Science Notes

Science Notes

Year 8
Year 8

Name:
Class:
Table of content

Working Scien�fically 1–3

Graphs and Data Representa�on 4–5

Lab Equipment 6–10

Safety and Hazards 11–15

Chemistry:

States, Elements, and Compounds 16–28

Atomic Structure and Periodic Table 29–34

Periodic Trends and Group Proper�es 35–47

Chemical Bonding: Ionic and Covalent 48–59

Giant Structures and Proper�es 60–68

Electricity and Conduc�vity 69–72

Reac�vity and Displacement Reac�ons 73–81

Salt Forma�on and Crystalliza�on 82–88

Biology

Photosynthesis and the Carbon Cycle 89–116

Maintaining Life: Plants and Humans 117–129

Genes and Inheritance 130–140

Physics:

Density, Heat, and Energy Transfer 141-159

Sound and Space 160–170

Earth Science: Tectonics 171–173

Electricity 174–184
1
 Scientific method

What is the scientific method?

The scientific method is like a step-by-step guide that scientists use to
figure out how things work. They start by asking questions, then make
guesses (hypothesis), and do experiments or observations to find answers.
It helps them learn new things about the world and make sure their ideas
are based on facts and evidence.

Steps for the scientific method

1. Ask a question: Identify a problem that makes you curious and you’d
like to find an answer for.

2. Observe: Make observation and do your research on the topic.

3. Make a hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess, or a guess you

make based on information you already know from the conducted
research.

4. Plan your experiment

Materials: What are the materials you are going to use in the
experiment?
List the materials you are going to need in your experiment
Procedure: What are the steps you are going to follow? You have to
write the steps clearly in order.

5. Record and analyse the results: A data table will ensure that you are
consistent in recording your data and will make it easier to analyze
your results once you have finished your experiment. You can use the
data obtained to draw a graph.

6. Conclusion: Summarize how your results support or contradict your

original hypothesis.

2
 Variables

The dependent variable: is the variable that changes as a result of the

independent variable manipulation. It's the outcome you're interested in
measuring, and it “depends” on your independent variable.

Independent variable: It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by

the other variables you are trying to measure. For a fair experiment, it should
have only ONE independent variable.

Control variable: The variables that are kept constant during an experiment.

3
 The are 5 types of the scientific inquiry:

1. Observation Over Time: This involves carefully watching something for

a period to notice any changes that happen slowly.

Example: Watching the leaves on a tree change colors throughout the seasons.

2. Pattern Seeking: Looking for regularities or repeating sequences in data

or observations.

Example: Noticing that the Moon appears to go through phases, such as

full, half, and crescent, in a repeating pattern.

3. Identifying and Grouping: Sorting objects or observations into

categories based on their similarities and differences.

Example: Grouping different types of birds based on their beak shapes or colors.

4. Comparative and Fair Testing: Comparing two or more things in a way

that is fair and equal to see what's different or similar.

Example: Testing which type of soil (sand, clay, or loam) helps plants grow
the best by planting the same type of seeds in each soil and keeping all other
conditions the same.

5. Research Using Secondary Sources: Finding information by reading

books, articles, or using the internet to learn from what others
have discovered.

Example: Using books or websites to find out about the life cycle of
butterflies when you're doing a project on butterflies.

4
 Graphs

Bar Graphs
Purpose: To show comparisons between different
categories.
X-axis: Categories (discrete data).
Y-axis: Measurements.
Bars: Same width, equally spaced with gaps.
Note: Discrete data means data that can only take certain values (e.g.,
number of pets, types of soil). You cannot have values in between categories.

Line Graphs
Purpose: To show how one variable changes with another
(continuous data).

X-axis: Independent variable.

Y-axis: Dependent variable.
Points plotted and joined with a smooth line.
Reminder: Use when both variables are numbers and
continuous.

Best-fit line: A smooth line or curve is drawn to show how one variable
changes in relation to another. Instead of connecting the plotted points
directly, you draw a best-fit line to show the overall trend. The line of best
fit is used when both variables are numerical and continuous

5
Scatter Graphs
Purpose: To look for relationships between two sets of
continuous data.

X-axis: Independent variable.

Y-axis: Dependent variable.
Points plotted but not joined.
Reminder: Can show positive, negative or no correlation. A line of best fit can be
drawn to show the trend.

General Graph Rules

• Always include a clear, descriptive title.
• Label both axes with variable and unit (e.g.,
Temperature (°C)).
• Independent variable → X-axis.
• Dependent variable → Y-axis.
• Choose an appropriate scale covering all data.
• Plot points carefully with small crosses/dots.
• Use pencil and ruler for neatness.
• Add a key if comparing more than one set of data.

6
 Lab equipment

Beaker: Used to mix chemicals, dissolve solids into solutions,

heat or cool solutions. They have very poor accuracy.

Measuring cylinder: Used to measure the volume of liquids in the lab.

Pipette/ pipet: Used to measure or transfer small volumes of liquids.

Test tube: Narrow glass cylinders, that are used for mixing, heating, and
storing small quantities of chemicals.

7
Funnel: Used to pour liquids into narrow mouth flasks
and bottles.

Mortar and pestle: Used to crush and grind ingredients into fine
paste or powder.

Bunsen burner: Used to heat ingredients.

Wire gauze: It is a thin sheet of metal placed on the Bunsen

burner. Used to evenly spread the heat and to make the beaker
stable on the bunsen burner.

8
Digital balance: Used to measure the mass accurately.

Forceps: Used for grasping and holding objects instead of using your
fingers.

Thermometer: Used to measure the temperature in degree Celsius.

Glass rod/ stirring rod: Used to stir mixtures.

Voltmeter: Used to measure the voltage

(the strength of an electric current).

9
Eye goggles: Used to protect the eyes from chemical splashes and dust
particles in the lab.

Stopwatch: Used to accurately measure the time. For example,

to measure the rate of reaction or the speed of a moving object.

Petri dish: Used to hold specimens and grow specimens.

Forcemeter: Used to measure the weight of an object in Newton

10
Filter paper: semi-permeable paper used in laboratories for separating solids from
liquids through the process of filtration.

Burette: Used for accurate/precise volume measurement of liquids.

11
 Safety Hazards

Chemical Hazards
Skin irritation, burns, poisonous fumes, eye damage.

Prevention:
• Always wear safety goggles and lab coats.
• Handle chemicals with care and only as instructed.
• Never taste or smell chemicals directly.
• Wash hands after handling chemicals.

Fire Hazards
Burns from Bunsen burners, flammable substances catching fire.

Prevention:
• Tie back long hair and secure loose clothing.
• Never leave a lit Bunsen burner unattended.
• Light Bunsen burners with a splint, not matches.
• Keep flammable materials away from flames.

Inhalation Hazards
Breathing in harmful gases or powders.

Prevention:
• Use fume cupboards when working with harmful gases.
• Never blow on powders or substances.
• Avoid leaning over beakers producing fumes

12
Electrical Hazards
Electric shock, burns, damaged wires causing sparks.

Prevention:
• Do not touch plugs, sockets, or wires with wet hands.
• Use electrical equipment only as instructed.
• Report damaged wires or equipment immediately.

Biological Hazards
Risk of infection when handling living organisms or biological
samples.

Prevention:
• Wash hands thoroughly after experiments.
• Wear gloves when handling biological materials.
• Do not eat or drink in the lab.

Spills and Slips

Slipping on water or chemical spills.

Prevention:
• Clean up spills immediately.
• Keep bags and stools out of walkways.
• Walk carefully in the lab—never run.

Glassware Hazards
Cuts from broken glass, burns from hot glass.

Prevention:
• Handle glassware carefully and check
for cracks before use.
• Never use chipped or broken glassware.
• Allow hot glass to cool before touching.

13
Sharp Objects
Cuts from scissors, scalpels, or dissecting tools.

Prevention:
• Always cut away from your body.
• Carry sharp tools with points facing down.
• Store tools safely after use.

14
Hazard warning labels
Many chemicals are hazardous. Their bottles are clearly labelled with hazard warning symbols
so that you know you must handle them carefully. Here is a list of the most common hazard
symbols and what they mean.

A substance that can

explode if it comes
Explosive into contact with a
flame or heat.

A substance that
Flammable can catch fire
easily.

A substance that
gives off a large
amount
Oxidising of heat when in
contact with other
substances.

A substance that can

destroy living tissue.
Corrosive It can cause burns.

15
 A substance that
Toxic can poison you.

A substance that can

Hazardous to the kill or damage living
environment things in the
environment.

A substance that can

cause harm such as
Health hazard irritating your skin
and eyes.

A substance that can

Serious health cause a serious
hazard problem to your
health.

16
 Chemistry
Properties of materials

17
 States Of Matter

Review

States Of Matter

Particles in solids, liquids and gases

The properties of the different states are due to the arrangement of its particles.

In solids the particles are In liquids the attractive

held together by strong forces are weaker than In gases there are no
attractive forces. They solids. They allow the attractive forces. The
can vibrate about a fixed particles to slide past particles move very
position but they cannot each other randomly but rapidly and randomly and
move around. they are still touching. are a long way apart.

18
 What are “Atoms”
•
Chemistry
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter
•
What are “Atoms”
They are the very tiny particles that make up everything around us

• Think:
o In order to build anything, we need several different materials.
o Do you think all matter are made out of the same atoms ?

• Answer:
• Think:
o In
Like how weorder
needtodifferent
build anything, wetoneed several different materials.
materials
Do youall
build oanything, think all matter
matter are made out of the same atoms ?
is not made
out of the same atoms and there
actually many different types of atoms

• Answer: Figure 1: Different LEGO blocks are required

to build anything just how different types of
Like how we need different materials to Atoms are required to build the universe

build anything, all matter is not made

out of the same atoms and there
actually many different types of atoms
19
 Elements , compounds and mixtures

Comparison between Elements and compounds

We need many different substances in order to successfully build
anything like a house or a car

Sometimes, we may even need to combine different materials in order

to build anything.

Atoms and elements can also combine in different ways to give us new
substances
The combination of atoms can give us Mixtures or Compounds

20
 Elements
• Elements are the substances that are
Elements
made of only one type of atoms
• Example: Pure Gold is called an
Element because it is only made from
Gold atoms
• Each element has different properties
because they are made of different Different Elements
types of atoms
Different Elements

Periodic table:
• There are officially 118 known elements in the universe.
• In order to keep track of all elements, scientist developed
what is known as The Periodic Table
• Each Element in the Periodic Table is represented by a
Symbol.
• The symbol is the first letter of the element’s English name or
the first two letters.
for example, the symbol for oxygen is O.
for example, the symbol for helium is He.
• The first letter of the symbol is always upper case and the
second letter lower case.
•

21
 Groups and Periods

The Periodic Table is divided into:

a. Vertical Columns called Groups
b. Horizontal Rows called Periods

Groups

Periods
Groups

Periods

22
• Elements are classified into metals & non-metals.
• Metals are found on the left side & the middle of the periodic
table.
• Non-metals are found on the right side of the periodic table
• The bold black line on the periodic table separates between the
metals and non-metals.
• The elements that are solid at room temperature are found on
the left side of the periodic table.
• The middle & the right side of the periodic table most are metals
& some are non-metals.
• Mercury is metal that is liquid at room temperature found in the
middle of the periodic table.
• Bromine is a non-metal that is also liquid at room temperature
found on the right side of the periodic table.

23
• The Periodic table is also used to arrange elements into
different classes
• Elements that have similar properties are grouped together
• The two main classifications of elements are Metals and Non-
metals
o Metals are found on the left side of the periodic table
o Non-metals are found on the right side of the periodic
table

Compounds

• As we said before, elements are substances that only have one

Compounds
type of atoms and nothing more
• Compounds are substances that are made of different types of
atoms (different elements) that are chemically joined together
(BONDED) and they form molecules

24
 Comparison between Elements and compounds

Comparison between Elements and compounds

Elements Compounds

Contains only one type of Contains more than one type

atoms of atoms chemically joined

The smallest building unit The smallest building unit of a

of an element is the atom compound is the molecule

Properties Of Elements and Compounds

Properties
What about the Of Elements
properties ofand Compounds
elements and compounds?
If a very explosive element like hydrogen is bonded to oxygen which
helps with combustion, will the resulting compound be explosive ?

Compounds have very different properties from the elements that

made them.
Examples:
• Sodium (toxic and explosive) when bonded with Chlorine
(toxic) gives Sodium Chloride which is Table Salt

25
 Mixtures

Look at the following

Mixtures
picture and try to figure
out the key difference
between a mixture and a
compound

Mixtures are substances that are made of several substances

(elements or compounds) that are only physically mixed together
but are not chemically bonded.

Air is a mixture of many gases, some are elements and other are
compounds.

26
 Alloys
Alloys are mixtures of Metals with other metals or other elements
Alloys
Examples of Alloys:

Brass: Mixture of Steel: Mixture of Iron Bronze: Mixture of

copper and zinc and Carbon copper and tin

Properties of Mixtures

• Mixtures do not have new properties.

• Mixtures have the properties of the elements or compounds
that form them

Iron and Sulfur Mixture Iron Sulfide (Compound)

• Iron is magnetic and Sulfur is not • When Iron is heated with Sulfur it
• When Iron is only mixed with forms Iron Sulfide compound
sulfur, you will be able to remove • This compound has different
Iron from the mixture using a properties and is not magnetic
magnet • Thus you are not able to remove
• This means that the properties Iron using a magnet
of Iron remain the same

27
 Naming Compounds

Chemical formulae and names

Each compound has a chemical name, formulae and particle diagram.

