CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Concept of Teaching

Teaching has been defined long time ago in the traditional way of teaching before the modern
system come into existence. The traditional way of defining teaching was highlighted by Osundiran
(2022). The aims and activities were concerned to be temporary ability to recite school books,
facts, understood partially or not at all and unrelated to the problems and needs of either young
people or adult. It is very clear that reciting textbooks, facts and the other written documents cannot
lead to learning by a part of it. According to Oyekan (2020) describes teaching as a set of conscious
and deliberate actions intended to induce learning by impacting desirable knowledge, skill and
attitudes. It should be a morally desirable and socially acceptable activity whose end result or goal
learning in achieving meaningful and logical sequenced learning demand adoption of behaviour
objectives because they emphasize the behaviour students should demonstrate by the end of the
lesson. Olasunkanmi (2024) opined that teaching appear to be quiet a complex concept. It is body
of actions intended to induce learning. He further defines teaching as the “conscious and deliberate
effort by a matured or experiences person to impact knowledge, information, skills, attitudes, beliefs
e.t.c to immature or less experienced person with the intention that the latter (the immature or less
experience person) will learn or believe what he is taught on a rational basic”. One criterion that
can be identified from the definition is that there is the assumption that in the process of teaching,
a person is consciously and deliberately doing the teaching.

Teaching also connotes a lot of other meaning if used without clarification. It could refer to human
action. It involves relationship based on interaction. This interaction is linked to what happens in
communication system whereby we have at one end the sender of the information and at the other
the receiver. In the teaching process, the receiver is the one being taught. This referred to in the
definition “the immature or less experienced person”. This implies that a learner is logically
necessary in the act of teaching. It will not make sense if someone says he is teaching physics to
nobody, for except and until the person at the other end receives the information, the teacher has
not performed the act of teaching. The definition also gives a third criterion that of impacting
knowledge, information skills, attitudes, beliefs e.t.c. In simple terms, this implies that some content
or material in the form of information, knowledge is being impacted. It then logically follows that;
there must be something to impact in the act of teaching. Teaching therefore only occurs when there
is content i.e, something being taught. The fourth criterion is that there is at least an intention on
the part of the person doing the act that the recipient should learn. Teaching involves sharing of the
meaning of the subject matter by the teacher and the students.

Olasunkunmi (2021) explains that the process of teaching can be divided into four steps. The first
step is the presentation. This happens when the teacher presents the subject matter to the students.
The subject matter could be information, skills, attitudes, beliefs, etc. The second step is the
examination of the information by the students and asking of questions from the teacher. This
makes teaching involve rational explanation and critical dialogue. The person who teaches must
acknowledge the right of the students to ask questions, to call his judgment to question and to ask
for justification of his statements. The third step involves the negotiation of the subject matter by
the student and the teacher. This step involves clarification of idea and facts and voluntary
acceptance of such facts and ideas. The fourth step involves the sharing of the meaning of the
subject matter. This stage is what implies teaching as an achievement.

2.1.2 The Concept of Learning

Over the ages, educationist and psychologist have been known to devote considerable time to what
constitutes learning by searching into it and also how to improve it. As a result, several definitions
of learning have emerged. Some defined learning as a change in human behaviour or disposition
arising from experience which persists over a period of time and which is not simply ascribable to
processes of growth. Learning has also been seen as a sum of the changes which occur in an
individual stemming from his responses of representative stimuli, present or past or based on
interaction. Learning therefore may lead to attitude formation, perceptions, preference and interests.

According to Okoye (2020), if we regard learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour

arising from experience, then the following words may be regarded as key words before it can take
place; permanent, change in behaviour, and experience, learning can hardly take place, it follows
therefore that learning can be perceived as a process which involves the learners and what he set to
learn and a change in behaviour in order to solve a problem arising from his situational environment.
However, not all situations involving change in behaviour can be classified as learning situations.
It has been shown that some plants and animals respond to illumination negatively or positively
through instincts rather that learning. Irritation in both plants and animals has been provide to be
instinctive rather than learning.

