)

presented the idea first that matter has
indivisible units, called atom (This name is
used by modern physics). It was not
acceptable to all since there was no chance
to prove his idea by any scientific process.
The theory that everything was made of soil,
water, air and fire by the greatest
philosopher and scientist of that time,
Aristotle was much more acceptable.
 Development of Physics (Cont.)
Initial Stages (Greek, Indian Subcontinent, China & The Contribution of Muslim Civilization

Aristarchus (310 BC) first gave the idea of sum centered

solar system. His follower Seleucus proved those ideas
with arguments, although these arguments have been lost
with time. Greek science and mathematics reached its
peak at the time of Archimedes (287 BC), the greatest
scientist of all times. The upward thrust of liquids is still
included in the content of science. He assisted, during the
war, by setting enemy ships on fire by converging the solar
light using a spherical mirror. There was another scientist
of Greek era named Eratosthenes (276 BC), determined
the radius of the earth accurately at that time.
 Development of Physics (Cont.)
Initial Stages (Greek, Indian Subcontinent, China & The Contribution of Muslim Civilization
After that, the development of science came to a stand still for almost one thousand and five hundred
years. Only the civilizations of the Indians, Muslims and Chinese kept practising the study of science
following Greek convention. In the Indian subcontinent Aryabhatta (476), Brahmagupta and Vaskar did a
lot of valuable works on mathematics and astronomy. Zero was effectively used in the Indian
subcontinent (Aryabhatta). The name of Al Khorgimi (783 BC) has to be specially mentioned among the
Muslim mathematicians and scientists. The present name algebra has come from the book Al Zaber
written by him. Ibne Al Hayum (965 BC) is considered as the founder of optics. Al Masudi wrote an
encyclopedia of thirty parts regarding the history of nature. Everyone knows the name of Omar Khayam
as a poet. But he was a highly famous mathematician, astronomer and philosopher. Chinese
mathematicians and scientists have done a lot of work in physics. Among them the name of Shen Kuor
can be mentioned (1031 ), studied magnets and mentioned the technique of finding directions by using a
compass during travel.
 Development of Physics (Cont.)
Rising Stages of Science –
In the sixteenth and seventeenth century, a wonderful revolution started in the realm of physics. It was the era of European
renaissance. In 1543 Copernicus gave the explanation of the solar centric solar system in a book. (the publisher of the book
became afraid of the priest and wrote that it is not a real explanation, only a mathematical solution!) The theory was not made
available to the people for a long time, Galileo (1564-1642) brought it to the fore front. He introduced the mathematical
formulation. After that he introduced the scientific process to prove the law through experiments. Sometimes Galileo is called the
father of modern science. He fell victim of the anger of the church as the founder of solar centric solar system. He had to pass
his last days in captivity. In 1687 Newton published the three laws of mechanics and the law of gravitational force, which
provided the foundation of force and dynamics. Besides optics and other works scientist Newton invented a new branch of
mathematics called calculus along with Leibniz.

Before the eighteenth century heat was considered a mass-less liquid. In 1768 Count Rumford showed that heat is a kind
of energy and mechanical energy can be converted into heat energy. Lord Kelvin, in 1850, introduced two important laws
of thermodynamics on the basis of the research work of many other scientists. An extensive research started on electricity
and magnets at that time. In 1778 Coulomb invented the law of force between charges. Many kinds of research were
started after the invention of the electric battery by Volta in 1800. In 1820 Oersted showed that magnets can be made by
the flow of electricity. In 1831 Faraday invented just the opposite process given by Oersted.
 Development of Physics (Cont.)
Rising Stages of Science –
They showed that electricity can be produced by varying the magnetic field. In 1864 Maxwell
expressed the varying electric and magnetic fields with a single law, the famous Maxwell equation.
Here, he also showed that actually light is an electromagnetic wave. Electricity and magnets are not
different. In fact they are the two forms of the same energy. This invention was well-timed because in
1801 Young proved the wave nature of light through experiments.
 Development of Physics (Cont.)
Introduction to Modern Physics
From the very beginning of 19th century scientists felt that many things could not be explained with the help of existing physics.
Dalton introduced atomic theory in 1803, Thomson invented an electron within the atom, In 1911 Rutherford showed that at the
center of the atom, there is the smallest nucleus and there are positive charges in it. But it was found that the revolving electron
model around the nucleus could not be explained because, according to electromagnetic theory, an electron should radiate its
energy and fall into the nucleus, but practically it never happens. In 1900 Max Plank invented the quantum theory and the
explanation of the stability of an atom became possible. Professor Satyendranath Basu gave an appropriate mathematical
explanation of the Quantum - theory of radiation. In recognition of his contributions to physics one kind of elementary particle
was named the Boson. During the period of 1900-1930 many famous scientists together established the quantum theory.