Chemical name

O C O Particle model

Formulae

The purpose of naming compounds is to know which elements form

this compound. For example:
Which two elements are combined in Sodium chloride?
• Sodium and Chlorine
Which two elements are combined in Hydrogen sulfide?
• Hydrogen and Sulfur
Which two elements are combined in Magnesium oxide?
• Magnesium and Oxygen

28
 Atomic Structure

Rules for naming Compounds

Compound containing two elements (Metal + Non-metal)

1. In a compound name of the Metal comes first in the name of
the compound.
2. The Non-metal name comes and is usually changed to end
with -ide.
For example:
• The compound made from Sodium (a metal) and chlorine (a
non-metal) is Sodium Chloride.
Examples

Sodium + Fluorine Calcium + Oxygen Nitrogen + Magnesium

• Sodium • Calcium • Magnesium

Oxide Nitride
Fluoride

Nitrogen + Magnesium

Compounds containing Three elements

Calcium one of them
+ Oxygen Magnesium
• is Oxygen
Sodium + Fluorine Nitride
1. Some compounds contain
• Sodium three different elements, one of
• Calcium
Oxide
them is oxygen.
Fluoride
2. These compounds often have names ending with ‘ate’. For
example, a compound of calcium, carbon and oxygen is
called calcium carbonate.
3. Example:
o Calcium carbonate (Calcium + Carbon +Oxygen)
o Potassium Sulfate (Potassium + Sulfur + Oxygen)

29
 Atomic Structure

Number of Atoms of each element in a compound

• Sometimes, the name of a compound tells you how many
of each kind of atom are bonded together.
• Carbon dioxide particles are made up of one carbon atom
joined to two oxygen atoms. ‘Di’ means two.
• Carbon monoxide particles are made up of one carbon atom
joined to one oxygen atom. ‘Mon’ or ‘mono’ means one.

Using Formulae

• Every compound also has a formula

• The formula contains the symbols of the elements that are
bonded together in the compound

Formula Name What the compound contains

CaO

H2S

NaOH

30
 Atomic Structure

Lesson 1: Atomic structure

What is an atom?

● Atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist

alone.
● The Atom is made up of smaller “Sub atomic” particles. The
Sub atomic particles are: Protons, Neutrons and Electrons.
● Protons and Neutrons Exist in the Nucleus.
● Electrons rotate around the nucleus.

Charge Mass
Particle

Proton (+)1 positive charge 1

Neutron 0 Neutral (no charge) 1

Electrons (-)1 Negative charge Very

small
1/2000

31
 Atomic Structure

Question:
How do you think the atom is held together?

• Since the nucleus is positive and the

Question:
electrons are negative, they have
opposite
How do charges
you think thewhich
atommakes them
is held together?
attract
• This kind of attraction between
oppositely charge particles is called
electrostatic attraction (electric force)

• Since the nucleus is positive and

Question:
the electrons are negative, they
have the
What holds opposite
protonscharges which
inside the nucleus?
makes them attract
• This kind of attraction between
• oppositely
The neutronscharge
bear no particles
charge andis
Question:
called electrostatic attraction.
hence, prevent electrostatic repulsions
How do you think
between the atom is held together?
the protons.

32
 Lesson 2: Atomic structure and the periodic
table

If you take a close look at the elements’ symbols in the periodic

table you will find that each element has two number written on it
These Numbers are called:
1. Atomic Number (the smaller number)
2. Mass Number/Atomic Mass (the larger number)

This is the Atomic number for lithium.

This number tells us how many
protons are in the nucleus. No other
element has the same atomic
number as lithium. 3

Li
The Atomic Number is always smaller

This is the Atomic number for lithium.

This is the Mass number. The mass
This number tells us how many
number of an atom is the total
protons are in the nucleus. No other
number of protons and neutrons in
element has the same atomic
the nucleus.
number as lithium.
7
The Mass Number is always bigger
The Atomic Number is always smaller

This is the Mass number. The mass

number of an atom is the total
number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus.
33
The Mass Number is always bigger
 Question: What do The Atomic and Mass
Numbers tell you about the Atomic Structure ?

Question: What do
Atomic Number: The number
Is the Atomic and
that Mass
shows how many Protons
Numbers tell
are in the atomyou about the Atomic Structure ?

Mass Number: is the number that shows how many Protons

and Neutrons are in the nucleus (equal to Protons + Neutrons)

Atomic Number: Is the number that shows how many Protons

are in the atom
Mass Number: is the number that shows how many Protons
and Neutrons are in the nucleus (equal to Protons + Neutrons)
The Periodic table is arranged in order of increasing atomic number
as you go from left to right

34
Practice
The symbol for Phosphorus (P) is shown
Practice
on the right.
31

P
What is the Atomic Number
……………………………………………
What is the Mass Number
……………………………………………
How many protons and neutrons are in
its nucleus?
Protons: …………………
15
Neutrons :……………………

The symbol for Phosphorus (P) is shown

on the right.
Answers
What is the Atomic Number
……………………………………………

Answers
WhatAtomic
The is the Mass Number
number is 15.
……………………………………………
This is the number of protons in 31

P
Hownucleus.
the many protons and neutrons are in
its nucleus?
The Mass number is 31.
Protons: …………………
This is the total number of
Neutrons :……………………
protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.
So the Neutrons will be, 15
31 – 15 = 16 Neutrons

The Atomic number is 15.

35
This is the number of protons in
 Electron
Electron Number
Number

The atoms have an Overall charge of 0 (no charge)

● This means that the Positive protons must be equal
to the Negative electrons
●
● So, in any Atom Protons = Electrons

The atoms have an Overall charge of 0

● This means that the Positive protons must be
equal to the Negative electrons
● So, in any Atom Protons = Electrons

Electron Arrangement
Electron Arrangement

• Remember that electrons rotate in Energy levels/ Electron shells

The electrons are

arranged in a certain
order around the Nucleus
of the atom, this is called
the Electron structure.

The electrons are arranged in a

certain order around the Nucleus
of the atom, this is called the 36
Electron structure.
Electron Arrangement Rules

Electron Arrangement
• Each Energy Rules
level can carry a certain number of Electrons, as follows:
1. The First energy level can only carry 2 electrons.
2. The Second and Third Energy levels can each carry a maximum of 8
electrons.

• The shells are filled in order, when a shell is filled the electrons will start
filling the next one (The shell will only have electrons if the previous one is
completely full)
• The Electron structure is written in numbers to show how the electrons are
arranged in the atoms.
• The numbers are written in the order of the energy levels from inside to
Outside.

2, 2 2, 5 2, 4
Energy Level Maximum Number of Electrons

First 2

Second 8

2, 5
Third 8

2, 2
2, 4

37
Examples

Element Number Of Electrons Electron Arrangment

Examples
Sodium 11 2, 8, 1

Oxygen 8 2, 6

Magnesium 12 2, 8, 2

How The Periodic table is related to the electron arrangement?

How The Periodic table is related to the electron arrangement

➢ We Know that the Periodic Table is arranged in order of Increasing
Atomic Number from left to right
➢ We also know that it is arranged in Vertical Groups and Horizontal
Periods.
➢ This arrangement of the Periodic table is intentional as it shows key
information about the elements.
• The Group Number represents the Number of Electrons in the Outermost
shell of an Element (which are also called Valence Electrons)
• The Period Number represents the number of Shells in an Element

38
 This Means that we can actually use the Periodic table to determine the
Electronic Structure of an element and vice versa

Example:
Sodium has 11 Electrons
The Electron arrangement is thus going to be: 2, 8, 1
This means it has 3 shells → Period 3
It has one electron in the outer most shell group 1

Number of
Three 2 ,8 ,1 electrons in
Numbers outer most
means you shell (Group)
have 3 shells 2 ,8 ,1
(Period) Number of
electrons in
Three outer most
Numbers shell (Group)
means you 39
have 3 shells
Electronic configuration of the first 20 elements in
the periodic table

40
Lesson 3: Trends in the periodic table

As we’ve seen before, the Periodic Table is not just a table of the elements
The Periodic table that can be used to predict a lot about the elements and their
properties.
The Periodic Table can also be used to predict both Physical and Chemical
properties of the elements
• This is because the chemical and physical properties are closely related
to the atomic structure of the elements

For Example:
o Non-metals are found on the right side of the periodic table.
o Metals are found on the left side of the periodic table.

Now think of other properties that you can predict using the periodic table, like:
1. The Atomic Number and Atomic Mass: What happens to the Atomic
Number and Mass when you move from:
o The atomic number and the atomic mass increase as you move to
the right side (across the period)
o As you move down the group, the atomic number and atomic mass
also increase.
2. The Density: Density is related to the Mass, so if the mass increases this
means that:
o The density of the element increase as you move to the right side
(across the period).
o As you move down the group, the density of element will
increase.

41
What happens to the Group number as you go from left to right (across periods):
● The group number represents Outermost shell Electrons

● This means that across the periodic table, the number of electrons in the
outermost shell increases
What happens to the Period number as you go from up to down (Down a group)
• The Period Number represents the number of shells

This means that from up to down, the number of shells increases because the
atomic number increased.

42
 Trends in the Periodic Table

Examples of these trends can be seen in these following groups:

● Group 1--> Alkali metals
● Group 7--> Halogens
● Group 8 --> Noble gases

Group 1 Alkali metals

Elements are Metals and are known as Alkali Metals.

Trends in the Periodic Table

• All of them have 1 electron in their outermost shells.

• How many more electrons and protons does the next element have down
the group? 8 electrons and 8 protons more
• The size of the atom down the group increases

43
 Group 1 Alkali Metals Physical Properties

If you look at this table you will notice that as you go down group 1
• Boiling and melting points → Decreases

• All group 1 elements are metals.

• All have 1 electron in their outermost shell.
• They conduct electricity.
• They have low density which increase as you go down the
group.
Group 1 Alkali Metals Physical Properties

44
Group 7
Elements are known as Halogens

• Group 7 elements all are non-metals.

• Group 7 elements all have 7 electrons in their outermost shells.
• They exist in molecules made up of 2 atoms (diatomic).
Example: Cl2, F2

Group 7 Halogens Physical Properties

Group 7 Halogens Physical Properties

45
If you look at this table you will notice that as you go down Group 7

• Boiling and Melting Points → Increases

• Bad conductors of heat and electricity
• States at room temperatures
o Fluorine → Gas
o Chlorine → Gas
o Bromine → Liquid
o Iodine → Solid

Another Physical property of Group 7 is their color.

• As you go down group 7, the elements
get darker

46
Group 8
Elements are known as the Noble Gases

• This is because they are unreactive and stable

All elements of Group 8 have 8 electrons in the Outermost shell

Except for the first element Helium, which only has 2 electrons.

47
If you look at this table you will notice that as you go down Group 8
• Boiling and Melting Points → Increases

• All noble gases are non-metals

• All noble gases are colourless gases
• Group 8 elements are unreactive or called inert because they
have a full outer shell electron.

48
 Lesson 4: Why elements react to form
compounds?

• Atoms that have their outermost energy level of electrons full are
more stable, so they do not react to form compounds, like
elements in Group 8, the noble gases.
• The shell with the highest energy level is the one on the outside of
the atom. It is called the outermost electron shell.

• Bonds involve the electrons in the outer shells of atoms.

• Atoms that have incomplete outer shells of electrons react to form
compounds. In order to complete their outermost shell. (How?)

Reactions and
Chemical
Chemical Bonds
Bonds

When Elements react together, they complete the outermost shell

using one of two ways
1- Losing or gaining electrons forming (ionic bond).
2- Sharing electrons forming (covalent bond).

When this happens, the elements will be chemically bonded

together forming a compound

49
 Ionic bond
Ions
It is the electrostatic attraction between Positive Ions and Negative
Ions formed between metals and non-metals.

How are the positive and negative ions formed?

Ions can be formed by losing or gaining electrons then it will have
unequal number of protons sand electrons and so have an overall
charge.
Positive (+) Ions: Are made when atoms Lose Electrons and are
called Cations.
Negative (-) Ions: Are made when atoms Gain Electrons and
are called Anions.

● For example
● Sodium: when it reacts, it loses the single electron in the
outer shell and forms sodium ion which is stable.
● Sodium ion has one less electron than the sodium atom,
so more positively charged protons that is why sodium ion
symbol is Na+.

50
 • Atoms can also form ions by gaining electrons.
For example:
Group 7, such as chlorine
• Chlorine has 7 electrons in the outer most shell so it gains one
electron to complete the outer most shell and be stable.

• Chloride ion has one more electron more the chlorine atom so
more negatively charged electrons that’s why chlorine ion symbol
is (Cl −).
• We add ide to the non-metal (negative)ion.
Example: Chlorine atom--> chloride ion, Sulfur atom-->Sulfide ion
• When an atom loses electrons and another atom gains electrons we
end up with Positive and Negative Ions (Oppositely Charged)
• Ions with opposite charges can form an Ionic bond to form
compounds.

