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UNIT-5
Rankine cycle: This is a thermodynamic cycle which converts heat into mechanical energy-
which usually gets transformed into electricity by generator. The Rankine cycle or Rankine
Vapor Cycle is the process widely used by power plants such as coal-fired power
plants or nuclear reactors. In this mechanism, a fuel is used to produce heat within a boiler,
converting water into steam which then expands through a turbine producing useful work. This
process was developed in 1859 by Scottish engineer William J.M. Rankine. The cycle consists of
four main components: a boiler, a turbine, a condenser, and a pump. Here's a simplified explanation
of how it works:

Boiler: The cycle begins in the boiler, where water is heated to produce steam. This steam is often
produced by burning fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, or oil, although it can also come from
nuclear reactions or other heat sources. The steam produced in the boiler is superheated to high
temperatures and pressures.
Turbine: The high-pressure, high-temperature steam from the boiler is then expanded through a
turbine. The expanding steam causes the turbine blades to spin, which drives the turbine shaft
connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy.
Condenser: After passing through the turbine, the steam enters the condenser, where it is cooled
and condensed back into water. This is usually accomplished by circulating cold water through
tubes in the condenser, which absorbs heat from the steam and converts it back into liquid water.
Pump: The condensed water, now at low pressure, is pumped back to the boiler to repeat the cycle.
The pump increases the pressure of the water so that it can once again be heated to produce steam
in the boiler.
Reheater (optional): In some power plants, a Reheater is used to reheat the steam after it has
passed through the turbine but before it enters the boiler. This can increase the efficiency of the
cycle by ensuring that the steam remains at high temperatures as it re-enters the boiler.
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THE POTENTIAL OF NUCLEAR ENERGY:

The potential of nuclear energy refers to the amount of energy that can be generated from nuclear
reactions, particularly in nuclear power plants. In simple terms, it's the amount of power we can
produce by harnessing the energy released when atoms split apart (nuclear fission) or when they're
combined (nuclear fusion). This energy can be used to generate electricity to power homes,
businesses, and industries. The potential of nuclear energy is significant because it offers a highly
concentrated and reliable source of power that doesn't produce greenhouse gas emissions like
burning fossil fuels does. However, it also comes with challenges and risks, such as nuclear waste
disposal and the potential for accidents, which need to be carefully managed.
One method of releasing nuclear energy is by controlled nuclear fission in devices called reactors,.
In nuclear fission the nucleus of an atom, such as that of uranium or plutonium. breaks up into two
lighter nuclei of roughly equal mass. In the fission process a large quantity of energy is released,
radioactive products are formed, and several neutrons are emitted. Controlled, such a chain
reaction in a nuclear reactor can provide power for society’s benefit. uncontrolled, chain reaction
in a nuclear reactor is -called atomic bomb

NUCLEAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGY: There are several different nuclear energy

technologies, each with its own unique characteristics and applications. Here are some of the main
ones: it is same as coal burnt steam thermal power plant but only difference is that steam is
produced due nuclear reaction.
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THE BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR):

BWRs also use enriched uranium fuel rods, but they directly produce steam within the reactor
vessel by boiling water with the heat generated by nuclear fission. The steam then drives turbines
to generate electricity. Boiling water reactors have a closed water-steam cycle. In the cooling
water system, the coolant water flows through the reactor core, where the heat in the fuel
elements, produced through nuclear fission, heats the water to around 286 degrees Celsius so that
it boils in the reactor pressure vessel. There is relatively low pressure in the reactor pressure
vessel (about 70 bar). Boiling and evaporation of the coolant water in the reactor pressure vessel
is the main feature distinguishing the BWR from a pressurized water reactor (PWR).

Figure: BWR

In Boiling Water Reactor (BWR), enriched uranium is used as fuel and water is used as coolant, moderator.
This steam is supplied to steam turbine working on convention power plant cycle. The mechanical power
produced by the turbine is converted into electric energy by the generator.

