Course Code: SWE3003

Introduction to
Course Title:

Computer Networks

[Link] kumar
 Communication Architecture
Strategy for connecting host computers and other communicating equipment.
Defines necessary elements for data communication between devices.
A communication architecture, therefore, defines a standard for the
communicating hosts.
A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the communication
architecture and passes it on to the communication software.
Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for example, we do not need
to modify the entire host software to include more communication devices.
 OBJECTIVES:
To discuss the idea of multiple layering in data communication and networking and the
interrelationship between layers.
To discuss the OSI model and its layer architecture and to show the interface between the
layers.
To briefly discuss the functions of each layer in the OSI model.
To introduce the TCP/IP protocol suite and compare its layers with the ones in the OSI
model.
To show the functionality of each layer in the TCP/IP protocol with some examples.
To discuss the addressing mechanism used in some layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite for
the delivery of a message from the source to the destination.
 Layer Architecture
Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture network.
The network management is easier due to the layered architecture.
Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the
control and timing for the handshake between layers.
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Model
International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to
develop an architecture for computer communication.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort.
In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved
as an international standard for communications architecture.
Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to
the reference model and associated standards.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between
computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable
problems .
This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.
OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers
 OSI: A Layered Network Model
The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces
complexity.
Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other
computers.
The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are
concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.
The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—
Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.
Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the
layers before network transit.
 Example 2.1

Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas. However, Maria
speaks only Spanish, and Ann speaks only English. Since both have learned the
sign language in their childhood, they enjoy meeting in a cafe a couple of days
per week and exchange their ideas using signs. Occasionally, they also use a
bilingual dictionary. Communication is face to face and Happens in one layer as
shown in Figure 2.1.
 Figure 2.1 Example 2.1

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 Example 2.2
Now assume that Ann has to move to another town because of her job. Before
she moves, the two meet for the last time in the same cafe. Although both are
sad, Maria surprises Ann when she opens a packet that contains two small
machines. The first machine can scan and transform a letter in English to a
secret code or vice versa. The other machine can scan and translate a letter in
Spanish to the same secret code or vice versa. Ann takes the first machine;
Maria keeps the second one. The two friends can still communicate using the
secret code, as shown in Figure 2.2.

10
 Figure 2.2 Example 2.2

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 Topics Discussed in the Section

Layered Architecture
Layer-to-layer Communication
Encapsulation
Layers in the OSI Model
Summary of OSI Layers

12 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Note

ISO is the organization;

OSI is the model.

13 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Figure 2.3 The OSI model
 Figure 2.4 OSI layers

15 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Figure 2.5 An exchange using the OSI model

16 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Note

The physical layer is responsible for

moving individual bits from one
(node) to the next.

17 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Figure 2.6 Summary of OSI Layers
 2-3 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.
Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not match
exactly with those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as four software layers built upon the hardware.
Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model with
the layers named similarly to the ones in the OSI model. Figure 2.7
shows both configurations.
 Topics Discussed in the Section
Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP
Layers in the TCP/IP Suite

20 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Figure 2.7 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Figure 2.8 TCP/IP and OSI model
Packet Encapsulation
Figure 2.9 A private internet
 Figure 2.10 Communication at the physical layer

Legend Source Destination

A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101

01
1
...
10
1

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

 Note

The unit of communication at the

physical layer is a bit.

27 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Figure 2.11 Communication at the data link layer

Legend Source Destination D Data H Header

A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame

28
 Note

The unit of communication at the data

link layer is a frame.

29 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Figure 2.12 Communication at the network layer

Legend Source Destination D Data H Header

A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram
 Note

The unit of communication at the

network layer is a datagram.

31 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Figure 2.13 Communication at transport layer

A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment
 Note

The unit of communication at the

transport layer is a segment, user
datagram, or a packet, depending on the
specific protocol used in this layer.

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 Figure 2.14 Communication at application layer
A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
 Note

The unit of communication at the

application layer is a message.

35 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 2-4 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical address, logical address, port
address, and application-specific address. Each address is
related to a one layer in the TCP/IP architecture, as shown
in Figure 2.15.

36 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Topics Discussed in the Section

 Physical Addresses
 Logical Addresses
 Port Addresses
 Application-Specific Addresses

37 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Figure 2.15 Addresses in the TCP/IP protocol suite

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 Example 2.3
In Figure 2.16 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical
address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (a LAN). At the data link layer, this
frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header. These are the only addresses
needed. The rest of the header contains other information needed at this level. As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer
with physical address 87 is the receiver. The data link layer at the sender receives data
from an upper layer. It encapsulates the data in a frame. The frame is propagated
through the LAN. Each station with a physical address other than 87 drops the frame
because the destination address in the frame does not match its own physical address.
The intended destination computer, however, finds a match between the destination
address in the frame and its own physical address.
 Figure 2.16 Example 2.3: physical addresses

1 packet 87 10
87 10 Data accepted
Data

4
 Example 2.4

As we will see in Chapter 3, most local area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte)
physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal
digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address
 Example 2.5
Figure 2.17 shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three LANs. Each
device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has
only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three networks. So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection. Although it may be
obvious that each router must have a separate physical address for each connection, it
may not be obvious why it needs a logical address for each connection. The computer
with logical address A and physical address 10 needs to send a packet to the computer
with logical address P and physical address 95. We use letters to show the logical
addresses and numbers for physical addresses, but note that both are actually
numbers, as we will see in later chapters.
 Figure 2.17 Example 2.5: logical addresses

20 10 A P Data 20 10 A P Data 33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed

95 66 A P Data 95 66 A P Data
33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed
Note

The physical addresses will change from

hop to hop, but the logical addresses
remain the same.
 Example 2.6
Figure 2.18 shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending
computer is running three processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and
c. The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate
with process j in the receiving computer. Note that although both computers
are using the same application, FTP, for example, the port addresses are
different because one is a client program and the other is a server program, as
we will see in Chapter 17.
 Figure 2.18 Example 2.6: port numbers

A Sender Receiver P

Data Data
a j Data a j Data

A P a j Data A P a j Data

H2 A P a j Data H2 A P a j Data

Internet
 Note

The physical addresses change from

hop to hop, but the logical and port
addresses usually remain the same.

47 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example 2.7
As we will see in future chapters, a port address is a 16-bit
address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented as one single number

48 TCP/IP Protocol Suite