According to Oyekan (2022), learning is a gradual change in behaviour which ought to be

frequently practiced and reinforced to prevent its extinction. It is a sort of biological adaptation as
it occurs when the students adjust to cope with the conditions of educational environment and
dynamic society. Achieving meaning and logically sequenced learning demands adoption of
behavioural objectives because they emphasize the worth while behaviour students should
demonstrate with proficiency by the end of the lesson. Hence learning must be based on familiar
internalized activities while the resulting curiosity and determination can be surprising achievement
in the children. Greater student’s conceptual understanding can be enhanced when teaching is
oriented towards the state of operational readiness of the students as well as the use of local
examples and concrete objects that produce first hand experiences which appeal to human senses.
The varied opportunities to learn by doing, through active participation in a conducive environment
shall promote good teaching and make the students happy with better performance at school.

Nuke (2021), posited that learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of
practice or experience: “the man who ceases to learn soon ceases to live” and “the teacher who
ceases to learn soon loses the opportunity to teach”. These statement underline the importance of
the learning process in life. We live in changing society and for us to survive and live happily, we
need to adjust or adapt to our environment. This we can achieve by acquiring habits or ways of
behaving. We are continually engaged in our learning activity on another throughout life. By
observing the change in behaviour patterns in people we know that learning has taken place.

2.1.3 Effective teaching and class room management

Teachers are the most important element in delivering quality education (Greyling, 2019).
The most direct and effective way of raising instructional quality is to improve teachers
knowledge and pedagogical skills through In-service, and to ensure that the organizational
conditions under which teachers work promote effective instruction and focus on students’
learning out comes (Liu & Linggi, 2022). One of the main factors that affect teacher competence
is their ability to embrace the concept of life long learning. Teachers cannot be expected to work
effectively for their working career with no additional support or training. Christie et al (2024),
say that continuing professional development (CPD) is necessary, not only to help teachers deal
with a revised curricula and evolving methods, but also to re-energize and motivate them. Gross,
Bernstein (2019) noted that for effective curriculum implementation there is a need to consider
the quality of implementers who are charged with the responsibility of putting the curriculum into
practical terms. The implementation of the new curriculum therefore must consider teachers’
understanding of the innovation. If their understanding is ambiguous, they will be confused about
what is expected of them. The cascade model type of CPD is the mostly widely used, delivered
through short-term workshops (Anderson, 2022). Although this model is suitable for some kinds
of material, Monk (2018) and Higginson (2021) argue that there are a number of practical
difficulties with this model: the course are usually short; teachers often do not see the need or
don’t have the skills to adopt new practices; the training is divorced from the content of the school;
and trainers rarely have practical classroom experience with the new programme or methods.

2.1.4 Concept of Academic Performance

Academic performance refers to a students’ performance in the various subjects taught in the
school and which determines his/her status in the class. It outcome gives the students opportunity
to develop their talents, improve their grades and prepare for future academic challenges. Bossaert
et al. (2017), defined academic performance as students’ success in meeting short or long term
goals in education. In other words, it relates to academic subjects a student studied in school and
the skills the student is expected to master in each (Moyle, 2010). In his view, Orim in Akpan
(2020) opined that the academic performance of students to a large extent can also be tied to the
teaching methodology adopted by the teachers and lack of fund from the government to provide
quality books for the libraries and equipment for the laboratories. However, these might not be
the only reasons why students perform abysmally in examinations.