An imaginary medium called ether was considered as the carrier of the electromagnetic wave. In 1887 Michelson and
Morley, while trying to prove the existence of ether, showed that actually there is no ether and the velocity of light is equal
in both stationary and moving mediums. We get this explanation from Einstein's theory of relativity in 1905. The most
wonderful equation E=mc2 is derived from the theory of relativity in which it is shown that the mass of object can be
converted into energy. In 1931 Dirac hypothesised the existence of an anti particle by the combination of quantum theory
and the theory of relativity and it was discovered the following year.
 Development of Physics (Cont.)
Introduction to Modern Physics
In 1895 Roentgen invented X-rays. In 1896 Becqurel showed that radioactive radiation is emitted from
the center of an atom. In 1899 Pierre Curie and Marie Curic invented radium and the scientists
understood that actually the atoms are not imperishable and on disintegrating, these atoms may emit
radioactive radiation.
 Development of Physics (Cont.)
Contemporary Physics
Due to the invention of electronics and modern technology it is possible to make powerful particle accelerators. Accelerating the
particle with high energy, new particles are being discovered. It is possible to arrange these particles systematically using the
Theoretical Standard Model. It is possible to explain the structure of all the particles using a few elementary particles and their
antiparticles) though apparently we think there are an infinite numbers of new particles. It is not possible to explain the mass of
the particles using the Standard Model, so to explain the mass, the existence of a new particle called the Higgs Boson was
proposed. The identification of the Higgs Boson particle in the laboratory in 2013 is treated as a great success of theoretical
physics. In 1924 Hubble showed that all galaxies of the universe are moving away from one another, which indicates that the
universe is expanding slowly. This means that once upon a time the whole universe was concentrated at a point. Scientists
showed that fourteen billion years ago through a massive explosion called the Big Bang the universe was created and it is
continuing to expand. Very recently scientists showed that this expansion will never stop and every part of the universe will keep
moving away from one another. Besides, the physicist have shown that they can explain only 4% of visible planets, stars, and
galaxies of the universe, the concept of the mysterious dark matter and dark energy has to be accepted to explain the rest of the
universe. The scientists are continuing their research in this field. Semiconductors are created from the research of solid state
physics resulting in present electronics which laid the foundation of modern civilization.
Objects of Physics