Advantages:
 The pressure inside the reactor vessel is less than PWR as water is allowed to boil inside the reactor.
Therefore, the reactor vessel can be much lighter than PWR and reduce the cost of pressure vessel
considerably.
 It eliminates the use of heat exchanger, pressurizer, circulating pump and piping, Therefore, the
cost is further reduced.
 The thermal efficiency of this reactor plant (30%) is considerably higher than PWR plant.
 The metal temperature remains low for given output conditions.
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Disadvantages:
 The steam leaving the reactor is slightly radioactive. Therefore, light shielding of turbine and piping
is necessary.
 It cannot meet the sudden chances in load on the plant,
 The power density of this reactor is nearly 50% of PWR, therefore, the size of the vessel will be
considerably large compared with PWR.

PRESSURIZED WATER REACTORS

Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) have two important circuits: one for cooling and one for
making steam. In the cooling circuit, water flows around the super-hot core of the reactor to absorb
heat. This hot water doesn't turn into steam because it's kept under high pressure. It's like when
you boil water in a sealed pot - it gets really hot but doesn't turn into steam because it can't escape.
In the steam-making circuit, the water is under less pressure. So, when it gets heated by the
hot water from the cooling circuit, it boils and turns into steam. This steam is used to spin a turbine
which generates electricity.

Figure : Pressurized Water Reactor

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FAST-BREEDER NUCLEAR REACTOR:

Breeding – The process of producing fissionable material from a fertile material such as Uranium
238 (U238) and thorium 232 (Th232) by neutron absorption is known as breeding. The fast breeder
reactor system is shown in
In this Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) system, the core containing U235 is surrounded by a blanket of
ferrite material U238. In this reactor, no moderator is used. The fast moving neutrons liberated due
to fission of U235 are absorbed by U238 which gets converted fissionable material Pu239 which is
capable of sustaining chain reaction. Thus, the reactor is very important because it breeds
fissionable materials from fertile material U238 available in large quantities.

This reactor system uses two liquid metal coolant circuits. Liquid sodium is used as primary
coolant when circulated through the tubes of Intermediate Heat Exchanger (IHX) and transfers its
heat to secondary coolant sodium potassium alloy. The secondary coolant transfers its heat to feed
water while flowing through the tubes of steam generator.

Considering safety and thermal efficiency, fast breeder reactors are better than conventional
reactors.

Pu239 and U233 are fissionable materials and can be used in chain reaction.
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The following coolants are commonly used for fast breeder reactors: Liquid metal (Na
(or) NaK), Helium (He) and Carbon dioxide.

Advantages of Using Sodium.

 Sodium has very low absorption cross-sectional area.
 Sodium possesses good heat transfer properties at high temperature and low pressure.
 Sodium does not react any of the structural materials used in primary circuits.

2 The sodium surrounding the core flows through a heat exchanger, a cluster of thin-walled metal tubes,
and transfers its energy to a separate stream of sodium.
3 The heat then passes through a steam generator. If there is a leak and the sodium comes into contact with
water or air, the sodium burns and it dangerous.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTORS

1. FUEL:

The fuel used in a nuclear reactor is that undergoes nuclear fission to generate heat, which is then
converted into electricity. There are several types of fuel used in different reactor designs:

Uranium-235 (U-235): This is the most common fissile isotope used in nuclear reactors.