2.1.5 Availability of Qualified Teachers and Students Academic Performance.

Study revealed that there is a significant relationship between adequate and qualified teachers and
student learning output. Specifically the study found that teachers that were well trained and
prepared were found to be more productive than teachers that are untrained. This findings agrees
with Qnwukpa (2021) whose study also revealed that students with poor output quality are as a
result of poorly prepared teachers. The study also found that experienced teachers have significant
relationship to student's output quality. Teachers experience will enhance competences in
discharging their academic duties. The result of which will be a positive reflection to students
output quality. The result is in support of Akinwumi and Ayeni (2023) whose studies showed that
curriculum conflict and teachers competency has most significant influence on students’
academic performance.
One of the fundamental problems facing teaching today is the question of how current are the
professional teachers. The majority of teachers who have been employed in the past decades have
been doing the same thing, the same way all long. They have no knowledge of the current ideas
and innovations that have place in the educational field in the recent paste what account for this
is that teachers have not been given the opportunity for re-training Ogunbiye (2014). He therefore
recommended that teachers should be encouraged to go for workshop training in their areas of
specialization. Little (2015) stated that teachers' development through seminars and workshops
bring about professional competences which is a key contributor to students' academic
performance.
In addition, according to George and Kaplan (2018), teachers play a significant role during the
learning process and they can directly or indirectly influence the students' academic performance.
Teachers are invariably, role models whose behaviours are easily mimicked by students. What
teachers like or dislike, appreciate and how they feel about their learning or studies could have a
significant effect on their students. By extension, how teachers teach, how they behave and how
they interact with students can be more paramount than what they teach.
Also teachers who report satisfaction with their work setting are more likely to express high
morale and perceive the school climate as open and supportive of their role Kalis (2020), it turn
students who perceive their teachers as satisfied with their jobs are more likely to exhibit high
levels of academic performance, high morale about their learning environment and more
academic self-confidence, Lezotte (2019). Some studies suggested that teacher's communicate
their sense of pride to students in all their verbal and non-verbal interactions. This establishes
"circle of causation". Students' academic achievements influence teachers' morale, sense of
efficacy and expectations for students, which in turn directly influence higher levels of students'
academic performance. Mete, (2021)
2.1.6 The Place of Qualified Teachers as a Factor in Effective Teaching
According to Ukeje (2024) teaching is a conscious behaviour that makes learning more efficient
and teachers are and will forever remain architects of all professions. This means that extra care
should be taken in the recruitment and posting of teachers to our urban and rural secondary schools.
There should be equal distribution of teachers in these areas for greater productivity. On the quality
of teacher, Itotoh (2023) said quality of teachers is important in any meaningful presentation of
educational transactions. Quality of teachers is essential to the achievement of the great National
aspiration, Obasi (2019) has also said “The concept of education cannot be properly defined or
conceptualized without reference to those who impact the knowledge. In other words, teachers are
the pillars and life wire of the education sectors”. For that reason, extra care should be taken when
recruiting them into the teaching profession.
In the National policy on Education, it was said that the purpose of teacher education should be “to
provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment
and to make them adequate to any changing situation. If teachers and the authorities responsible for
education can pay heed to this objective, the problem of staffing in our schools, both in the urban
and the rural areas will be minimal.
2.1.7 Teacher skill and academic performance
According to Akiri & Ugborugbo (2019), teacher’s skill is regarded as a multidimensional construct
teaching which encompasses numerous interconnected elements towards transformation of
knowledge to learners. Previous studies conducted by Schacter & Thum (2024), Adediwura & Tayo
(2021) reveal that different elements of teacher skills/expertise include teacher’s subject
knowledge, teaching skills/expertise, teacher attitude and teacher attendance.
• Subject Knowledge: According to Eggen & Kauchak (2021), there are three dimensions
under which a teachers’ knowledge of subject matter can be measured; namely content
knowledge, pedagogical knowledge of content and general knowledge. The implications of
these dimensions are that a teacher cannot teach what he or she does not know. Adediwura
& Tayo (2017) further emphasized existence of high correlation between what teachers
subject knowledge and what they teach students. In line with these finding, they further
accentuated that the ability of a teacher to teach effectively depends on the depth of
knowledge the teacher possesses. Therefore, a teacher whose understanding of the subject
content is thorough uses clearer expressions comparative to those whose backgrounds of
subject mastery are weaker.
• Teaching Skills/expertise: The teaching skills/expertise of a teacher can be measured based
on the teacher’s abilities around comprehension and transformation of knowledge concepts
to be imparted to learners (Ganyaupfu, 2019). Teaching requires one to first understand the
specific outcomes of the topic as well as the subject matter structures of the respective
discipline (Shulman, 2023). Therefore, comprehension of purpose is a very important
element of teacher competence. According to Shulman (2023), the educational purposes for
engaging in teaching are to assist learners gain literacy, develop skills/expertise and values
to function well in the society, equip them with opportunity to acquire and discover new
information, enhance understandings of new concepts, enable students to enjoy their
learning experiences, enhance learners’ responsibility to become productive in the
economy, contribute to the well-being of the social, economic and business community.
Moreover, the teacher’s ability to distinguish the knowledge base of his or her teaching lies
at the intersection of content and pedagogy in the respective teacher’s capacity to transform
content knowledge into practices that are pedagogically influential and adaptive to
numerous students’ abilities and backgrounds (Glatthorn, 2020). Transformations require
some combination effective presentation of ideas in the form of new analogies and
metaphors, instructional selections, adaptation of student materials and activities that reflect
the student’s characteristics of student’s learning styles and tailoring of adaptations to
students in classrooms. Glatthorn (2020) further emphasized that it is also imperative that
teachers consider the relevant aspects of students’ distinct abilities, languages, cultures,
motivations and prior knowledge and skills/expertise that affect their responses to different
forms of representations.
• Teacher’s Attitude: Research in education policy reveals that teacher attitude refers to
consistent tendency by the teacher to react in a particular way; often positively or negatively
toward an academic matter (Eggen & Kauchak, 2021). Another study by Fazio &Roskes
(2017) indicates that attitude possesses both cognitive and emotional components which
strongly influence the manner in which a teacher thinks and responses to specific
experiences. In proceeding further with the analysis, Eggen & Kauchak (2021) found out
that positive teachers’ attitudes are fundamental to effective teaching and students’
academic achievements. Another study by Brunning et al. (2019) indicated a number of
elements that constitute teachers’ attitudes that will facilitate a caring and supportive
classroom environment. These elements include caring, enthusiasm, teaching efficacy,
 democratic practices to promote students’ responsibility, effective use of lesson,
constructive interaction with learners and high expectation to promote learners’ motivation.
Further analysis in this study found out that these factors are associated with increase in
students’ academic performances.
• Teacher's Attendance: According to a study by Manlove & Elliott (2018) found that the
overall academic performance of students an academic institution is negatively affected by
high teacher absenteeism. Moreover, further analysis from the research found a correlation
between teacher attendance and student achievement. Jacobs & Kritsonis (2017) conducted
a study involving certain classes revealed that teachers who posted the highest level of
absenteeism recorded the lowest scores of students’ academic performances. Woods &
Montagno (2021) purported that the higher the teacher attendance rate becomes, the lower
also the students’ academic performances become. Consistent with the above findings are
the results from the study conducted by Pitkoff (2022). The study found out that teachers
who received low performance markings missed a larger number of days than those who
did not. This result provides an impetus for education administrators to develop teacher
development plans early in the academic year for low performing teachers than later in the
respective academic year. Bruno (2020) purported that high absenteeism by certain teachers
tend to lower the morale of remaining teachers, thereby resulting in high teacher turnover
as other teachers tend to feel more burdened regarding additional planning for their absent
colleague.
When teachers and students have frequent opportunities for informal interactions, students tend to
perceive their teachers as being more interested in them as individuals (Newman, 2021). This ability
to respond to students as individuals is a central skill of successful teaching (Getzels, 2019,
Alexander et al, 2023). Individual’s responsibilities build trust in the teacher-student relationship.