Objects of
Physics

Development of
Unfold the
To know the Technology
Mystery of
Laws of Nature using the Laws
Nature
of Nature
 Objects of Physics (Cont.)
Unfold The Mystery of Nature
In ancient times in China, a piece of lodestone was seen to attract another by an invisible force. This special property of
this special type of matter was called magnetism. Similarly in ancient Greece, when a substance called amber was rubbed
with wool, they would attract each other with an invisible force. This special type of property is called electricity. Many
research were conducted on it in the eighteenth century and the scientists discovered that, this is actually two different
forms of the same force and this force is called an electromagnetic force. After the invention of radioactivity while
explaining a special radiation called beta ray, a new type of force called weak nuclear force was discovered. Later, the
physicists showed that electrometric force and weak nuclear force are the different forms of the same force. Their
combination is called the electro weak force. The physicists argue that two other forces in nature called gravitational force
and nuclear force will be brought under the same law in the future.
Physics is unveiling the mystery of nature one after another. Similarly we can say that an object consists of molecules,
later on we see that the molecules consist of atoms of elements. Despite the atoms being charge neutral, there is a
positive charged nucleus at the center and surrounding it, electrons are revolving.
Though an electron is an elementary particle, it is seen that the nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. It is seen that
neutrons and protons also consist of elementary particles called quarks. At present the research topic is whether electrons
and quarks are made of strings.
 Objects of Physics (Cont.)
To Know The Laws of Nature
From time immemorial we know that if something is released from above, it falls downward and seeing
this we can guess that the earth attracts everything towards its center. If physics stops after
pronouncing only the existence of gravitation, this is not enough at all. The knowledge will not be
appropriate until we precisely know the force by which an object of a definite mass attracts another
object of another definite mass and how the force varies with the distance between them. Newton
explained this law of nature properly with the help of the law of gravitation. The laws of nature can be
used in many other places. So, the motion of a falling body is explained with the help of gravitation,
similarly the rotation of the earth round the sun can also be explained. To know the laws of nature
properly the scientists analysed them with argumentative discussions, while also conducting
experiments in the laboratory. Behind the wonderful success of physics, both theoretical and
experimental research have been conducted. The main objectives of physics is to find out the laws of
nature by carrying out research in these two different fields.
 Objects of Physics (Cont.)
Development of Technology Using the Laws of Nature
From the theory of relativity Einstein deduced the law E = mc2 and showed that mass can be converted into energy. In 1938, by
breaking a nucleus Otto Hann and Fritz Strassmann showed that the amount of mass reduced, is converted to energy.

Using this formula the nuclear bomb was made and dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the Second World War and
millions of people were killed within a second. Not only deadly weapons can be made but also it is possible to use for the
good of mankind. Using this formula, nuclear power plants are made and also in Rooppur of our country a nuclear power
plenty is being made.

Solid state physics is a branch of physics where semiconductors are studied Mixing some special elements with
semiconductors, transistors are made.

With the help of this technology great development of electronics has occurred and this has made a major contribution to
the present civilization. In this way we can show that physics has a small or large contribution in every field of technology.
Contributions of physics only in medical science are discussed in the last chapter of this book.
One third of the
chapter is
completed!!!
CONGRATULATIONS!!!
 Physical Quantities & their
measurements
Quantity Unit Symbol
Anything we can measure in the universe is called a Quantity. In
Physical World, Quantities are endless. Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Length, Mass, Time, Electric current, Temperature, Amount of
Time second s
Substance & Luminous intensity – these seven quantities are
called Fundamental Quantities. Electric ampere A
Current
The other quantities which are expressed by using fundamental Temperatur kelvin K
quantities that are called derived quantities. e
Amount of mole mol
Internationally recognized seven units of the seven fundamental
Substance
quantities are called SI Units. (SI came from the France
Luminous candela cd
language term ‘Systeme International d’units)
intensity
 Units of Measurement
The measurement of seven fundamental units are stated very clearly.
The distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 second is called 1m.
1 kilogram unit is still considered as definite amount of mass, which is the mass of a cylinder made of platinum-iridium of the
height & diameter of 3.9 cm which is kept in a certain building in France.
The time required to complete 9,192,631,770 vibrations by a Cesium-133 atom is called one second.
The temperature which we get when the triple point temperature of water is divided by 273.16 is called one Kelvin.
When electric current flows through two wires in the same direction they attract one another. The amount of current that flows
through two parallel wires separated by 1m & if they attract one another with 2 × 10−7 𝑁 force per meter, that amount of current is
called one ampere.
One mole is defined as the amount of substance that is contained in a definite number of fundamental particles (molecules, atom
or ion) which is equal to the number of atoms contained in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12 atom.
One candela is defined as the amount of luminous intensity of a source of light which is emitted in one steradian solid angle of
luminous intensity of 1/683 part of 1 watt.
Units of Measurement (Cont.)
In general, it can be said that –
➢ The distance from the feet to the stomach of a person of normal height is nearly one meter.
➢ The water contained in one liter bottle or the water kept in four glasses have a mass of nearly
one kg.
➢ The time required to say three words ‘one thousand one’ is approximately one second.
➢ If three mobile phone are charging at the same time, one ampere electric current is used.
➢ If we can feel the fever of anyone by hand, it can be said that his temperature has increased
by one kelvin.
➢ It is difficult to understand a mole, we can say a large spoon filled with water contains one
mole of water molecules. In one cup water, there are ten moles.
➢ The light coming from a single candle can be said one candela.
Prefix
Deca Da 101 deci d 10−1