51
 Question:
Which Elements do you think will gain electrons and
which elements lose Electrons ?

Gain Electrons: Non-Metals

●Question:
Non-metals always gain electrons (Because they have 5, 6 and
7 electrons
Which in the
Elements outermost
do you shells
think will gainsoelectrons
it’s is easier
and towhich
gain to
complete
elements 8)Electrons
lose
Lose Electrons: Metals
● Metals: Because they have only 1, 2 or 3 electrons in the
Outermost shell so it is easier to lose electrons
That is why Ionic Bonds Form Between Metals and Non-Metals and when we
name these compounds; the name of the metal always comes first.

Drawing Ionic Compounds

In order to draw an ionic compound, we have to show which

Drawing Ionic Compounds
elements lose electrons and which gains electrons.
We also have to show exactly how many electrons were gained or
lost from each element.
In order to do this, we use the Dot and Cross Diagram
● The Dot and Cross Diagram is a simple diagram where we draw
the electrons of one element as a Dot, while the electrons of
the other element are drawn as crosses.

52
 Exampl
s e
1. Magnesium Oxide
● Magnesium: Needs to lose 2 electrons
● Oxygen: Needs to gain 2 electrons
Exampl
The Diagram shows 2 electrons (dots) being transferred from
Magnesium
es to Oxygen

It is also very important to show the charges of the ions after

gaining and losing electrons → which is done by drawing brackets
and writing the charges above them
Magnesium ion charge = 2+
Oxide ion charge= 2-

2- Calcium Chloride
• Calcium: Needs to lose 2 electrons
• Chlorine: Needs to gain 1 electron
• This means that 1 calcium atom needs to react with 2
chlorine atoms in order to lose 2 electrons

53
 Reactivity
Reactivity Of
Of Elements
Elements

The Word Reactivity means how readily an element reacts (how

readily the elements complete its outermost shell.
● Highly Reactive Elements → React very quickly and very
strongly with other elements
● Slightly or Low Reactivity Elements → React either very slowly or
do not react at all with other elements
We know that:
● Metals need to lose electrons: thus, if a metal is highly reactive
it means that it loses electrons easily
● Non-metals need to gain electrons: thus, if a non-metal is highly
reactive it means that it gains electrons easily

Reactivity and Electron shells

Reactivity and Electron shells

If you look at any group in the periodic table, we know that as we go
down the group the number of shells increases
The electrons in any atom are held in place by the electrostatic
attraction between the negative electrons in the shells and the
positive protons in the nucleus
Here is what happens down any group:
● The number of shells increases
● The distance between the outer shell electrons and the protons
increases
● This causes the attraction between the protons and the
electrons to decrease

54
 Less shells → Stronger More shells → Weaker
attractions so it is less attractions so it is more
reactive reactive

Less shells → Stronger More shells → Weaker

In metals,attractions
less attractions between the protons and electrons
attractions
means that they can lose electrons easily.
This means that as you go down the group, Metals become more
reactive
● Metals down the group → less attraction between protons
and electrons in outer most shell = Loses electrons easier
● (More reactive)

Least Reactive More Reactive Most Reactive

Least Reactive More Reactive Most Reactive

55
 Reactivity of
Reactivity of Non-Metals
Non-Metals

In non-metals, less attractions between the protons and electrons

means that they can gain electrons harder as they need to attract
electrons to gain.
This means that as you go down the group, Non-Metals become
less reactive

● Non-Metals down the Group → less attraction between protons

and electrons in outer most shell = Gains electrons harder
● (Less reactive)

Most Reactive Less Reactive

Most Reactive Less Reactive

56
 Metal atoms Non-metal atoms

• Have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in the outer • Have 4, 5 or 6 electrons in the outer shell

shell.
• Gain electrons
• Lose electrons .
• Become negative ions
• Become positive ions.

Difference between atom and ion:

Atom Ion
• The basic unit of matter. • Formed when an atom gains or
Has equal number of protons and loses electrons.
electrons • Has an overall positive or negative
• Neutral charge. charge.
• Example: Sodium atom (Na) has 11 • Losing electrons → positive ion
protons and 11 electrons. (cation).
• Gaining electrons → negative ion
(anion).
• Example: Sodium ion (Na ) has 11
protons and 10 electrons.

To sum up the ionic bonding:

1. Metal atoms lose electrons and become positively charged ions.
2. Non-metal atoms gain electrons and become negatively charged ions.
3. Electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal.
4. Ionic bonds are formed between positive and negative ions resulting in
an ionic compound .

57
 Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bonding

Take a look at these following compounds

● Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
● Water (H2O)
● Both of these compounds contain only Non-metals

● Covalent bonds are made when Elements share

electrons to fill their outermost shell, rather than lose
or gain electrons
● Only non-metals can share electrons, that is why
covalent compounds are between non-metals.
● When two or more atoms are bonded together by a
covalent bond (share electrons) they form a particle
called a Molecule.

● Covalent bonds are made when Elements share

electrons to fill their outermost shell, rather than lose
Examples
or gain electrons
Examples
Only non-metals
● Hydrogen
1. Chloride can share electrons, that is why
covalent compounds are between non-metals.
● When two or more atoms are bonded together by a
covalent bond (share electrons) they form a particle
called a Molecule

58
 • This example shows the Dot and Cross Diagram of Hydrogen
and Chlorine when they share electrons
• The shared electrons are shown at the intersection between
outermost shells of both atoms

Shared Electrons
Shared Electrons

When take a close look, you will find that each of the atoms share
1 electron with the other.
The shared electrons now belong to both atoms, thus both atoms
now have a complete outermost shell
• Hydrogen has 2 electrons in outermost shell (complete)
• Chlorine has 8 electrons in outermost shell (complete)

59
 2. Hydrogen Molecule

Two atoms of hydrogen join together to form a molecule of

hydrogen:
● An atom of hydrogen has one electron in its outermost electron
shell; It only needs one more electron to be complete because it
has one shell.
● The hydrogen atoms share a pair of electrons, so both atoms
have two electrons in the outermost electron shell so the shell is
full and more stable.
● A molecule of hydrogen is formed; the formula is written as H2.

60
 Drawing Covalent Compounds

In order to draw
Drawing the Dot
Covalent and Cross diagram for covalent bonds we
Compounds
have to consider the following points:
1. How many electrons will be shared between the atoms
2. How many electrons will be unshared
Both of these questions can be answered by one rule for covalent
bonding

You share only what you need, the rest is unshared

How many electrons will be shared?

You share only what you need, the rest is unshared
To find out how many electrons will be shared, we only have to know
how many electrons does the atom need to be complete

• Number of shared electrons = Number of electrons needed to be

complete
o If the atom needs one electron, then it is going to share one
o If the atom needs two electrons, then it is going to share 2
electrons
For example: Oxygen atoms need two electrons to be complete,
thus they will share 2 electrons with other atoms

61
How many electrons will be unshared?
Whenever we draw a covalent bond, we also have to draw the
electrons that will not be shared in the outermost shell.
Using the same rule we can also know how many electrons will be
left unshared
If an atom needs any number of electrons, this means that the
remaining electrons in the outermost shell will be left unshared

Examples:
1. Oxygen has 6 electrons→ will share 2 and the 4 remaining
will be unshared

2. Chlorine has 7 electrons → will share 1 and the 6

remaining will be unshared

62
This means that we can subtract the shared electrons from the total
number of electrons that an atom has to determine how many
unshared electrons will remain
Unshared electrons = Total electrons in outermost shell – Shared
electrons

Examples:

Ammonia is a compound made of one Nitrogen and Hydrogen

atoms
An atom of hydrogen only needs one more electron
An atom of nitrogen has an atomic number of 7, so it has five
electrons in its outermost electron shell, and it needs 3 electrons to
be stable
Three atoms of hydrogen combine with one atom of nitrogen and
share three pairs of electrons, so all the atoms have their outermost
electron shells full of electrons

63
 ● A stable molecule of ammonia is formed; its formula is NH3

Note how the nitrogen atom has 2 unshared electrons in the

outermost shell

64
 Lesson 5: simple and giant structures

When millions of atoms become attracted to each other and form

one structure, we call this structure a Giant Structure.

Physical Properties of Giant Structures

All Giant structures have High Melting and Boiling Points.

• This is because a lot of energy is required to breakdown all the
strong attraction forces between all atoms. Thus, all giant
structures are Solid at room te mperature.

Giant Ionic
Physical Properties Structures
of Giant Structures

• Ionic Compounds form giant structures like Sodium Chloride

• The ions of sodium, Na+ and chlorine, Cl− have opposite
electrical charges so they are strongly attracted to one another.
• These forces, called electrostatic forces, act in all directions
and form ionic bonds.

Giant Ionic Structures

65
 This causes the positive ions to be surrounded by negative ions from
all directions, and the negative ions to be surrounded positive ions
from all directions
• This Regular arrangement is known as a Lattice
• All Ionic Compounds form Giant lattice, thus they all have High
Melting and Boiling Points

Covalent structures

Simple covalent structure Giant covalent structure

• Have Low melting and • Have very high melting

boiling points. and boiling points
• Atoms are held together
Example: by covalent bonds and
1. Oxygen
Simple Covalent Structures form a lattice
2. Carbon dioxide
Examples:
1. Diamond
2. Graphite

66
 Simple Covalent Structures

Many substances that have covalent bonds are formed of simple

molecules for example oxygen, carbon dioxide and methane.

A Simple Structure is the opposite of a Giant Structure

• This means that the simple structures have Low melting and
boiling points (Gases or Liquids at room temperatures )
• This is because the forces holding the molecules together are
very strong but the forces between the molecules are weak.
The forces between the molecules are called intermolecular
forces

67
 Giant Covalent Structures

Giant Covalent Structures

If most of the atoms are held together by covalent bonds and form
a lattice, they will form a Giant Covalent Structure
The Giant Covalent Structures are also called Macromolecules

• This happens in both Diamonds and Graphite, which are Giant

Covalent Structures of Carbon

Diamond

• In Diamonds, Each carbon atom attaches to

4 other carbon atoms by a strong covalent
bond.
• This forms a very strong Giant lattice
Diamond
• This is why diamond is one of the strongest materials on Earth

• Diamond has extremely high melting and boiling points and is

used for jewelry and drill tips

68
 Graphite
Graphite

• In Graphite, each carbon is attached to 3 other Carbon atoms

by strong Covalent bonds, and they form layers.

• Because the layers are held together by weak attraction

forces, they can slide over each other.
• This makes graphite soft so, ideal to be used for pencils and
industrial lubricants.
• Each carbon is bonded to three others, making flat hexagonal
shapes.
• This leaves one electron left over which becomes delocalised
and can move between the layers – these electrons allow
graphite to conduct electricity and heat like metals.

69
 Electrical Conductivity of Ionic
compounds

• All Ionic Compounds are Soluble in water

Electrical Conductivity of Ionic
• Ionic compounds can conduct electricity only when molten or
compounds
dissolved.
• This because Ionic compounds are made out of electrical
charges (Positive and negative Ions).
• When Ionic compounds are molten or dissolved, these
electrical charges are able to move, thus they will conduct
electricity.

70
 Thinking and working
scientifically

Describe the strengths and limitations of using dot

and cross model to represent a molecule like the
Hydrogen chloride molecule shown below.

Strengths:
• The diagram shows that atoms are shared between the
hydrogen and the chlorine.
• The diagram can be understood and drawn.

Limitations:
• The model doesn't show how atoms are arranged or the
shape of the molecule.
• The model doesn't show the relative size of each atom.
• The model doesn't show that electrons are moving.

71
 Simple structures

Elements Compounds
Many covalent compounds
Many non-metals
Examples:

Examples: • Carbon dioxide

• Water
• Oxygen
• Nitrogen
• Fluorine

Giant Structures

Giant ionic structure Giant covalent structure Giant metallic structure

• Giant Ionic La�ce • (Macromolecule) • All metals

• All Ionic compounds • In few covalent compounds
Example:
Example: Example:
• Gold
• Sodium Chloride • Silicon Dioxide • Iron
• Carbon  Diamond and
Graphite

72
 Comparing Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Comparing Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Ionic Compounds Simple Covalent Molecules:
1. Have High Melting and 1. They have low Melting
Boiling Points; Due to strong and boiling points; due to
electrostatic attraction having weak
forces and because they intermolecular forces
form a Giant lattice
and they do not form a
2. They are All soluble in water
giant lattice
3. They conduct electricity only
2. Most are insoluble in
when molten (liquid) or
water
Dissolved in water
Giant Covalent e.g. Diamond
Ionic Compounds and Graphite
4. Have High Melting and Have High melting and
Boiling Points; Due to strong boiling points; due to
electrostatic attraction
having strong covalent
forces and because they
bonds and forming a
form a Giant lattice
Giant lattice
5. They are All soluble in water
6. They conduct electricity only
when molten (liquid) or Simple Covalent Molecules:
Dissolved in water
3. They have low Melting
and boiling points; due to
having weak
intermolecular forces
and they do not form a
giant lattice
4. Most are insoluble in
water

73 Giant Covalent e.g. Diamond

and Graphite
 Chemistry

Reactivity and chemical

reactions

74
 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

Lesson 1: Reactivity series

Reactivity means how fast or slow
Reactivity a chemical reacts in comparison
of Elements
to other chemicals
• Highly Reactive Elements: React very quickly and violently in
any chemical reaction
• Less Reactive elements: React slowly and less vigorously
compared to other elements

Example: Reactivity of Group 1

• Group
Example: 1 metals are the
Reactivity most reactive
of Group 1 metals in all the Periodic
table
• This is because they only need to lose one electron
• Going down group 1, the elements get more reactive
• This means that the element at the bottom of group 1 is more
reactive than the one at the top
Example:
o When Reacting Lithium, Sodium and Potassium with water
the following is observed
o Lithium: fizzes steadily and gradually decreases in size
o Sodium: Fizzes Vigorously and produces heat
o Potassium: Fizzes Violently and burns in a Lilac flame

1Comparing Reactivities of Lithium,

Sodium and Potassium

2Comparing Reactivities of Lithium,

Sodium and Potassium

75
 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

Reactivity Series of Metals

Reactivity Series of Metals

• Different metals have different reactivities.
• Through various reactions and experiments, scientists were able to
Rank elements based on their Reactivities from the most reactive to
the least reactive in a series called The Reactivity Series.
• The most reactive elements react very fast and very violently, while
the least reactive elements react much slower.
• We need to memorize the reactivity series in order as we will be
frequently asked about it.