2.1.8 Impact of Professional Teachers in Educational System

The importance of professional teacher’s must be recognized. A professional teacher will do
everything possible in order to make his teaching attractive and understandable to the learners. In
order words, he places their interest as his own top priority. Against the situation, the students work
along with the teacher and reflect this in their academic performance. This is never so with the
untrained teachers who has not learnt the rudiments or the art of impacting knowledge. So if we are
to achieve our desired goals in education, emphasis must be placed on quality of teacher not on
quantity, Bereday & Lauwery (2022) opined that “The strength of an educational system must
largely depend on the quality of its teachers. However, enlightened the aims, however up to rate
and generous the equipment however efficient the administration, the value to the children is
determined by the teachers”. There is no more important matter than that of attracting sufficient
number of the right caliber of people to the profession, providing them with the requisite training
and finally ensuring that their status is commensurate with the important and responsibility of their
work.
Most government pays more attention to the provision of equipment to schools than they do to the
training of qualified teachers and the subsequent retention of such teachers. The effect is that the
equipment will not be fully utilized because of lack of trained teachers. Though equipment is
necessary, a professional teacher can improvise teaching aids where none exists, still stressing on
the needs for qualified teachers in the rural schools; no curriculum however well written. They may
be no equipment, however costly it may be, will compensate for a poor teacher, on the other hand,
a good teacher will more than off-set deficiencies in curriculum, in text book and in equipment. For
the achievement of the educational aims and objective, success or failure lies in the hands of the
teachers. In supporting these views, (Overdate 2021:31) said “given the most meaningful and
realistic education and training programme, which those with experience, imaginations and
foresight can devise in the final analysis, no real achievement is possible without the necessary
cadre of trained and motivated teachers.” Speaking also on the role that education will play in the
society, Ukeje (2021) said that the role will largely depend on the teaching personnel who are to
teach. He further said that any possible attempt to raise the standard of education must start with
the improvement of the quality of teaching personnel.
2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 Human Capital Theory by Theodore Schultz (1961) and Gary Becker (1964)