Uranium-238 (U-238): While not fissile itself, U-238 can absorb neutrons and undergo a series
of radioactive decay steps, eventually producing fissile Plutonium-239 (Pu-239). In some reactor
designs, U-238 can serve as fertile material for breeding fissile isotopes
Plutonium-239 (Pu-239): This is a fissile material that can sustain nuclear fission. It is typically
produced in reactors from Uranium-238 through neutron capture and subsequent radioactive
decay. Pu-239 can be used as fuel directly or in mixed oxide (MOX) fuel along with Uranium.
Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel: MOX fuel consists of a mixture of Uranium and Plutonium oxides. It
allows for the utilization of both fissile isotopes, providing flexibility in fuel composition and
enhancing fuel utilization.
Thorium-232 (Th-232): Thorium is fertile material that can undergo a series of neutron captures
and decays to produce fissile Uranium-233 (U-233). Some reactor designs utilize Thorium-based
fuel cycles for breeding U-233.
Thorium-Uranium Fuel: This fuel mixture combines Thorium with either enriched Uranium or
Plutonium. It offers potential advantages such as improved proliferation resistance and reduced
long-lived radioactive waste.
2. MODERATOR:
Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they cause more
fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
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3. COOLANT
A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors the
water moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is secondary coolant
circuit where the water becomes steam. (See also later section on primary coolant
characteristics.) A PWR has two to four primary coolant loops with pumps, driven either by steam
or electricity. Examples of coolant are Water or heavy water, Helium, Carbon dioxide, Sodium, and
Lead or lead-bismuth eutectic, etc

4. Pressure vessel or pressure tubes

Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a
series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.
5. Steam generator

Part of the cooling system of pressurized water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where the high-pressure
primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam for the turbine, in a secondary
circuit.
6. Containment

Containment is like a protective shield around a nuclear reactor and its steam generators. Its main
job is to keep the reactor safe from anything harmful that might happen inside and to keep people
outside safe from radiation if something goes wrong. It's usually made of really thick concrete and
steel, about a Meter-thick. This strong structure helps prevent any dangerous materials from getting
out if there's an accident inside the reactor.
FUEL ENRICHMENT:

Fuel enrichment in the context of nuclear reactors refers to the process of increasing the
concentration of fissile isotopes, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239, in nuclear fuel. Fissile
isotopes are the ones capable of sustaining a nuclear fission chain reaction. Enrichment is typically
carried out by separating the desired isotopes from non-fissile isotopes, such as uranium-238,
through various methods like gas diffusion, gas centrifugation, or laser enrichment. Few are mostly
used are
Gas Diffusion: This method involves passing uranium hexafluoride gas through a porous
membrane. The lighter uranium-235 molecules diffuse more readily through the membrane,
leaving behind a slightly enriched residue. This process is repeated in stages to achieve higher
levels of enrichment. Gas diffusion was historically used in early enrichment facilities but has
largely been replaced by more efficient methods.
Gas Centrifugation: Gas centrifugation is one of the most common methods used today. It
involves spinning a cylinder containing uranium hexafluoride gas at high speeds. The heavier
uranium-238 isotopes tend to concentrate near the outer edge of the cylinder, while the lighter
uranium-235 isotopes are enriched towards the center. Multiple centrifuges are arranged in
cascades to achieve the desired level of enrichment
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NUCLEAR FUSION:

Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus,
releasing a large amount of energy in the process. This is the same process that powers the sun and
other stars, where hydrogen nuclei (protons) fuse together to form helium nuclei.

In nuclear fusion, the atomic nuclei involved typically have positive charges, which means they
repel each other due to the electrostatic force. Overcoming this repulsion requires extremely high
temperatures and pressures to bring the nuclei close enough together for the strong nuclear force
to take effect and bind them together.
The most common fusion reaction involves isotopes of hydrogen: deuterium (a heavy hydrogen
isotope with one proton and one neutron) and tritium (an even heavier hydrogen isotope with one
proton and two neutrons). When these isotopes fuse, they form helium-4 (two protons and two
neutrons) and a neutron, along with a significant release of energy.
NUCLEAR FISSION:

Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei,
along with the release of a large amount of energy. This process is the basis for nuclear power
generation and nuclear weapons.
In a nuclear fission reaction, typically initiated by bombarding a heavy nucleus such as
uranium-235 or plutonium-239 with a neutron, the nucleus absorbs the neutron and becomes
unstable. This instability causes the nucleus to split into two or more smaller nuclei, known as
fission fragments, as well as releasing additional neutrons and energy in the form of gamma
radiation.
The released neutrons can then initiate further fission reactions in nearby nuclei, leading to
a self-sustaining chain reaction. This chain reaction releases a tremendous amount of energy,
which can be harnessed for various purposes, such as generating electricity in nuclear power plants.
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Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction that splits a heavy Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction that combines two
atom into multiple smaller ones. or more small atoms to form a large atom.