• We use this mnemonic to memorize it in order.

76
 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

1- Reactions of Metals With Oxygen

Most metals will react with oxygen. Some metals react faster
than others and some may react very slowly or not at all.

metal oxygen metal

oxide

• Metals React with Oxygen (especially when

heated) to form Metal Oxides
• Example:
Sodium +Oxygen → Sodium Oxide
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide

• The most Reactive metals react very

strongly and vigorously
• While the less reactive metals react slowly
and less vigorously and may even require
heating in order to react with oxygen.
•
• Silver and gold at the bottom of the
reactivity series will not react even when
heated because they have very low
reactivities.

77
 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

➢ Some metals react very quickly with oxygen without even

being heated such as sodium, potassium or calcium. These
metals are so reactive that they have to be stored under oil to
prevent them reacting.
➢ Some metals, such as gold, do not react with oxygen. They are
generally unreactive. They are described as inert. Silver reacts
slowly with the air and if a silver object is not cleaned it goes
black over time, as silver oxide is formed.

2- Reac tions of Metals With Water

Potassium and sodium are metals that react vigorously with water
even when a small amount of each metal is used. They have to be
stored under oil to prevent them from reacting with the water
vapour in the air.

metal water metal Hydrogen

hydroxide

• Only Metals that are above Magnesium can

react with cold water
• Any metal below Magnesium will usually only
react with steam (hot water vapor)
• Any metal below hydrogen will not react with
water or steam

78
 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

In the experiment shown in the diagram, a piece of calcium

has been placed at the bottom of a beaker and covered
with water. A filter funnel has been placed upside down
over the metal. The gas given off is collected in a test tube
by the displacement of water.
• Aluminum, Zinc and iron are less reactive so they react with
steam, so the heat break up the hydroxide forming oxides.
Example: Zinc + water → zinc oxide + Hydrogen

3- Reactions of Metals With acids

• Potassium and Sodium react violently with Acids → this reaction is
dangerous so it is not done
• Copper, silver and Gold do not react with acid →because they are less
reactive than hydrogen and cannot displace it

metal acid metal salt hydrogen

Example:

magnesium + hydrochloric magnesium + hydrogen

acid chloride

79
 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

Lesson 2: Displacement reactions

Displacement reaction is the reaction when one element replaces or
Reactivity of Elements
pushes out another from its compound
The more reactive metals will always displace the less reactive metal
from any compound it’s in

More Reactive Metal element (uncombined) + Less reactive metal Compound (combined) → Displacement

An example
More of Displacement
Reactive reactions
Metal element is the displacement
(uncombined) + Less reactive metal
Compound (combined) → Displacement
reaction between an Iron Nail and Copper Sulfate solution
• Copper sulfate + Iron → Iron sulfate +Copper
• CuSO4 + Fe → FeSO4 + Cu

• Iron is more reactive than Copper

• This means that iron can push out
copper from any compound it is in
and take its place (Displace it)

80
 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

• The less reactive metal will then be given out alone as an

element

If the experiment was done the other way around, if Copper was
placed in Iron Sulfate solution, there will be no reaction
• Copper + Iron Sulfate → No Reaction

This is because Copper is less reactive than Iron and will not be able
to push it out of the compound (Displace it)

Examples
1. Aluminum + Iron Oxide → Aluminum Oxide + Hydrogen
Examples
2. Magnesium + Zinc Chloride → Magnesium Chloride + Zinc
3. Copper + Sodium Chloride → No Reaction (copper less
reactive than Sodium)

Uses of Displacement Reactions

Using the fact that more reactive metals can displace less
reactive ones from their compounds can be very useful in a
number of ways.
1. It is possible to use displacement reactions to help
identify an unknown metal.
2. It is also possible to extract Metals from their
compounds by using Displacement.

Displacement Using Carbon

● Carbon is not a metal, but it can be used to displace some metals from
their compounds, that is why it can be found in the reactivity series.
● Carbon will displace zinc, iron, tin and lead from their ores.
● An ore is a rock that contains a metal compound.

81
 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions

● People discovered that carbon could displace iron around

3500 years ago.
● They discovered that iron ore heated with charcoal (a form of
carbon) at very high temperatures produced molten iron.
Today this displacement reaction is still carried out, but on a
large scale, in a blast furnace.

● iron oxide + carbon iron + carbon dioxide

82
 Lesson 3: Salts
• When you hear theReactivity
word Salt,ofyou
Elements
probably think of Table Salt
which is Sodium Chloride
• Sodium Chloride is a salt but it is not the only one. Salts are
actually a large family of compounds
• Salts are Compounds formed from Positive Ions and Negative
Ions, or in other words Ionic Compound
• Any compound that is made from a positive and negative Ion
can be called a Salt

How to prepare common salts?

In order to make any salt, we can use on of the reactions that we
learned about.
1. Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
2. Metal Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
3. Base (metal oxide) +Acid → Salt + Water
4. Base (metal hydroxide) +Acid → Salt + Water

Naming Salts

In order to name a salt we add the metal name to the last name of
Naming Salts
the acid (Chemical Name)

HCl

H2 So4

HNo3

83
 Bases and Carbonates

Examples:
1. Magnesium + Hydrochloric Acid → Magnesium Chloride +
Hydrogen
2. Zinc + Sulfuric Acid → Zinc Sulfate + Hydrogen
3. Aluminum + Nitric Acid → Aluminum Nitrate + Hydrogen

Example of preparing salts:

What can be used to prepare the salt magnesium sulfate?
We can use:
• Magnesium + Sulfuric acid → Magnesium Sulfate + Hydrogen
Or
• Magnesium Carbonate + Sulfuric Acid → Magnesium Sulfate +
Water + Carbon dioxide
Or
• Magnesium Hydroxide + Sulfuric Acid → Magnesium Sulfate +
Water.

11

84
 Bases and Carbonates

1- Forming salts from (Metals + Acids)

● Acids react with metals, such as magnesium and zinc, to make
a salt and hydrogen.
Acid + metal → metal salt + hydrogen
E.x
Hydrochloric acid + Zinc → zinc chloride + Hydrogen
● In general, the more reactive the metal, the faster the reaction.
This is indicated by more bubbles being given off per second
from the metals with higher reactivity, as shown by this
diagram.
● Hydrogen gas test:
Put a lit splint then you hear a squeaky pop sound.

2- Forming salts from (Metal carbonate + Acids)

We can use carbonates to form other salts by reacting them with an
acid.
Metal Carbonates is the name given to compounds formed of
Metals and Carbonate ion (CO3)
e.g Sodium Carbonate: Na2CO3
Magnesium Carbonate : MgCO3
Calcium Carbonate: CaCO3
● When acids react with carbonates, a salt, water and carbon
dioxide are made.

Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

85
 Bases and Carbonates

The Metal in the Carbonate, replaces the Hydrogen in the Acid

Magnesium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid → Magnesium Chloide + Water + Carbon dioxide

MgCO3 + HCl → MgCl2 + H2O + CO2

Sodium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid → Sodium Chloide + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2

Carbon dioxide test:

Carbon dioxide can be tested using limewater. When carbon
dioxide is passed through limewater, it causes the limewater to turn
milky or turbid.

2- Forming salts from (Bases+ Acids)

Neutralization reactions
• Bases are a family of compounds (like acids)
• Compounds that can be classified as Bases are:
1. All Metal Oxides (Metal - Oxygen): Like Sodium Oxide, Magnesium
Oxide and Calcium Oxide etc.
2. All Metal Hydroxides (Metal - OH): Like Sodium Hydroxide, Lithium
Hydroxide, Potassium Hydroxide etc.

➢ Although we usually use the words Bases

and Alkalis to describe the same thing,
there is a key difference between Bases
and Alkalis
• Bases are not all soluble in water.
• Alkali: A water soluble Base

13

86
 Bases and Carbonates

When an Acid is reacted with a Base they will undergo a

Neutralisation Reaction: Forming a Salt + Water
• It is called a Neutralisation Reaction because the products are
Neutral: Not acidic or Basic.

Acid + Metal oxide → Salt + Water

Acid + Metal hydroxide → Salt + Water
In a Neutralisation Reaction, The metal from the Base always
replaces the Hydrogen in The Acid to form a salt
Examples:
1. Hydrochloric Acid + Sodium Hydroxide → Sodium Chloride +
Water
o HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
2. Nitric Acid + Magnesium Oxide → Magnesium Nitrate + Water
o HNO3 + MgO → Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
3. Sulfuric Acid + Lithium Oxide → Lithium Sulfate + Water
o H2SO4 + Li2O3 → Li2SO4 + H2O

87
 Practical steps for preparing salts

In order to actually prepare any salt, there are a series of steps we

have to go through in order to obtain the salt:
1. First, we add the reactants together:
o All salt preparation Methods involve acids which are
extremely corrosive. That is why we must make sure that
all the acid has completely reacted and there is no acid
left.
o We do this by adding an excess amount of the solid to the
Acid solution
2. Second, we must remove any excess unreacted solid which is
done by filtration
3. After filtration, we will be left with a salt that is dissolved in water
(that is because most acids that we use already contain water).
4. We should then take the filtrate and carry on a process called
Crystallization to get pure solid crystals of the salt

88
5. Crystallisation is done by heating the salt solution to evaporate
some of the solvent
6. After some of the solvent is evaporated, we allow the
remaining solution to cool down
7. After the solution is cooled down, crystals of the solid will
appear
8. We then remove the crystals by filtration and then leave them
on a filter paper to dry

Steps for crystallization:

1. Evaporate the filtrate till crystallization point

2. Leave the filtrate to cool down in a warm place to form crystals
3. Filter off crystals
4. Wash crystals with distilled water and dry them between 2 filter
papers.

Why do we add excess insoluble metal or base or carbonate?

To make sure that all the acid has reacted.

89
To sum up:

Metal Reac�on with Reac�on Reac�on Reac�on Reac�on

Oxygen with water with with with a
(oxida�on steam diluted metal
reac�on) acids compound
K Reacts quickly Reacts with Reacts React with A more
Na with oxygen in water to with acids to reac�ve
Ca the air and form metal steam to form salt metal will
form metal hydroxide form and displace a
oxide and metal hydrogen less
hydrogen hydroxide gas. reac�ve
Mg Reacts with
gas and metal from
oxygen in the
Al No reac�on hydrogen its
air when
Zn gas compound
heated to form
Fe
metal oxide
Pb No
Cu reac�on No reac�on
Ag No reac�on
Au
Pt

90
 Reactivity of Elements

Lesson 4: Rearranging atoms

In chemical reactions atoms form new combinations. Atoms that are

on their own may join together with other atoms. Atoms that are
bonded with other atoms may separate, forming new combinations
with other atoms.
In a chemical reaction, no atoms are lost. No new atoms are
produced. The atoms are simply rearranged into new combinations.

Conservation of mass
Any atom has a mass.
If no atoms are gained or lost during a chemical reaction, then no
mass is gained or lost either.
This important idea is called the law of conservation of mass.

In chemical reactions the elements you begin with are the ones you
end the reaction with. Nothing is added or taken away. The mass
you begin with is the mass you end with.

91
Energy and chemical reactions
All chemical reactions involve energy.
Making bonds and breaking bonds involve energy changes.
The energy required to break the bonds in the reactants for
a chemical reaction to occur.

The chemical reactions can be categorized into:

1- Exothermic reactions
2- Endothermic reactions

Exothermic reactions
An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases
energy by light or heat.
• Heat (energy) given off
• Temperature of the substance rises reaction

• Products feel HOT

92
 Endothermic reactions
Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings.
This energy is usually absorbed as heat, so the surroundings
get colder.
• Heat (energy) taken in
ion
• Temperature of the substance drops react
• Products feel cold

More examples
• Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction because
plant leaves absorb light energy.
• If you eat sherbet sweets, this gives a cool ‘fizzy’ feeling
in your mouth (the surroundings), which is refreshing. As
an endothermic reaction happens in your mouth.

Sodium hydrogen carbonate + citric acid --> sodium citrate + water + carbon dioxide

93
Comparison

94
95
Lesson 1: Measuring
Reactivity ofthe rate of reaction
Elements

What is the rate of chemica l reaction?