The Human Capital Theory posits that every individual possesses a stock of knowledge, skills,
habits, abilities, and health status that can be described as "capital." Unlike physical capital
(machinery, buildings, equipment), human capital resides within the individual and cannot be
separated from them. However, like physical capital, human capital can be invested in and generates
returns over time. The Human Capital Theory identifies several key components of human capital.
The first is formal education, which includes primary, secondary, and tertiary schooling that
provides foundational knowledge and cognitive skills. The second is on-the-job training, which
includes both general training (skills useful in many occupations) and specific training (skills
unique to a particular job or employer). The third is health and nutrition, which affects an
individual's energy, stamina, and cognitive function. The fourth is migration, which allows
individuals to move to locations where their skills are more highly valued. According to the Human
Capital Theory, individuals (or their families or governments) make investment decisions by
comparing the costs of education or training (tuition, foregone earnings, effort) against the expected
benefits (higher future earnings, better job opportunities, greater productivity). The Human Capital
Theory assumes that these investments are rational, that returns can be measured, and that markets
function efficiently enough to reward increased productivity with higher compensation.

The primary purpose of the Human Capital Theory is to explain differences in individual
productivity, earnings, and economic success. It seeks to answer questions such as: Why do
university graduates earn more than secondary school leavers? Why do experienced workers
command higher wages than novices? Why do countries with higher education spending grow faster
economically? The Human Capital Theory also serves a prescriptive purpose: it provides a rationale
for government investment in education and training, arguing that such investments generate
positive returns not only for individuals but for society as a whole through increased economic
output, reduced poverty, and improved social outcomes. In the field of education, the Human
Capital Theory is used to justify teacher education programmes, professional development
requirements, and salary scales that reward experience and advanced qualifications.

Relevance to the Present Study: This study investigates how teachers' qualifications and years of
teaching experience affect students' academic performance in junior secondary schools in Mopa
Muro Local Government Area of Kogi State. The Human Capital Theory provides a foundational
justification for expecting a positive relationship between these variables. Teachers with higher
qualifications such as the Nigeria Certificate in Education, a Bachelor of Education, or subject-
specific credentials have made greater investments in their own human capital. They have spent
more years in formal education, received training in pedagogical methods, and passed certification
examinations. Similarly, teachers with longer experience have accumulated human capital through
on-the-job training, learning what works and what does not work in an actual classroom. According
to the Human Capital Theory, these teachers should be more productive. In the context of teaching,
productivity means the ability to generate student learning. A more productive teacher covers the
curriculum more effectively, explains concepts more clearly, manages the classroom more
efficiently, and ultimately produces students with higher test scores and better academic outcomes.
Therefore, the Human Capital Theory predicts that in the junior secondary schools of Mopa Muro
Local Government Area of Kogi State, students taught by teachers with higher qualifications and
more years of experience will demonstrate significantly better academic performance than those
taught by less qualified or less experienced teachers. The Human Capital Theory also suggests that
investments in teacher training and professional development will yield measurable returns in terms
of student achievement.

2.2.2 Teacher Efficacy Theory

The Teacher Efficacy Theory is a domain-specific application of Bandura's broader Social