It does not occur naturally. The universe is full of instances of nuclear fusion
reactions. Every star uses it to produce energy.

It produces a large quantity of energy. It produces greater energy than the fission reaction.

It does not require a lot of energy to split an atom into It requires a lot of heat and pressure for the process to
two. happen.
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SUMMARY OF ALL FEW REACTORS

Reactor Type Fuel Moderator Coolant Efficiency Structure

Pressurized
Water Reactor Uranium Steel pressure vessel,
(PWR) dioxide (UO2) Water (H2O) Water (H2O) ~33-36% containment building
Boiling Water Uranium Steel pressure vessel,
Reactor (BWR) dioxide (UO2) Water (H2O) Water (H2O) ~33-35% containment building
Gas Cooled Uranium Carbon Dioxide Steel pressure vessel,
Reactor (AGR) dioxide (UO2) Graphite (C) (CO2) ~35-40% graphite moderator
Light Water Uranium Steel pressure vessel,
Reactor (LWR) dioxide (UO2) Water (H2O) Water (H2O) ~33-35% containment building
Liquid metal Typically uses a closed
Fast Breeder Plutonium or (e.g., Sodium, loop, sometimes with a
Reactor (FBR) Uranium-238 None Lead-Bismuth) ~40-45% secondary coolant loop
Natural
Uranium or Pressure tube design,
Heavy Water Enriched Heavy Water Heavy Water heavy concrete
Reactor (HWR) Uranium (D2O) (D2O) ~30-35% containment
Graphite (C) or
Molten Salt Thorium or Liquid Salt (e.g., Liquid Salt Typically uses a reactor
Reactor (MSR) Uranium FLiBe) (e.g., FLiBe) ~40-45% vessel and a drain tank

Note: Efficiency can vary depending on design and operational parameters.

Nuclear waste disposal:

Nuclear waste disposal is the process of safely managing and storing radioactive waste generated
from various nuclear activities, such as nuclear power generation, medical applications, and
research. Here's a simple overview of how it works:
Segregation: Radioactive waste is categorized based on its level of radioactivity and potential
hazard. It is typically separated into three main categories: low-level waste, intermediate-level
waste, and high-level waste.
Packaging: Once categorized, the waste is packaged into suitable containers or drums. These
containers are designed to prevent leakage and withstand the effects of radiation.
Storage: Radioactive waste may initially be stored at the site where it is produced, often in
specially designed storage facilities. These facilities can range from simple above-ground storage
structures to more sophisticated underground repositories.
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Transportation: When necessary, radioactive waste is transported from the storage site to a
designated disposal facility. Specialized transportation containers and vehicles are used to ensure
the safe transport of the waste.
Disposal: The final disposal of radioactive waste depends on its type and level of radioactivity.
Low-level waste may be disposed of in shallow land burial sites, where it is buried in trenches or
vaults. Intermediate-level waste may require deeper burial or specialized disposal methods; such
as cement encapsulation. High-level waste, which is highly radioactive and long-lived, typically
requires deep geological disposal in underground repositories, where it is isolated from the
environment for thousands of years.
Monitoring and Regulation: Throughout the disposal process, strict monitoring and regulation
are in place to ensure that radioactive waste is managed safely and does not pose a threat to public
health or the environment. Regulatory agencies oversee waste management activities and enforce
compliance with safety standards and regulations.
Overall, nuclear waste disposal involves careful planning, management, and regulation to ensure
the safe and responsible handling of radioactive waste, minimizing the risks to human health and
the environment both now and in the future.
NEED FOR HYBRID SYSTEMS