The rate of a chemical reaction refers to how quickly reactants are
converted into products over time.
The rate of reaction can be measured by working out:
1. how much of one of the products has been made in a
given time.
2. or how much of a reactant has been used up in a given
time.
For example:
If you're conducting a reaction where hydrogen gas is
produced by the reaction of magnesium with sulfuric acid,
you could measure the amount of hydrogen gas released
over time using a gas syringe.

Magnesium + Sulfuric acid → Magnesium sulfate + Hydrogen

Another reaction you could look at is the one between

calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride
+ Water + Carbon dioxide

As carbon dioxide gas is lost from the flask, the mass of the
flask decreases. If you measure the mass every 30 seconds,
you find that the mass decreases quickly at first but, as the
reaction continues, the mass decreases more and more
slowly.

96
Using graphs
Graphs are a great way to visually represent the rate of reaction,
and they help us understand how the reaction progresses over time.
The slope or gradient of the line tells you how quickly the reaction is
taking place: The steeper the slope, the faster the reaction.

The line is steepest at the start of the reaction. As the slope of the
line becomes less steep, the reaction is slowing down.
When the line becomes steady, it shows that no more carbon
dioxide is being lost. This means that the reaction has ended.
How to calculate the rate of a reaction?

The average rate of the reaction

can be calculated.
Average rate= change in mass/ change in
time

97
For example:

Use the graph above to find the average rate of reaction between 10 and 20
seconds then find out the average between 60 and 80 seconds.

Average rate between 10 and 20= change in mass/ change in time= 30-18/
20-10 = 12/10 = 1.2 cm3/s
Average rate between 60 and 80= change in mass/ change in time=
60-54/80-60 = 6/20 = 0.3 cm3/s

Reactions and collisions (Collision theory)

• Everything in the Universe is made up of particles.
• Particles are always moving, even if it is just vibrating in place.

• Reactions take place when particles collide with a certain

amount of energy.

The rate of a reaction depends on two things:

1. The frequency of collisions between
particles
2. The energy with which particles
collide.
If particles don’t collide with enough energy, they will not react. The
particles will just bounce off each other.

98
Why does the rate of reaction change over time?
Using the particle theory to explain.
Many chemical reactions start with fast rate then slowing down till it stops.
Here's why that happens:
1. Initial fast rate: At the beginning of a
reaction, the concentration of reactants
is high, so the frequency of collisions
between particles is also high, leading to
a faster reaction rate.
2. Slowing down: As the reaction proceeds,
the concentrations of reactants
decrease. This means there are fewer
particles to collide with each other,
causing the rate to slow down.
3. Eventually stops: Eventually, the reaction
reaches a point where the
concentrations of the reactants become
very low, and the reaction effectively
stops.

99
 Lesson 2: Rates of reaction factors
Reactivity of Elements

What are the factors affecting the rate of reaction?

There are certain factors that can speed up chemical reactions. They do this
by increasing the number of collisions between particles. They are:

1. Surface Area
2. Temperature

3. Concentration
4. Catalysts

1- Surface area
You are only going to get a reaction if the
particles in the gas or liquid collide with the
particles in the solid.
Increasing the surface area of the solid increases
the chances of collision taking place.

• The smaller the surface area, less collision happen, the slower
the reaction.
• The larger the surface area, more collision happen, the faster
the reaction.

2- Temperature

• The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction.

• When particles get hotter, they have more kinetic energy
and move faster.
• When they move faster they collide more often leads to
faster rate of reaction.
100
• The curve representing the higher
temperature rises more steeply at the
start, indicating that gas is produced
more quickly.
• This suggests that at higher temperatures,
reactant particles have more energy,
leading to more frequent and successful
collisions.

3- Concentration
• The higher the concentration, the more particles means that
there will be more frequent collisions between reactants
particles.
• Leading to faster rate of reaction.

101
 4- Catalyst
• Catalysts are substances that speed up
the rate of a reaction without being
used up in the reaction.
• A catalyst is unchanged by the reaction
and the same catalyst can be used
over and over again.

Example
The manganese oxide is working as a catalyst.
It made the reaction happen faster than if the hydrogen
peroxide was left to break down on its own.

102
Biological catalyst
A substance that speeds up chemical reactions in living organisms
without being consumed in the process. These catalysts are
typically enzymes, which are specialized proteins.
For example,
1- In our digestive system, enzymes help break down food
molecules into simpler forms that our bodies can absorb.
2- All living cells have an enzyme, called catalase, which speeds
up the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxide is formed as a waste product in many
reactions in the cells of plants and animals. It is poisonous and
if it is not broken down into harmless water and oxygen
quickly, it will kill living cells.

103
Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

104
 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Lesson 1: Photosynthesis
Reactivity of Elements
What is photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is a chemical process by which plants create food
(glucose) and oxygen using light energy, water and carbon dioxide.

• ‘Photo’ means ‘light’.

• ‘Synthesis’ means ‘making’.
• So photosynthesis means ‘making with light.

1- Sunlight is absorbed by Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll is a green pigment that is found
in chloroplasts within plant cells
When sunlight hits the plant, chlorophyll
absorbs photons (light energy) from the sun.

2- Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf

from the air.
There are tiny holes in the leaf, which allow
gases to diffuse in and out.
These holes are called stomata.
The gases can easily diffuse through the air
spaces between the cells inside the leaf.

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

3- The pathway of water through

the plant.

a) Root Absorption: Water is

absorbed by root hairs from the
soil.

b) Xylem Transport: Water moves

up the stem to the leaves
through the xylem vessels.

c) Transpiration: Water is lost to the

atmosphere through
evaporation from the stomata.

The structure of the leaf

This image is a cross section of a leaf which shows the important
structures.

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

The function of each part

1- Waxy cuticle: stops leaves from drying.

2- Upper and lower epidermis: protect inside the leaf.

3- Palisade layer: contain cells that have chloroplasts to do

photosynthesis.

4- Vein: Carries water to the cells of the leaf.

5- Spongy layer: has a lot of air spaces to allow gas exchange.

6- Stomata: Tiny holes in the lower epidermis to allow carbon

dioxide to get in.

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Testing the leaf for the starch:

The Iodine test is used to detect the starch

inside leaves where starch turns “Blue”

The area that contains most Chlorophyll and

Chloroplasts will have higher rate of
photosynthesis and make more starch.

In order to make the iodine test on leaves, the leaf must undergo 2

steps:

1- Immerse the leaf in a boiling water to break the cell membrane

and allow the iodine solution to the starch.

2- Then put the leaf in ethanol to make discoloration and remove

the chlorophyll from the leaves to see the color change of the

iodine test

108
Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

109
 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction, which means that light

energy must be absorbed, together with water (H₂O) and carbon

dioxide (CO₂), for the chemical reaction to take place.

Summary

Fertilizers and minerals

For Plants to grow effectively and be able to carry out
Photosynthesis, they require certain “Minerals”, like humans do.
These Minerals are usually found in the Soil, however, sometimes they
are not sufficient or enough for the plants need.
So, to make plants grow better, and producing higher yield, which
means quantity, we add “Fertilizers” which contain these minerals in
sufficient amount for the plants.

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Magnesium is needed to make the green

pigment, chlorophyll. If a plant does not
have enough magnesium, its leaves look
yellow instead of green.
It cannot grow well, because it does not
have much chlorophyll to absorb energy
from sunlight, and so it cannot
photosynthesise as much as it should.

Nitrates are needed so that the plant can

convert carbohydrates to proteins. Proteins
are essential for making new cells, so that
the plant can grow well.
Without enough nitrogen, leaves die and the
plant stays small, like these maize (corn)
plants. Nitrogen is also needed to make
chlorophyll.

How to measure the rate of the photosynthesis?

Since oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis,
one way to measure the rate of photosynthesis
is to measure the amount of oxygen produced
by a plant over time.
• Method: You can use a gas collection
apparatus (e.g., a closed chamber) to
measure the oxygen released from a
plant, typically an aquatic plant like
Elodea, submerged in water. As the plant
photosynthesizes, oxygen bubbles will
form and can be measured to determine
the rate of production.

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Factors affecting Photosynthesis process rate:

Photosynthesis needs “Light”, so greater the
“Light intensity”, the higher the rate of
Photosynthesis will be

Why is photosynthesis important?

1- Energy Source for all organisms: Photosynthesis produces
Carbohydrates e.g Glucose, which is used as energy source for
all organisms.
2- Providing Oxygen: Photosynthesis is the source of Oxygen in the
atmosphere.
3- Controlling Climate Change: As photosynthesis removes
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Lesson 2: The carbon cycle

Reactivity of Elements

What is carbon?
Carbon is a chemical element with the symbol ‘C’
It is a building block of life and is present in a wide variety of
compounds found in living organisms and the Earth's crust.
Carbon is part of the compounds that make up the cell.
A large percentage of the composition of all living organisms is
Carbon
Carbon makes up the three major nutrients: Carbohydrates, Proteins
and Fats.

Key processes in the carbon cycle:

Process Definition Carbon

Movement

Feeding The process by which living Carbon moves

organisms consumes other from on organism
organisms to get carbon to the other
compounds

Decomposition Decomposers get their carbon Carbon moves

when they break down waste from on organism
products from plants and to the other
animals. Releases

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Photosynthesis The process by which take plants Removes Carbon

take carbon dioxide from the dioxide from the
atmosphere to make carbon atmosphere
compounds nutrients

Respiration The Process by all living Carbon Dioxide

organisms break down nutrients to the
using oxygen. atmosphere

Fossilisation The Process by which un Carbon is not

decomposed organic matter is taken or released,
transformed to Fossil fuels after it transforms into
long time under high another form
temperature and pressure.

Combustion The process by which Fossil Fuels Releases Carbon

are burned Causing carbon in Dioxide to the
the fuel to combine with oxygen atmosphere
in the Air forming Carbon dioxide

Carbon cycle diagram

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Fossil fuels formation and combustion

Fossil fuel formation
• When organisms die, they are decomposed by decomposers
which releases Carbon dioxide.
• Sometimes, Decomposers are unable to breakdown the
organic material, especially when they are unable to respire
(such as deep oceans).
• For dead organisms that are not decomposed, they will be
buried gradually over time
• As time passes, they wil be buried deeper and deeper.
• The deeper they are buried, the more pressure and heat they
are exposed to.
• The pressure and heat transforms organic matter over a long
period into Fossil Fuels like Coal, Oil and Natural gas.

Combustion
• Fossil Fuels still contain the carbon that was present in the
organic matter.
• When these fossil fuels are burned the carbon reacts with the
oxygen in the Air, releasing Carbon Dioxide to the atmosphere.
• This process is called Combustion

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Lesson 3: The climate change

Reactivity of Elements
What is climate?
Climate is the long-term average of weather conditions
(temperature, precipitation, humidity, etc.) in a specific region over
a period of 30+ years.
The Earth’s climate has been very different in the past compared to
the climate today.

Green house effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s
surface. It occurs when the Earth’s atmosphere traps some of the
Sun's energy. This is crucial for maintaining temperatures that allow
life to thrive. Gases that are responsible for the green house effect
are carbo dioxide, methane and water vapour.

Global warming
● Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation, and industrial processes, have increased the
concentration of greenhouse gases specially carbon dioxide
gas in the atmosphere.
● This will lead to global warming and climate change, causing
shifts in weather patterns, rising sea levels, and other
environmental challenges.
The impact of climate change
1. Rising Temperatures: Increased global temperatures due to
higher carbon dioxide levels.

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

2. Extreme Weather Events: More frequent and severe storms,

such as hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones, as higher
temperatures provide more energy for extreme weather.
3. Rising Sea Levels: Melting polar ice caps and glaciers
contribute to higher sea levels, threatening coastal
communities and ecosystems.
4. More Intense Droughts and Floods: Climate change causes
irregular rainfall patterns, leading to both severe droughts in
some regions and heavy rainfall or flooding in others.
5. Loss of Biodiversity: Shifting climates disrupt ecosystems, putting
species at risk of extinction, especially those unable to adapt
quickly to changes.
Climate change today and in the future

• The climate has been relatively stable for the past 2000 years,
allowing people to adapt to predictable weather patterns for
agriculture.
• However, recent increases in carbon dioxide levels are causing
Earth's average temperatures to rise, as carbon dioxide traps
heat in the atmosphere. The graph shows how the Earth's
temperature has changed from 1880 to 2016, with differences
relative to the 1880 temperature.

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

Examples of climate change in the past

1. Ice ages
2. Snowball Earth
3. Asteroids colliding with each other
4. Asteroids colliding with Earth
1- Ice ages
About 2 billion years ago, Earth began experiencing ice ages, with
cycles of warm and cold periods.
During ice ages, ice covered the poles, and in warmer periods, there
was no ice.
These climate changes are influenced by factors like Earth's orbit
and greenhouse gases.

2- Snowball Earth
Around 650 million years ago, Earth may have been completely or
partially frozen in a "Snowball Earth" event. Huge frozen rivers of ice
called glaciers carved out of the landscape.
The exact cause is unclear, and the continents were in different
positions than today.

3- Asteroids colliding with each other

About 470 million years ago, a collision between two asteroids
produced dust that blocked sunlight, triggering an ice age. This
caused Earth to cool, with ice caps expanding and sea levels
dropping.