Cognitive Theory. It defines teacher efficacy as a teacher's judgment of their own capability to bring
about desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even among students who may be
difficult or unmotivated. The Teacher Efficacy Theory distinguishes between two related but
distinct dimensions. The first is personal teaching efficacy, which refers to the teacher's belief in
their own skills and abilities as an instructor. A teacher with high personal teaching efficacy
believes "I have the training and skills to teach this student effectively." The second is general
teaching efficacy, which refers to the teacher's belief that teaching can overcome external factors
such as poverty, family background, or lack of resources. A teacher with high general teaching
efficacy believes "Good teaching can make a difference even when students come from difficult
circumstances." Bandura identified four principal sources of efficacy beliefs. Mastery experiences
are the most powerful source: when a teacher successfully teaches a difficult concept or reaches a
struggling student, their efficacy increases. Vicarious experiences occur when a teacher observes a
peer succeeding, especially a peer perceived as similar in ability; this can inspire the observer to
believe "If they can do it, so can I." Verbal persuasion comes from feedback from supervisors,
colleagues, parents, or even students; praise and encouragement can boost efficacy, while criticism
can undermine it. Emotional arousal refers to the teacher's physiological state; anxiety, stress, and
fatigue can lower efficacy, while calmness and energy raise it. The Teacher Efficacy Theory also
describes how efficacy beliefs influence behaviour: teachers with high efficacy set more
challenging goals, persist longer in the face of difficulty, try innovative teaching methods, take
personal responsibility for student outcomes, and experience less burnout. Conversely, teachers
with low efficacy avoid challenges, give up quickly, blame students or external factors for failure,
and are more likely to leave the profession.
The Teacher Efficacy Theory is to explain why teachers with similar qualifications and working
conditions produce different levels of student achievement. It seeks to uncover the psychological
mechanisms that translate knowledge and skills into effective classroom practice. The Teacher
Efficacy Theory also serves as a guide for teacher education and professional development: if
efficacy can be increased, then teacher effectiveness and student outcomes may improve even
without changes in formal qualifications or experience. The Teacher Efficacy Theory has been used
to predict a range of outcomes including teacher burnout, job satisfaction, commitment to teaching,
willingness to implement new curricula, and student achievement. It has also informed the design
of mentoring programmes, induction support for novice teachers, and collaborative learning
communities.

Relevance to the Present Study: This study examines teachers' experiences and qualifications in
relation to student academic performance in Mopa Muro Local Government Area of Kogi State.
The Teacher Efficacy Theory provides a mechanism that helps explain why experience and
qualifications matter. First, consider experience. A teacher who has been in the classroom for ten
years has accumulated hundreds of mastery experiences successful lessons, improved test scores,
positive feedback from students and parents. These mastery experiences build strong efficacy
beliefs. The experienced teacher believes they can handle a disruptive student, explain a difficult
concept, or adapt a lesson when the planned activity fails. A novice teacher, by contrast, has few
mastery experiences and may still doubt their capabilities. Second, consider qualifications. Teacher
education programmes typically include practice teaching, feedback from supervisors, and
exposure to successful teaching models. These provide vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion,
and initial mastery experiences that build efficacy. A qualified teacher emerges from training with
stronger beliefs about their ability to teach effectively than an unqualified teacher who has had no
such preparation. According to the Teacher Efficacy Theory, these efficacy differences translate
into classroom behaviour. In the junior secondary schools of Mopa Muro Local Government Area
of Kogi State, where students may face challenges such as poverty, lack of parental support, or poor
nutrition, teachers with higher efficacy will persist longer, try more strategies, and take more
responsibility for student learning. They will not simply blame the students' backgrounds for poor
performance; they will believe that their own teaching can make a difference. Therefore, the
Teacher Efficacy Theory predicts that teachers with more experience and higher qualifications will
demonstrate stronger efficacy beliefs, leading to more effective teaching practices and, ultimately,
higher student academic performance.

2.2.4 Constructivist Learning Theory

Jean Piaget (1970) for Cognitive Constructivism; Lev Vygotsky (1978) for Social Constructivism.
The Constructivist Learning Theory asserts that learners actively build (construct) new knowledge
based on their existing knowledge and experiences. It stands in contrast to behaviourism, which
views learning as passive absorption of information reinforced by rewards and punishments. There
are two main branches of constructivism. Cognitive constructivism, associated with Jean Piaget,
emphasizes that individuals construct knowledge through processes of assimilation (fitting new
information into existing mental frameworks or schemas) and accommodation (modifying existing
schemas when new information does not fit). Piaget identified four stages of cognitive
development: sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), preoperational (2 to 7 years), concrete operational (7
to 11 years), and formal operational (11 years and above). According to Piaget, children in the
concrete operational stage, which corresponds to junior secondary school age, can think logically
about concrete objects and events but may struggle with purely abstract or hypothetical reasoning.
Therefore, effective teaching for this age group should use concrete examples, hands-on activities,
and clear links between new concepts and familiar experiences. Social constructivism, associated
with Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes that learning is inherently social and occurs through interaction
with more knowledgeable others. Vygotsky introduced the Zone of Proximal Development, defined
as the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance and
support from a teacher or more capable peer. Learning is most effective when instruction is targeted
within this Zone of Proximal Development not too easy (already mastered) and not too hard
(impossible even with help). Scaffolding is the process by which a teacher provides temporary
support to help a learner perform a task within their Zone of Proximal Development; as the learner
becomes more competent, the support is gradually withdrawn. The Constructivist Learning Theory
also emphasizes the importance of prior knowledge, active learning, authentic tasks, and social
interaction. In a constructivist classroom, the teacher acts as a facilitator or guide rather than a
dispenser of information. Students are encouraged to ask questions, explore, discuss, solve
problems, and reflect on their learning.
Constructivist Learning Theory is to explain how deep, durable, meaningful learning occurs, as
opposed to superficial rote memorization that is quickly forgotten. It provides principles for
designing instruction that engages learners, activates prior knowledge, promotes critical thinking,
and supports transfer of learning to new situations. The Constructivist Learning Theory has been
used to justify a wide range of educational practices including discovery learning, project-based
learning, problem-based learning, cooperative learning, and inquiry-based instruction. The
Constructivist Learning Theory also guides assessment practices, emphasizing performance-based
assessments that require students to demonstrate understanding rather than simply recall facts.