Hecto h 102 centi c 10−2

Kilo k 103 milli m 10−3

Mega M 106 micro µ 10−6

Giga G 109 nano n 10−9

Tera T 1012 pico p 10−12

Peta P 1015 femto f 10−15

exa E 1018 atto a 10−18

 Dimension
The power of different fundamental quantities in a quantity is called its dimension.

For example, we will see next that force is the product of mass & acceleration. Again, acceleration is
the rate of change of velocity with time. And velocity is the rate of change of position with time.

Therefore,
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿
Dimension of velocity: = = 𝐿𝑇 −1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿
Dimension of acceleration: = = 𝐿𝑇 −2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 2 𝑇2

To indicate the dimensions of a quantity, it will be shown as third brackets. For example, [F] = M𝐿𝑇 −2
 Scientific symbols & notations
The following methods are followed to write the symbol of units:
➢ To express the value of a quantity, first we write a number, leave a space after it & then write the symbol of the unit. For
example, 2.21 kg or 22 K. The percentage (%) sign also follows the same the same rule. However, no space is left after a number
to write degrees (°) minutes (‘) & seconds (“).
➢ Derived until produced by multiplication is written using a space between two units, e.g., 2.35 N m.
➢ Derived unit produced by division is expressed as negative power or ‘/’. (e.g. - 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑠).
➢ No punctuation mark or full stop is used with the symbols, as they are mathematical expressions but not the abbreviated form of
anything.
➢ The symbol of unit is written in straight font, for example, m for metre, s for second etc. But the symbol of quantities are written
in italic or curved font, for example, m for mass, v for velocity etc.
➢ The symbol of unit is written in small letters, for example, cm, s, mol etc. but capital letters are used for those units which are
taken from the name of scientists (N for Newton). If there are many letters in the unit then the first letter will be capital only (the
unit from the name of Pascal is Pa).
➢ The prefixes (k, G, M) of unit will be attached with the unit (m, W, Hz) with no space. For example – km, GW, MHz.
➢ Prefixes more than kilo (103 ) will be in capital letters (M, G, T).
➢ The symbols of units will never be in plural from (e.g. – not 25 kgs, always 25 kg).
➢ We have to try to write any number or compound unit in a single line. A line break can be given between a number & a unit if it is
really necessary.
Second third of the
chapter is
completed!!!
CONGRATULATIONS!!!
Measuring Instruments
Scale
A meter scale is used to measure small lengths &
definitely you may have seen it. Since this is 100
cm or 1 m long, it is called a meter scale.

One inch = 2.54 cm.

Using a meter scale it is not possible to measure

lengths smaller than millimeter. For this purposes,
we have to measure the smallest length of objects
of this type, which can be performed by using an
interesting scale called vernier scale.
 Measuring Instruments (Cont.)
Vernier Scale
Suppose, an object comes in between 4 & 5 millimeter marking i.e., the length of
the object is greater than 4 mm & less than 5 mm. We can use the vernier scale to
find how much fraction is greater than 4mm. This scale is attached to the main
scale & can be moved forward & backward. In the example shown in the figure the
length of 9 mm of main scale is divided into 10 divisions on the on the vernier scale.
9
Therefore, every division of the vernier scale equals mm, i.e., less than a
10
1
millimeter by millimeter. If the initial mark of the vernier scale coincides with any
10
mark of the millimeter scale, then the next mark of the vernier scale will keep a
1
separation of mm from the actual millimeter mark, & the next will keep a
10
2 3
separation of mm, third one will keep a separation of mm & so on.
10 10