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 Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

4- Asteroids colliding Earth

About 67 million years ago, an asteroid collided with Earth off the
coast of Mexico, causing massive devastation.
The impact created shock waves, high temperatures, and threw
rock and dust into the air.
The dust blocked sunlight, reducing photosynthesis and disrupting
food chains.
The resulting climate changes, including cooling temperatures,
contributed to the extinction of dinosaurs and many other species.

What is Asteroid? n the asteroid belt between Mars and is

a small rocky body that orbits the Sun, primarily found in the asteroid
belt between Mars and Jupiter.
Asteroids are much smaller than planets, lack atmospheres, and are
often irregular in shape, while planets are larger, spherical bodies
that have cleared their orbits of debris
Could other objects collide with Earth?
Meteoroid: A small object in space (before atmospheric entry).
Meteor: The streak of light seen when the meteoroid burns up in
Earth's atmosphere.
Meteorite: A piece of the meteoroid that hits on Earth.
When assessing the possible risk of the collision to Earth, scientists
look at:
a) the mass or diameter of the asteroid
b) the closest possible approach to Earth.

119
 Maintaining life

Maintaining life

120
 Maintaining life

Lesson 1: Plants and water

Reactivity of Elements
Plants, like all living things, are made mostly of water.
The path of water through the plant:
1- Absorption
2- Transportation
3- Transpiration

1- Absorption
How plants absorb water?
Plants absorb water from the soil using their
roots. There are special cells called root hairs
grow out of the surface of roots. Root hair cells
provide a really big surface which allow more
water and mineral ions be absorbed into the
plant.
Water moves into the root hair cell from
the soil. It passes through the cell wall
and the cell membrane of the cell,
and into the cytoplasm. Then, It goes
into the xylem vessels in the centre of
the root.

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 Maintaining life

Minerals, including magnesium and nitrate, also move into

the root hair cell, along with the water. Magnesium and
nitrate are in the form of ions that are dissolved in the water
between the soil particles.

2-Transportation:
How water moves up the plant?
Water is transported from the roots to rest of the plant
through the xylem vessel which forms tubes that run
through the whole plant.

What is special about the xylem vessels?

• Ther are long, hollow tube-like cells.
• They are dead cells (no cytoplasm or
nucleus).
• There are no end walls between the
cells.
• They have only thick cell walls to
prevent water from going outside.
The wood in a tree trunk is made up of xylem vessels. They
carry water from the roots all the way to the top of the tree.

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 Maintaining life

Now we will think about what happens to the water when it

reaches the leaves.
3-Transpiration
What is transpiration?
The loss of water vapour from the stomata on the underside
of the leaves.

When Water reaches the leaves

through the xylem, the water will leave
the xylem vessel and be taken by the
cells inside the leaf.

Some of the water is taken up by the

cells that contain chloroplasts to be
used for photosynthesis. However,
most of the water is actually lost by
evaporation.

The water passes through the cells and

reaches the air spaces where it
changes into Vapour. The vapor
escapes from the leaf through the
openings on the bottom (stomata).

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 Maintaining life

Which surface loses most water?

The Lower surface of the leaf loses most of the water. This is
because most of the Stomata are located on the lower side
of the leaf.

Why do plants need water?

1. Photosynthesis
2. Cooling
3. Support
4. Transport
Photosynthesis
The water is one of the reactants for photosynthesis that
produces the required nutrients for the plants.

Cooling
when water evaporates from the cell wall of a cell in a leaf,
it cools the cell. When water evaporates, it takes heat away
with it. This is important for plants that live in very hot places.

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 Maintaining life

Support
Water helps the plant to stand upright. A plant cell that has
plenty of water is strong, firm and well supported.

When a plant cell doesn’t contain enough water, the plant

collapses. We say that it has wilted.

Lesson 2: Excretion in humans

Reactivity of Elements

What is excretion?
It is getting rid of waste products either;
• Wastes the organisms make in their cells.
• any excess substances the body does not need.
Wastes includes
1. Carbon dioxide, which body cells make in respiration.
2. Excess water that is not needed by the body.
3. Urea, a waste substance that is made in liver cells.

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 Maintaining life

What is urea?
Urea is a waste product formed in the liver
when the body breaks down excess
proteins.
Urea is a poisonous substance. If it builds up
in the body, it makes a person ill.
It is then transported through the
bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is
excreted in urine. Urea is also used in
fertilizers and some industrial processes.

The urea is removed from the blood by the kidneys in the Excretory
system. This system is also known as the Renal system

What is the excretory system?

The human excretory system is a group of organs which are
specialised for the removal of certain excretory products.
They include the lungs and kidneys. The liver also has a vital
role in excretion.

Lungs excretes carbon dioxide during exhalation.

Kidneys excretes excess water, salts and urea.

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 Maintaining life

Kidneys: Filter the blood from urea and removes the excess
water forming a solution is called urine.
Urine is the solution made of urea dissolved in water.
The urine made in each kidney flows down a tube called a
ureter. This carries it to the bladder.
Bladder: stores the urine for a while.
The urine can flow out of the bladder to the outside world
through another tube, called the urethra.

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 Maintaining life

Lesson 3: Keeping a fetus healthy

What is fetus? Reactivity of Elements
A fetus is a baby before it is born. pregnant mother
hopes that her baby will be healthy when it is born.
The fetus relies on its mother to supply it with everything
that it needs, and to remove the substances it needs to
excrete. If the pregnant mother makes sure that she
stays healthy, this helps the fetus to stay healthy, too.

Balanced Diet for fetal development:

A good diet during pregnancy has a big
effect on fetal health. This means that the
pregnant woman should eat some of all the
different nutrients that are needed to stay
healthy.
She needs to eat a little bit more than usual,
because some of the nutrients that she eats
are passed to the growing fetus.

Nutrients needed for the fetal health:

Protein
It is needed to help the fetus to produce new cells
and grow.
The mother also needs protein for herself, to keep
her muscles strong and working well and also
needs extra protein to make extra haemoglobin
to transport oxygen for herself and the fetus.

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 Maintaining life

Carbohydrates
The pregnant woman has to eat more
carbohydrates to make sure she and her fetus have
enough energy.

But she shouldn’t eat too much or the extra will be

changed to fats and increase her weight.

Vitamins and minerals

They are very important.
Iron is needed to make haemoglobin, so the mother needs to eat
plenty of foods containing iron or takes iron pills.
Calcium is essential for helping the baby to grow strong bones, and
to keep the mother’s bones and teeth in good health.

Things to be avoided during pregnancy:

1- Drugs:
Some drugs are good for our health as the antibiotics that kill the
bacteria in our bodies. But others aren’t good if we take them when
we don’t need them.
Most drugs that a pregnant woman takes will go into her fetus’s
blood.
2- Smoking:
When a pregnant woman smokes, some harmful substances that
enter her blood my also reach the fetus blood like: Carbon
Monoxide and Nicotine
Carbon monoxide reduces the amount of oxygen that hemoglobin
transports, so the fetus receives less oxygen and this affects its

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 Maintaining life

development. Babies born to mothers who smoked during

pregnancy tend to be smaller than babies born to non-smoking
mothers.
Nicotine damages the blood vessels and it’s also not good for
developing the fetus.

Recommendations
1- If the pregnant woman takes a prescribed drug for her own
health , she should check with her doctor to see if its is safe for her
to continue taking it or no
2- She should also check if drugs, as aspirin, or any other pain killer is
safe for her and her fetus or no.
3- She should stop smoking or avoid smoking areas.
4- She should avoid alcohol
5- Some doctors recommend that pregnant women should not drink
a lot of coffee or soda

130
 Genes and inheritance

Genes and inheritance

131
 Genes and inheritance

Lesson 1: Chromosomes, genes and DNA

Reactivity of Elements

What is inheritance?
Inheritance is the transmission of genetic
information from parents to offspring.
Where is the genetic material?
Inside the nucleus of each cell there is threads called
chromosomes. Chromosomes is made of a chemical called
DNA.
Each human body cell contains 46 chromosome (23 pairs).
The pairs carry the same types of genes.

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 Genes and inheritance

DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the
molecule that contains the instructions for
growth and development of all organisms.
DNA is made up of two strands forming
a double helixa has a shape like a twisted
ladder. DNA is contained in structures
called chromosomes.
It Is composed of segments called genes.

Genes Genes
Genes are segments of DNA. Each gene
contains information about certain trait like
our eye color, hair color, and height.
The genes are arranged in a particular
sequence along the chromosome.
Each gene helps to control a particular
characteristic in the organism.
For example, we know that two genes on chromosome 15 help to
determine eye colour. Everyone has genes for eye colour in the
same place on their chromosome 15s. But there are different versions
of these genes, so one person could have a chromosome 15 with
eye colour genes that give them blue eyes, and another could have
a chromosome 15 with eye colour genes that give them brown eyes.

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 Genes and inheritance

Lesson 2: Gametes
Reactivity of Elements
What are gametes?
Gametes are the specialized cells that are involved in
reproduction and responsible for passing the genes from
parents to offspring.
In humans and many other species, there are two types of
gametes:
1. Sperm cells – Male gametes.
2. Egg cells (ova) – Female gametes.
Sperm cells
1. They are very small cells.
2. They are very active, using
their tails to swim vigorously.

Egg cells
1. Egg cells are much bigger than
sperm cells, but they are still very
small. A human egg cell is about
the same size as a full stop.
2. They need to be larger than sperm
cells because they contain food
reserves.
3. Another difference from sperm cells is that egg cells
cannot move by themselves.

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 Genes and inheritance

Both sperm cells and egg cells have nucleus with 23

chromosomes.
What happens when the nucleus of the sperm cell fuses with
the nucleus of the egg cell?
The fusion of the egg cell (23 chromosomes) with the sperm
cell (23 chromosomes) will form a zygote with 46
chromosomes.
This process is called Fertilization.

All humans began their life as a single cell like this. Over the
days, and weeks, this single cell divides over and over
again, eventually producing all of the millions of cells in a
human body.

135
 Genes and inheritance

Sex inheritance
In order to understand how determination of gender (sex)
happens, we need to know the following:
1- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of 23
chromosomes, only one pair is called sex chromosome,
which takes part in the process of sex determination.
2- Male XY chromosome.
3- Female XX chromosome.
4- All egg cells have X chromosome but some of sperm
cells have X chromosome and some have Y
chromosome. Thus, the sex of the children is
determined by the type of chromosome inherited from
their father.

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 Genes and inheritance

Lesson 3: Variation
What is variation?Reactivity of Elements
The differences between individuals belonging to the same
species are called variation.
But individual organisms that belong
to the same species also have
differences between them. You and
all of the other people in your class all
belong to the same species. But you
are all very different from one
another.
For example: Humans have different
eye color, blood types, etc.

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 Genes and inheritance

What causes variation?

1- Genetics
2- Environmental factors
Or both of them together
Genetic variation:
Different individuals among the same species can have
different versions of the genes that control a specific
characteristic.
You got half of your chromosomes (23 chromosome) from
your mother and the other half (23 chromosome) from the
father.
Why do siblings show variation however they have the same
parents?
Different sperm cells and different egg cells probably
contain different versions of these genes. Different
combinations of the parents gametes can also cause a lot
of variations.
Environmental variation
DNA is not the only cause of variation between individuals.
An organism’s environment also affects it.
● For example, a person’s height is determined by their
● genes, yet if the same person did not have enough
nutrition throughout their life, they won’t be able to
grow properly.

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 Genes and inheritance

Lesson 4: Natural selection

Reactivity of Elements

Individuals in a species show a range of variation caused by

differences in genes. When organisms reproduce,
they produce more ffspring than the environment is able to
support.
In any environment, the individuals
that have the best adaptive features
(Advantageous feature) are the ones
most likely to survive and reproduce.
Those features will be passed to their
offspring leading to increase in the
number of population.
This is called natural selection
This means that in the next generation, there will be
a greater number of individuals with the better adapted
variations in characteristics
This theory of natural selection was put forward by Charles
Darwin and became known as ‘survival of the fittest’

139
 Genes and inheritance

Examples
Snails

1- Within the population of snails there is variation in shell colour either

black or grey. Chance mutations lead to a small number of snails /
one snail having a white shell
2- The white shelled snail(s) survive longer is because they are better
camouflaged. This means that they are less likely to be seen by
predators and eaten. This feature become advantageous feature.
3- As they survive longer they get more opportunities to reproduce
4- And so, the gene for white shells is passed onto offspring more
frequently than the genes for black or grey shells
5- Over generations, this is repeated until the majority of snails in the
population have white shells. The snails with disadvantageous
features will decrease in number and eventually go extinct.

140
 Genes and inheritance

Peppered moth

Another example of natural selection is bacteria and

antibiotics:
Antibiotics are medicinal drugs that we can take to cure
diseases caused by bacteria. But doctors are finding that
some antibiotics do not work anymore. Bacteria have
become resistant to them

141
 Physics

Forces and energy

142
 Lesson 1: Density
• Density
is defined as The mass per unit volume of a material. It tells us
how tightly matter is packed together.
• Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
• Volume is the space occupied by an object (how much space it takes).

• Density is the amount of matter in a particular volume.

om = mass, measured in kilograms (g or kg) o

V = volume, measured in (cm3 or m 3)

The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and
volume:
• If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density
will be in g/cm3.
• If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density
will be in kg/m3.