In simple terms, during winter when there's high demand for electricity but solar power
goes down because of less sunlight, designers have to choose big equipment like solar panels and
batteries. The same happens with wind power when wind speed drops and turbines stop. For
important places like hospitals or defense bases that need power all the time, they use backup
sources like diesel generators or fuel cells.
Hybrid renewable energy systems typically combine two or more different renewable energy
sources (e.g., solar, wind, hydro) along with energy storage and sometimes conventional energy
sources (like diesel generators) to provide reliable power supply. This setup is better than just using
one type of energy or connecting to the main power grid because it makes sure there's always
power available, and it's not as expensive to set up.
The main advantage of hybrid energy systems / Why hybrid renewable energy is better than
standalone?
Increased Reliability: Combining multiple renewable energy sources such as solar and wind can
increase system reliability. For instance, when one source is not available due to weather
conditions, the other may still be generating power.
Energy Storage: Hybrid systems often include energy storage solutions such as batteries. This
allows excess energy generated during peak production times to be stored for later use when
demand is high or when renewable sources are not generating electricity.
Grid Stability: Integrating renewable energy into the grid can sometimes lead to stability issues
due to their intermittent nature. Hybrid systems with energy storage and possibly conventional
power sources can help stabilize the grid by providing consistent power output.
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Optimal Resource Utilization: Different renewable energy sources have different characteristics
and are suitable for different locations. Combining them in hybrid systems allows for optimal
utilization of resources. For example, a location may have good solar potential during the day and
wind potential at night.
Cost Efficiency: Hybrid systems can often be more cost-effective than relying solely on a single
renewable energy source. By combining multiple sources, it may be possible to achieve economies
of scale in equipment procurement and installation.
Reduction of Environmental Impact: By diversifying the energy mix and relying more on
renewable sources, hybrid systems can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
mitigating climate change.
Energy Independence: Hybrid systems can enhance energy independence by reducing reliance
on imported fossil fuels and increasing self-sufficiency in energy production, especially in remote
areas or islands.
Scalability and Flexibility: Hybrid systems can be designed to be scalable and flexible, allowing
for adjustments based on changing energy demands and technological advancements.
Example of hybrid systems:

(A) PV – Diesel (B) Wind – Diesel (C) Biomass – Diesel (D) Wind – PV (E) Micro hydel – PV
(F) Biogas – Solar Thermal (G) Solar – Biomass (H) Electric and electric hybrid vehicles

Figure: Block diagram of Hybrid Energy System

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Figure: Block diagram of Hybrid Energy System.

Changes in sunlight and wind speed can greatly affect how much energy we generate. That's why
it's important to carefully plan a hybrid system that combines different sources of energy, like wind
turbines and solar panels, Diesel Generator, along with storage for a steady supply of power, even
when the weather changes. We also need to make sure the system doesn't cost too much to set up
and run.

Grid-Connected Renewable Energy Sources

Grid-connected renewable energy sources refer to systems that generate electricity from renewable
resources such as solar, wind, hydro, and biomass, and are connected to the utility grid. A grid-
connected system enables energy consumers to power homes or small businesses with renewable
energy (daily and seasonally). Any excess energy generated is fed back into the grid and when
renewable resources are in short supply, electricity from the grid will meet electrical needs.
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Figure: Grid-Connected Renewable Energy Sources

Why enrich uranium

 Natural uranium deposits exist all over the world, but uranium in this form is not suitable
for nuclear weapons, and cannot be used in most nuclear reactors for either electricity or
plutonium production.
 Natural uranium is composed of various isotopes, or different types of uranium. It
contains approximately 99.3% of the isotope uranium-238, and has only very small
concentrations, about 0.7%, of the fissile isotope uranium-235. An isotope is considered
fissile if it can be split by a slow moving neutron.
 Uranium-235 is the most significant fissile isotope of uranium for reactor fuel and
nuclear weapons. To be useful for either of these purposes, the concentration of uranium-
235 must be increased by separating it from uranium-238 through a process known
as enrichment.
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Understanding Enrichment