Therefore, no mark of the vernier scale will coincide with the millimeter mark of the
main scale, finally the 10th mark will coincide again with the ninth millimeter mark of
the main scale.
 Measuring Instruments (Cont.)
Vernier Scale (Cont.)
If we keep the vernier scale in such a way that it does not start from millimeter mark rather
3 1
it starts with a slight (e.g. - mm) displacement from the number of mm displacements
10 10
by which it has moved will be the mark of the vernier scale coinciding with the millimeter
mark of the main scale. Therefore, it is very easy to measure a length using a vernier
scale. First of all, we have to know the difference between one division of vernier scale &
one division of main scale – this is called the vernier constant – in brief VC. This can be
calculated if we divide the length of the smallest division (1 mm) of the main scale by the
total number of divisions of the vernier scale. In our example, the value of this:
1 𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝐶 = = 0.1 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0001 𝑚
10

To measure a length, we have to look at the vernier scale after measuring up to the last
millimeter mark. The mark of the vernier scale that coincides exactly with any millimeter
mark of the main scale is then found, & then that number is multiplied by the vernier
constant. We will get the actual length by adding this amount with the length measured by
the main scale.
 Measuring Instruments (Cont.)
Screw Gauge
Instead of the vernier scale we can use a special type of scale called
screw gauge to measure length. In a screw gauge when the screw are
kept very fine. After a complete rotation of the screw, the screw with
the attached scale may advanced by 1 mm. This displacement of the
screw is called the pitch of the screw. The circular part of the
instrument, by the rotation of which the screw moves forwards or
backwards is divided into 100 equal parts. For the rotation of only one
1
division of the circular scale, the screw advances by of the pitch.
100
1
Therefore, with this scale up to mm = 0.01 mm of length
100
measurement is possible. This is called the least count of the screw
gauge.
 Measuring Instruments (Cont.)
Balance
Mass cannot be measure directly, so mass is generally determined by
measuring the weight. When we say the weight of an object is 1 gm or
1 kg, then actually we mean that the mass of the object is 1 gm or 1
kg. In earlier times to measure the mass of an object, a balance was
used, there the mass of the object was compared with the definite
mass of known weight. Now – a – days the use of electronic balance
has increased a lot. If we keep the body on the balance then the
sensors of the balance can determine the weight very precisely.
 Measuring Instruments (Cont.)
Stop Watch
Stop watches are used to measure time interval. Once accurate stop
watches were very precious things. Now – a – days, very accurate stop
watches are available in the mobile phone at low prices due to the
advancement of electronics. In a stop watch, time measurement is
started at any instant of time & by stopping the measurement of time
after a definite interval, the elapsed time can be determined. An
interesting matter is that the stop watch can measure the time very
accurately, but we can never start or stop it with our hands with the
same accuracy.
 Error & Accuracy
Error is a negative word & if the word “error in measurement” used, we think that the person who is doing the measurement is not
performing his duties properly & an error has occurred but this is not the case. Sometimes error may occur due to the person who
is doing the measurement for his negligence, but we have to know that the instrument with which we measure is not error free.
Therefore, there is a limit of how much accurately we can measure, i.e., it is very natural to have errors in measurement. But there
is a need to measure to what extent a measurement is accurate. The reliability of a result will be increased if we can inform how
accurate the result is when we publish the result of an experiment. You can report the measurement of the accuracy of your
experiment if you know some conventional rules for finding the accuracy of an experiment.