143
 • Objects made from low density materials typically have a low
mass
• Similarly sized objects made from high density materials have a
high mass.
o For example, a bag full of feathers is far lighter compared to
the same bag full of metal
o Or another example, a balloon is less dense than a small
bar of lead despite occupying a larger volume
• Gases, for example, are generally less dense than solids because
the particles in a gas are more spread out (same mass, over a
larger volume)

Comparing the density of solids and gases

A gas is less dense than the same substance in liquid or solid form

144
 Determining volume to calculate density
• The volume of an object may not always be given directly,
but can be calculated with the appropriate equation
depending on the object’s shape.
How to calculate the volume of a Regular solid?
 Regular Solids are like Cubes and Cuboids
 We calculate the volume of a regular solid using the
following formula

Example:
This cube has the following dimensions
s length = 20 cm
Width = 8 cm
Height = 16 cm

3
Volume = 20 x 8 x 16 = 2560 cm

How to calculate the volume of irregular solid?

 Irregular Solids are the solids that do not have equal sized sides
which makes it very difficult to calculate their volumes e.g. stones
 To measure the volume of an irregular shape, we use the water
displacement methods

When an object is immersed in water, the level of the water will

rise by a volume equal to the volume of the object

145
In this example:
● The intial volume of water = 20 mL
● The volume of water after placing stone
= 40 mL
● So, the volume of water was raised by
20
● This means that the volume of the stone
placed will be 20 mL

Floating and Sinking

• When some thing has a less density than water, it will float
• When something has a density more than water, it will sink
Things that are designed to float should have a lower density than water

• Although Ships are made of steel, they mostly hollow from

inside, which makes their mass significantly lower and they
also have a very large volume
• Since Density is (Mass÷Volume), then
(Small Mass ÷ Large volume ) = Low Density

Why some Solids have lower densities than some Liquids?

• Although Solids have tightly packed particles that only
vibrate, sometimes the arrangement of the particles in solids
have spaces between them
• That is why some liquids that have closer particles will be
denser than other solids which have more spaces between
their particles (e.g. Ice)

146
Liquids of Different Densities

• The same happens for liquids together.

• When Liquids of Different densities are mixed together. The liquid
with the less density will float above the other
liquid.
• Example:
• Oil is less dense than Water
• Oil floats on Water

Gases of Different Densities

• Gases have lower densities than solids or liquids, but not all gases
have the same density.
• Helium is one of the least dense gases.
• A balloon filled with helium will float in air
because the balloon and gas is less dense than

• When gases are compressed, the particles come

closer together and the particles occupy a

smaller volume so the density increases.

• When gases expand, particle move further a

apart and occupy a larger volume, so the
density decreases.

• When gases are heated, they expand so it

makes the density decrease.
the air.

147
 Lesson 2 Heat and temperature
• This can be illustrated using a beaker of boiling water and
a pipette:
Diagram to demonstrate the difference between heat and temperature

The effects of boiling water can be quite different depending on the

quantity of water involved!

• You would get a very nasty burn if a whole beaker of boiling

water spilled onto to your hand, but a drop of boiling water
would cause little problem

• The water is at the same temperature in the pipette as in the

beaker, but the beaker has a much higher heat content

• We say that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic

energy of the particles whereas heat is a measure of the
energy content of a substance

• The particles have kinetic energy because they are moving

• The faster they move the more energy they have and the
higher the temperature of the substance.

148
What is the difference between heat and temperature?

Temperature
Is a measure of how hot or cold the substance is.
(the average energy of the particles in an object)
• Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius.
• The temperature determines the direction of the thermal
energy that will be transferred.
• Within a given substance, a temperature increase means
that the particles are moving at a great speed.

Heat

It is the total thermal energy of the particles in an object.

• Thermal energy is measured in joules.
• Thermal energy can be stored and transferred.
• Thermal energy stored will eventually dissipate into the
surroundings.
• Thermal energy is due to the movement of particles (kinetic
energy).

Examples

• Both have same volume

• One has higher temperature than the other.
• The number of particles in both glasses of
water is the same, but the total thermal
energy (heat) of the particles in the water
with the higher temperature is higher.
25̊c 90̊c

149
• Both have the same Temperature
• The first has more volume than the second
one.
• More volume means there are more
particles. So, the first one has more heat
energy than the second one.

A cup of hot tea has a higher temperature and less heat

than a a swimming pool has a low temperature and much
heat.

Heat Temperature

Measure the total kinetic Measure of how hot or

energy of a substance cold something is

Depends on the amount Does not de[end on

of substance the amount

Measured in joules (J) Measured in °C,

150
 Lesson 3: Conservation of energy

What is the conservation of energy?

The law of conservation of energy states

Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed from one form
that
to another.

This means the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant.
The output energy can never be greater or smaller than the total energy
input in any type of system. This is because energy cannot be created or
destroyed.

The input energy = The output energy

When we say that energy is conserved, we mean that the total quantity of
energy stays the same. This happens when energy is stored, changed,
transferred or even dissipated
Examples
1- Energy diagram of electric lamp
The energy diagram shows that every time 100 J of electrical energy is
supplied to the lamp, 10 J of this is changed to light energy and 90 J is
changed to thermal energy.

• Input energy: Electrical energy

• Useful output: Light energy
• Wasted output: Heat energy

2- Energy diagram of a car

engine
In the energy diagram for a car
engine, the energy input and
outputs are shown as percentages.

Notice that the energy input is 100% and the total energy
output adds up to 100%. Once again, energy is conserved.

151
 Lesson 4: Ways of heat transferring

Thermal Energy Transfer

Thermal energy always moves from hotter places to colder places.

Thermal energy moves from the drink, through the container

and into your hands.

More examples:

1- When you put food into a refrigerator, thermal energy transfers

out of the food, and the food becomes colder.
2- There is water inside a car engine to remove thermal energy
from the metal engine parts. This stops the engine overheating.
3- When you hold the ice, thermal energy transfers away from
your hand and into the ice. You feel cold because thermal
energy has been transferred away from your hands.

Note:

Dissipation means that the energy spreads

to the surrounding.
• When thermal energy leaves an object, we say that the
thermal energy has dissipated.
• The rate of thermal energy transfer increases when the
temperature difference between the hot place and the cold
place increases.

152
• Remember that energy is always conserved, so the thermal
energy has not disappeared or been destroyed, it has just
dissipated (spread out) and moved to a colder place.

What happens to particles when they are heated?

 In solids, the particles vibration gets faster when the solid is

heated. As the particles vibrate. That means solids expand when
heated. Expand means to increase in size.

 In liquids, the particles move around faster. The particles take up

more space. That means the liquid expands when heated.

 In gases, the particles move faster and collide with more force
and more frequently. Gases also expand when heated.

How is Heat Transferred?

There are THREE ways heat can move.
1. Conduction

2. Convection

3. Radiation

153
 1. Conduction
Conduction is heat transfer through solids.
Examples:

 Your feet transfer (conduct) heat to a cold tile floor

 A spoon placed in hot soup becomes warmer as the spoon
conducts heat away from the hot soup.

How does thermal energy transfer by conduction?

When the substance is heated, particles gain energy, vibrate faster
and bump into the neighboring particles and passed from the ot end
to the cold end.

So,

 Conduction does not work well in liquids because the particles

move around more when heated, rather than just vibrating.
 Conduction also does not work well in gases because the particles
are far apart and the collisions are not very frequent.
 Conduction cannot happen in a vacuum as there are no particles
to vibrate in a vacuum.

154
2. Convection
Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids
and gases
o Convection only occurs in fluids
o Convection cannot happen in solids

• Heat is transferred by currents within the

fluid or gas.
• Convection moves in a circular pattern.

Density & convection

• Descriptions of convection currents always need to refer to
changes in temperature causing changes in density
• The temperature may fall or rise, both can create a
convection current

How does convection happen?

• When a gas or liquid that is heated at the bottom.
• The particles at the bottom will start to move faster and take up
more space.
• This part of the liquid or gas will become less dense and start to
float up through the colder, more dense parts.
This upward movement of warmer liquid or gas is called convection

155
 Convection can happen in liquids and gases because the particles
are free to move.

 Convection cannot happen in a solid because the particles are not

free to move. The particles in a solid can only vibrate about fixed
positions.

 Convection cannot happen in a vacuum as there are no particles to

move

• Sea breeze (day): Land heats faster →

air above land becomes warmer and
less dense → it rises. Cooler, denser air
from the sea moves in to replace it.
• Land breeze (night): Land cools faster
→ air above land becomes cooler and
denser → it sinks. Warmer, less dense
air above the sea rises, and air from
the land moves in to replace it

3-Radiation

All objects emit (give off) thermal radiation depending on their

temperature. The hotter an object is, the more thermal radiation

it emits

Thermal radiation is the only way in which heat can travel through a
vacuum.

o It is the way in which heat reaches us from the Sun

through the vacuum of space

o Thermal radiation does not need a medium to travel,

unlike convection and conduction

156
 What two factors affect the rate of thermal energy transfer?

• The amount of thermal radiation emitted by an object depends on a

number of factors:
o The surface colour of the object (black = more radiation emitted
and absorbed)
o The texture of the surface (shiny surfaces = less radiation emitted
and absorbed)

White (light colored), shiny objects are Good reflectors, bad absorbent
and bad emitters.
Dark, dull objects are good absorbent, bad reflector and good emitters.

• Black objects are very good at absorbing thermal radiation, for

example black clothes make you feel hotter in sunny weather.
• Black objects are also very good at emitting thermal radiation,
which is the reason that some chargers for laptops, and radiators in
cars are colored black - it helps them to cool down.
• Shiny objects reflect thermal radiation and so absorb very little.
They also emit very little, though, and so take longer to cool down

Application:
Most objects gain or lose thermal energy by a combination of
conduction, convection and radiation.

1- Car windows are covered with silver material to reflect radiation from
the Sun. This helps to stop the car becoming too hot inside when parked in
sunlight.

157
 2- Double glazed windows reduce thermal energy transfer into or out of
buildings. There are two layers of glass separated by a thin
layer of argon gas. Argon is a poor conductor of heat

3- Vacuum flasks are containers used to store hot liquids such as

tea, coffee or soup.

a) Vacuum: Prevents conduction and

convection (no particles to transfer
heat).
b) Silver coating: Reflects heat radiation
back, reducing radiation loss.
c) Glass walls: Poor conductor, so little
heat lost by conduction.
d) Plastic stopper: Insulator that prevents
heat escaping through the lid

If a material is a good absorbent so, it is a good emitter.

If a material is a good reflector so, it is a bad emitter.

158
 Lesson 5 Cooling by evaporation

Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to gas.

The particles in the water that are moving faster have more
energy. Some of these particles have enough energy to escape
from the surface of the liquid and become particles of a gas.

How does evaporation help in cooling?

When the particles with the highest energy escape from the
water, this will lower the average energy of the particles that
remain, making the temperature decrease.

Examples:

Sweating: The human body cools itself by secreting

sweat, which evaporates from the skin, carrying heat
away and thus reducing body temperature.

159
Evaporative Cooling Systems: Devices like swamp coolers or
evaporative air conditioners use evaporation to cool the air in
homes or industrial settings, especially in dry climates.
Cooling Towers: In power plants, cooling towers use
evaporation to release excess heat from the water used in
cooling systems.
Cooling after the swimming pool:

• When the water on your skin evaporates, the

particles with the highest energy escape
causing the water to cool.
• The thermal energy is transferred from the skin
to the surrounding. Therefore, the energy
provided to change the state of the water from
liquid to gas comes from your skin.
• As your skin loses thermal energy, this causes
cooling

Evaporation and cooling can also occur with other liquids,

and the rate of evaporation—and thus the cooling effect—
depends on the strength of the intermolecular forces between
the molecules of the liquid.

Evaporation and Cooling of Different Liquids

• Weaker Forces: Liquids with weaker intermolecular forces, like
perfume or acetone, have molecules that can easily break free
from the liquid state.
• This allows them to evaporate quickly, which causes faster cooling.
Perfume, for instance, is designed to evaporate quickly, releasing
its fragrance into the air, and it can make the skin feel colder
because it pulls heat from the skin during evaporation.
• Stronger Forces: Liquids with stronger forces, like soap, tend to
evaporate more slowly. This means the cooling effect will be less
immediate because fewer molecules are escaping at a given
time.

160
 Sound and space

Sound and space

161
 Sound and space

Lesson 1: Loudness and pitch of the sound

Reactivity of Elements
Sounds are caused by vibrations.
Sounds can vary in loudness and pitch.
Oscilloscope
A piece of equipment displays waveforms of sound waves.
An oscilloscope uses a microphone to detect the sound and then
produces a waveform of the sound on a screen.

The movement of particles in air is difficult to draw in a sound wave,

but is easier to draw in a graph. The graph shows the distance that the
particles move forward and backward with time.
The shape of this graph is called a waveform.

Loudness and amplitude

The loudness of a sound is a way to describe how quiet or loud a sound
appears.
Loudness depends on two variables:
1. how much the object is vibrating.
2. how far away the vibrating object is.

162
 Sound and space

What is Amplitude?
The maximum displacement of particles in a
medium (like air) as the sound wave travels
through it
Peak is the highest point of the graph. Trough
is the lowest point in the graph.
Trough

The amplitude of a sound wave is related to its

volume; Sounds with a large amplitude have a loud
sound. Sounds with a small amplitude have a quiet
sound.