Relevance to the Present Study: This study examines teacher qualifications and experience in
relation to student academic performance in junior secondary schools in Mopa Muro Local
Government Area of Kogi State. The Constructivist Learning Theory provides a framework for
understanding how teachers' instructional practices which are influenced by their training and
experience affect student learning. First, consider qualifications. Teacher education programmes in
Nigeria typically include instruction on learner-centered methods, active learning, and the
importance of prior knowledge. Qualified teachers have been exposed to constructivist principles
and have had opportunities to practice them during teaching practice. Unqualified teachers, by
contrast, are more likely to rely on rote learning, lecture, and memorization because they have no
alternative framework. Second, consider experience. Implementing constructivist methods
effectively is difficult. It requires the ability to assess prior knowledge quickly, choose appropriate
scaffolding, manage group work, and adapt plans based on student responses. These skills are
developed through experience. A teacher who has been in the classroom for many years has learned
how to ask probing questions, how to design activities that engage students, and how to guide
discussions that lead to deeper understanding. In the junior secondary schools of Mopa Muro Local
Government Area of Kogi State, constructivist practices are particularly important because students
at this age are transitioning from concrete to abstract thinking. A qualified, experienced teacher
who uses hands-on activities, local examples, and guided discussions can help students build strong
foundations for later learning. Therefore, the Constructivist Learning Theory predicts that students
taught by teachers with higher qualifications and more experience will demonstrate better academic
performance because their teachers are more likely to use effective, learner-centered instructional
methods.
2.3 Empirical Studies

Mete (2016) conducted a longitudinal study across Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa to examine
the reciprocal relationship between teacher morale, teacher efficacy, and student academic
performance. The study employed a longitudinal survey design conducted over two academic years.
The sample included 500 teachers and 5,000 students from 100 randomly selected secondary
schools across the three countries. Data were collected using teacher morale scales, efficacy scales,
and standardized student achievement tests. The results confirmed a reciprocal "circle of causation":
higher student achievement led to increased teacher morale and efficacy, which in turn led to further
gains in student achievement. Teachers with high morale used more encouraging feedback, set
higher academic expectations, and voluntarily spent extra time assisting struggling students.
Schools in which teachers reported low morale had pass rates on national examinations that were
30% lower than schools with high teacher morale. Teacher experience and qualifications were
positively correlated with morale and efficacy (r = 0.52 and 0.58 respectively). The study concluded
that teacher experience and qualifications not only directly affect instructional quality but also
indirectly affect student performance through their influence on teacher morale and efficacy. For
the present study, this implies that in Mopa Muro Local Government Area of Kogi State, improving
teacher working conditions alongside qualifications and experience may trigger positive cycles of
achievement in junior secondary schools.