Suppose, you are measuring the length of an object by a scale. How accurately you will measure the length of the object depends
on how finely your scale is graduated. If the scale is graduated in 1 cm intervals then you express your result for length is some
definite number of cm. But the real length of the object is not exactly equal to this mentioned number of cm but perhaps very
close to it, so there is a possibility of uncertainty in your measured length. That is why, we add that amount of uncertainty with the
measured length. That is why, we add the amount of uncertainty with the measured result. Therefore, if we see the length is close
to 4 cm, we will say the length of the object is –
4.0 ± 0.5 cm
Therefore the length of the object may have any value within 3.5 cm to 4.5 cm.
 Error & Accuracy (Cont.)
Now, we can discuss how accuracy can be measured. The measurement of accuracy is the absolute error. Observing the
name we understand that this is the difference of the measured value with respect to the actual value. You can definitely
understand that when we measure anything we don’t know the actual value. So, instead of absolute error we use the most
probable error. Therefore in our previous example the absolute error is –
|±0.5 𝑚𝑚| = 0.5 mm
We can consider the relative error after the absolute error. Let us consider that an error of 0.5 mm has occurred while
measuring length. If the length of the object is 1 mm then this error is very serious, but if the length is 1 m then the
measurement is accurate enough. The concept of relative error has been introduced to give a better understanding.
Therefore,
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
Relative error =
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
So, in our previous example –
Relative error: 0.5 mm/7mm = 0.071
In percentage this is: 0.071 × 100 = 7.1 %.
 Problem Solve
Question – Suppose you have got 10 cm by measuring the Since the values are not equal, we consider the larger one
length of a square shaped book. Suppose the relative error i.e., the absolute error is 21 𝑐𝑚2
in the measurement is 10%. What is the relative error in its
area? Therefore, the relative error = 21 𝑐𝑚2 / 100 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.21

Answer –
In percentage, 0.21 × 100% = 21 %
2
Measured area of the object = 10 𝑐𝑚 × 10 𝑐𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚
Since the relative error of the object is 10%, hence if its
length is measured. The minimum length will be 9 cm & If the error in the measurement of length is 10%, then in the
maximum length will be 11 cm. case of area it will be approximately double. Similarly, you
can show that in the case of volume measurements the
The minimum area = 9 𝑐𝑚 × 9 𝑐𝑚 = 81 𝑐𝑚2 error will be three times.

& the maximum area = 11 𝑐𝑚 × 11 𝑐𝑚 = 121 𝑐𝑚2

Therefore, the absolute error:
| 100 𝑐𝑚2 − 81 𝑐𝑚2 | = 19 𝑐𝑚2
| 121 𝑐𝑚2 − 100 𝑐𝑚2 | = 21 c𝑚2
 Problem Solve (Cont.)
Question – You have measured a box by a ruler which is Probable largest volume:
graduated only in cm. You have got the length, breadth &
height of the box as 10 cm, 5 cm & 4 cm respectively. What is 10 + 0.5 𝑐𝑚 × 5 + 0.5 𝑐𝑚 × (4 + 0.5) 𝑐𝑚 = 259.875 𝑐𝑚3
the percentage of error in your measurements?
Therefore the volume,
Answer – Since your ruler is gradually only in cm, so your error
is ±0.5 𝑐𝑚. Therefore the error in your measurements: 149. 625 𝑐𝑚3 < 𝑉 < 259.875 𝑐𝑚3
Length: 10 ±0.5 𝑐𝑚 Absolute error –
Breadth: 5 ±0.5 𝑐𝑚 From 149. 625 𝑐𝑚3 to 200 𝑐𝑚3 is 200 𝑐𝑚3 - 149. 625 𝑐𝑚3 =
50.375 𝑐𝑚3
Height: 4 ±0.5 𝑐𝑚
3
From 200 𝑐𝑚3 to 259.875 𝑐𝑚3 is 259.875 𝑐𝑚3 - 200 𝑐𝑚3 =
Your measured volume: 10 𝑐𝑚 × 5 𝑐𝑚 × 4 𝑐𝑚 = 200 𝑐𝑚 59.375 𝑐𝑚3
Probable smallest volume: Considering the largest value we have the absolute error
59.375 𝑐𝑚3
10 − 0.5 𝑐𝑚 × 5 − 0.5 𝑐𝑚 × (4 − 0.5) 𝑐𝑚 =
149.635 𝑐𝑚3 Relative error: 59.375 𝑐𝑚3 / 200 𝑐𝑚3 × 100 = 29.9375% ≅
30 %
Full chapter is
completed!!!
CONGRATULATIONS!!!
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