Adediwura and Tayo (2017) conducted a study in Osun State, Nigeria, to determine the correlation
between teachers' subject content knowledge and students' academic performance in English
Language and Mathematics at the secondary school level. The study employed a correlational
survey design with a sample of 120 teachers and 600 students randomly selected from 30 secondary
schools. Teachers completed a validated subject knowledge test, while students' end-of-term
examination scores were collected and averaged. The results revealed a strong positive correlation
(r = 0.78, p < 0.01) between teachers' subject knowledge scores and students' average performance.
Teachers who scored above 70% on the content test had students whose average score was 65%,
compared to 42% for students whose teachers scored below 50%. Subject knowledge explained
approximately 60% of the variance in student performance (R² = 0.60). The study concluded that
teacher content knowledge is a critical determinant of student academic success. For the present
study, this finding establishes a direct empirical link between teacher qualification (subject mastery)
and student performance, implying that ensuring junior secondary school teachers in Mopa Muro
Local Government Area of Kogi State possess strong subject knowledge is likely to improve student
outcomes.

Qnwukpa (2021) conducted a study in Anambra State, Nigeria, to compare the academic
performance of students taught by professionally trained teachers versus those taught by untrained
teachers. The study employed a quasi-experimental design. Fifty professionally trained teachers
(Nigeria Certificate in Education or Bachelor of Education holders) and 50 untrained teachers
(holders of secondary school certificates without teaching qualifications) were selected. Each
teacher taught a group of 10 students (total N = 500) the same topic over four weeks. Pre-test and
post-test scores were analysed using independent t-tests. The results showed that students taught by
professionally trained teachers had a mean post-test score of 72% (SD = 8.5), compared to 48%
(SD = 9.2) for students taught by untrained teachers, and the difference was statistically significant
(t = 12.6, p < 0.001). Trained teachers demonstrated significantly more varied instructional
methods, including group work, demonstrations, and questioning techniques, while untrained
teachers relied predominantly on rote learning and chalkboard notes with minimal student
interaction. The study concluded that professional teacher qualifications make a measurable,
substantial difference in student academic performance. For the present study, this provides strong
evidence that employing only qualified teachers in junior secondary schools in Mopa Muro Local
Government Area of Kogi State will yield significantly better student outcomes compared to
employing untrained instructors.

Akinwumi and Ayeni (2023) investigated the influence of teacher competency and curriculum
conflict on students' academic performance in junior secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The
study adopted a mixed-methods design. Quantitative data were collected from 200 teachers and
1,000 students across 40 junior secondary schools using structured questionnaires. Qualitative data
were obtained through focus group discussions with 40 teachers. Student performance was
measured using standardized achievement tests. The results showed that teacher competency
(measured by lesson planning, instructional delivery, assessment skills, and classroom
management) had the most significant influence on student performance (β = 0.62, p < 0.001).
Curriculum conflict (ambiguity in syllabus interpretation) negatively affected performance (β = -
0.31, p < 0.05), but competent teachers were able to mitigate this effect. Additionally, teachers with
five or more years of experience were 40% more effective than novice teachers in managing
curriculum-related challenges. The study concluded that teacher competency, enhanced by both
initial qualifications and on-the-job experience, is a stronger predictor of student performance than
curriculum factors. For the present study, this finding supports the focus on teacher qualifications
and experience in Mopa Muro Local Government Area of Kogi State and suggests that experienced
teachers can overcome curriculum ambiguities that might otherwise hinder student performance.

2.4 Summary of Related Literature

Conceptually, teaching is a deliberate, interactive, and content-driven activity aimed at inducing

learning. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience,
practice, or interaction with the environment. Effective teaching requires not only subject mastery
but also pedagogical skills, positive attitudes, regular attendance, and classroom management
competence. Academic performance reflects students' achievement of educational goals and is
influenced by multiple factors, among which teacher quality is consistently cited as the most
important school-based factor.

Theoretically, three theories provide a foundation for this study. The Human Capital Theory
(Schultz, 1961; Becker, 1964) explains that investments in teacher education and experience yield
productive returns in student outcomes. The Teacher Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1977; Tschannen-
Moran & Hoy, 2001) shows that teachers' beliefs in their capabilities influence their effort and
persistence. The Constructivist Learning Theory (Piaget, 1970; Vygotsky, 1978) emphasizes active,
scaffold learning.

Empirically, studies from Nigeria (Adediwura and Tayo, 2017; Akinwumi and Ayeni, 2023;
Qnwukpa, 2021 and Mete, 2016) consistently find that teacher qualifications and experience are
positively associated with student academic performance. Trained teachers outperform untrained
teachers by substantial margins. Experienced teachers manage curriculum challenges more
effectively. Teacher attendance and morale also play significant roles. Teacher expertise has been
shown to be a stronger predictor of student success than class size or school facilities.