Pitch and frequency

The pitch of a sound is how high or low the sound is.
The pitch of the sound changes because the speed of the
vibrations change. The faster the vibrations, the higher the pitch
of the sound.
The speed of vibrations is measured by the number of vibrations
per second which is called frequency.

163
 Sound and space

What is frequency?
It is the number of vibrations in each
second. Frequency is measured in a
unit called hertz or Hz.
As the frequency of a sound wave
increases, the pitch of the sound also
increases.

Sounds with a high pitch have a high frequency (or short

wavelength). Sounds with a low pitch have a low frequency (or
long wavelength).

164
 Sound and space

Lesson 2: Interference of sound

What is interference? Reactivity of Elements

The effect that is produced when the sound waves meet each
other is called interference.
Interference can only happen when the waves are of the same
type. Sound waves can interfere with each other. Sound waves
cannot interfere with water waves.
Interference is easiest to detect when the waves have the same
frequency and the same amplitude.
Interference can produce two effects:
1. The waves can reinforce (Constructive)
2. The waves can cancel each other (Destructive)

1- Waves that reinforce

Waves will reinforce, when they meet with the peaks together and
with the troughs together.

• The amplitudes of the wave

produced increase.

The frequency does not change.

165
 Sound and space

2- Waves that cancel each other

Waves will cancel when they meet with the peaks and troughs
together.
The word cancel in the context of waves means adding together to
make zero.

You will see that the amplitudes of the two waves that interfere are
added together to become zero, the result is no sound.
For two sound waves to cancel completely, their frequencies must
be the same and their amplitudes must be the same.

Headphones work by making sound waves cancel. This is shown in

the diagram.

166
 Sound and space

Lesson 3: Formation of the moon

Reactivity of Elements
Scientists thought that the Moon was formed by splitting away from the
Earth.
Calculations showed that, if this theory was correct, the Moon would still
be slowly moving away from Earth.
Accurate measurements made more recently have shown that the Moon
is still moving away from Earth – at a rate of about 4 cm each year.
In 1974, it was suggested that the Moon was formed in a different way.
This is called the collision theory.

What is collision theory?

The collision theory explains how the Moon was formed.
The collision theory happened relatively soon after the formation of the
Solar System.

1- A newly formed planet, about the same size as Mars, collided

with the newly formed Earth after the formation of solar system.
Scientists have called the colliding planet Theia.
2- Rocks and dust break away forming a disc of rocks and dust.
3- The rocks and dust was pulled together by gravity forming the
moon.

167
 Sound and space

Evidence that supports the collision theory:

1- The Moon is less dense than the Earth.
2- Samples of rock from the Moon show that its surface was
once molten.
3- The Moon has a small iron core, similar to the Earth.
4- There is evidence outside the Solar System of similar collisions
causing rings of rock and dust.
5- The collision theory fits with the theory of how the Solar
System was formed.
6- The composition of rocks on the Earth and the Moon are the
same.

Evidence that contradicts the collision theory:

1- The surface of the Earth does not appear to be ever have

been molten. And the collision that formed the Moon would
have caused the surface of the Earth to melt.
2- Venus has no moon. Collisions in the early years of the Solar
System would have been common and scientists would
have expected Venus to have a moon formed in the same
way.
3- The composition of rocks on the Moon would be expected
to be more similar to rocks on Theia than rocks on Earth. In
fact, the composition of the Moon is more similar to Earth.

168
 Sound and space

Nebulae:
Nebulae are clouds of dust and gas in space.
The gases found in nebulae are mostly Hydrogen and a smaller
quantity of helium.
Most nebulae are very large. Some are more than 10 000 times
bigger than the Solar System.

How was it formed?

Some nebulae form when giant stars reach the end of their life.
These giant stars then explode, sending dust and gas over a wide
area of space.
There are many nebulae visible from Earth:

1. In the northern hemisphere, one of the easiest nebulae to see

is the Orion nebula.
2. In the southern hemisphere, the easiest nebula to see is the
Tarantula nebula and carina nebulae.

How can we see a nebulae?

1- It reflects the light from nearby stars.
2- Light is blocked by it
3- Nebular atoms emit the energy gained by radiation in the form of
a colored light.

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 Sound and space

Stellar nurseries
A stellar nursery is an area in space where young stars
are formed.
Some types of nebulae act as stellar nurseries

How stars are formed in stellar nurseries? (Nebular hypothesis)

1. The dust and gas are pulled together by gravity.
2. When the mass of dust and gas collects together and
becomes larger, the gravity increases.
3. Pressure and heat increase inside the new star.
4. Hydrogen nuclei fuse together in nuclear reaction.
5. Huge amount of energy is produced as infrared radiation.
6. Forming stellar nurseries in which new stars are formed.

170
 Sound and space

Lesson 4:ofTectonics
Reactivity Elements

What are tectonics?

Tectonic plates are large, rigid pieces of the Earth's lithosphere (the
outermost layer of the Earth) that fit together like a jigsaw puzzle to
cover the surface of the Earth.
These plates are constantly moving slowly, over the mantle.

171
 Sound and space

How does mantle cause the tectonic plates to move?/ what causes
continental drift?
By convection current
1. The inner part of the mantle gets thermal energy from the
core.
2. The hotter, less dense fluid in the mantle rises towards the
crust, cools and sinks again, resulting in a convection current.
3. When the hot magma flow from the ridges of the plates, the
magma becomes solid over time and form rocks. This causes
the plates to move very slowly as the newly formed rocks take
more and more space.

Just as the convection currents are slow, the movement of the

tectonic plates are also slow, varying between 0.6 and 10 cm per
year.

Evidence for tectonic plates:

1- The continents could fit together like pieces of a giant jigsaw
puzzle. Scientists have done this with the continents on Earth. The
continental coasts can fit together.
Scientists have done this with the continents on Earth. The continental
coasts can fi t together as shown in the diagram.

172
 Sound and space

2-The fossil record provides more evidence for

tectonic plates and their movement. Fossils are
the remains of dead animals and plants that
have turned to stone over millions of years
For example: Fossils of an extinct reptile called Mesosaurus have
been found in the parts of Africa and South America that would fit
together in the jigsaw model of the continents.
3-Earthquakes and Volcanoes at Plate Boundaries:
Tectonic plate boundaries are areas where more earthquakes and
volcanoes occur, confirming the hypothesis of moving plate.

4-The alignment of magnetic materials in rocks varies with the age of

the rock.
• The old magnetic crystals in the mid-oceanic ridges always
have an alignment to north
• When the volcano erupts at the boundary, old rocks are pushed
away.
• New magnetic metals solidify forming new rocks with new
opposite alignment to south.

This reversal is useful in estimating the age of the rocks, the further
the rocks from the ridge, the older they are.

173
 Electricity

Electricity

174
 Electricity

Review
Reactivity of Elements

Current is the flow of electrons in a circuit.

Circuit symbols

Rules of drawing electric circuits

1. Use standard symbols.
2. Draw neatly with a ruler – straight horizontal and
vertical lines.
3. Wires are not drawn through the component.
4. Make sure there are no gaps.

Electrical conductors:
Materials that allow the electrons to flow through.
Example: Metals like copper are good conductors because
they have free electrons to move.
Electrical insulators:
Materials that do not allow electrons to flow through.

175
 Electricity

Lesson 1: Series and parallel circuits

Reactivity of Elements

Electricity is a form of energy caused by the flow of tiny particles

are called electrons. Electrons have negative charge

When electrons flow from one place to

the other, they carry energy with them
which can be then converted into other
forms of energy like light, heat etc.

There are two types of electrical circuits:

1- Series circuit
2- Parallel circuit

Series circuit
• Series means all the components are
connected end-to-end (one loop).
• There is only one way for the current to flow.
• If the switch in this circuit is opened, both the
lamp and the buzzer will stop operating
because the current is the same across the
circuit.

Parallel circuit
• In a parallel circuit, there is more than one path/
branches for the current to flow.
• The electrons have more than way to go.

176
 Electricity

Advantages of parallel circuits

In a parallel circuit, the current through a branch can keep
flowing, even if the current stops flowing in the other branches.
This means:
• components in the same circuit can be switched on and off
independently
• if a component in one branch stops working, the other branches
are not affected.

Lesson 2: Current and voltage in parallel

circuits
🔌 Current is the speed
Reactivity of Elements
of electrons through a circuit.

• Measured in Amperes (A) using an Ammeter.

• Small current is measured in milliamps. 1Ma=0.001 Amp

How do we Measure the current?

• The ammeter is connected in series/ end to
end as it measures the current passing
through a component or a branch

• Current is not used up in an electric circuit

• Unit: Amperes

⚡ Voltage is the force or push that moves the electric

charge through the circuit.

Measured in Volts (V) using a Voltmeter.

Voltage has another more common name which is Potential Difference

177
 Electricity

How do we measure voltage?

• Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the
component.
• Voltmeter measures the energy difference either
side of a component,
• In other words, it measures how much energy
has been changed or used by the components
• Unit: VOLTS

Current in series and parallel circuits:

➢ Current in series circuit is the
same through all
components.
A1=A2=A3

➢ Current in parallel circuits splits and flows through each branch.

a. If the branches have the same components then the current will
be divided equally
b. If the branches have different components, then the current will
not be equal in all branches
The Sum of the current in all branches is equal to the current through the cell

In this circuit, A1 = A4. The circuit has three parallel

branches, each with a different
The readings on A2 and A3 when
current.
added together should be equal to
the reading on A1 and A4). The current through the cell is
equal to the total of the currents
178 through each of the branches
 Electricity

Voltage in series and parallel circuits:

➢ Voltage in series circuit splits

among the components.
V of the cell= V1+V2+V3
The voltage across all the lamps adds
up to the voltage from the battery.

➢ In a parallel circuit, the voltage

across each branch is equal to the
voltage of the cell

V of the cell= V1=V2

No matter how many branches are there,
each branch will receive the same
voltage as the cell.

The relation between voltage and current?

whenever we increase the voltage, the current increases.

179
 Electricity

Adding and removing components

In series circuits (voltage and total current decrease)
Adding more components, will decrease the voltage received by
each component.

Adding more components, the current passing through the

components decrease.
Why? This is because the components slow down the electrons
that are passing, so, by adding more components the number of
electrons passing (the current) becomes lower.

180
 Electricity

In parallel circuits (voltage stays the same, total current increases)

Adding components, the voltage at each branch stays the same.

When we add components or branches

in parallel, the total current through the
whole circuit/through the cell increases.

The more the branches

The easier for electrons to flow
The bigger the current through the
cell

Adding and removing cells

Adding cells in Increase the current The lamps will be

any circuit and voltage brighter

less chemical
smaller current dimmer lamps
Removing cells energy
converted to
electrical energy

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Series circuits Parallel circuits

Made of one loop More than one loop/ branches
Electrons have one way Electrons have more than one way
Current is the same across Current splits/divides
Voltage splits/ divides Voltage is the same across
Adding components Adding component
Current decrease Current increase
Voltage decrease Voltage stays the same

Components cannot be Each component can be

controlled separately controlled separately

Lesson 3: Resistance
What is resistance?
Reactivity of Elements
Resistance is a measure of how easy or difficult it is for electrons to
move though a material.
Conductors, such as copper, have very low resistance.
Insulators, such as most plastics, have very high resistance.
Resistance is measured in units called ohms

The greater the resistance in a circuit, the smaller the current in

the circuit.

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Ohm’s law
Georg Simon Ohm was a scientist who studied resistance.
Ohm discovered there was a link between voltage, current and
resistance in wires. The link between voltage, current and resistance
applies to many electrical components and not only to wires.

Ohm’s law states that: voltage = current × resistance

These are often given letter
symbols:
V = voltage, in volts
I = current, in amps
R = resistance, in ohms

Resistors are added to the circuit to control the current

flow.
Many resistors, such as those in the picture, have
coloured bands.
The colours form a code to show the resistance value in
ohms.
Fixed resistor: slows down the current at steady rate.
Variable resistors: slows down the current at a
changeable rate.

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In many circuits, it is useful to be able to change the resistance By

changing the resistance we can change:
1. The Current across the circuit
2. The Voltage across each component in the branch
We can use this to change for example: the brightness of the lamp
or the volume of a music player
This component is called a Variable Resistor
The circuit symbol for a variable resistor is
similar to that for a fixed resistor, but with an
arrow through the symbol.

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Models and analogies of electric circuits:

1- Water pump

Analogy (…….is like)

Pump is like the cell
Pipes are the wires
The water flow is the electric
current The valve is the switch

Strength points:
1. The amount of the water and the current are the same at any point.
2. Easy to visualize flow of electric current
3. Pressure as voltage: The pump creating pressure differences is a
good way to show how a battery provides voltage (a "push" for
current).
4. Resistors as narrow pipes: Useful to show how resistance reduces
flow, just like radiators slow water.
Limitations points:
1. The pump requires energy to work but the cell provides electrical
energy.
2. Switches vs. valves: Valves in plumbing don’t behave exactly like
switches in circuits.
3. Water flow is relatively slow, but electric current is almost
instantaneous around the circuit.
4. Wires always contain electrons even if they are not connected in
a circuit but water pipes could be empty.

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The rope model

A group of students and their teacher are lightly
holding a loop of rope and starts to move the
rope around at a steady rate. If the students are
holding the rope lightly then it
will move easily – just like current flows
easily through a wire.
If student A grips more tightly then it will be more
difficult for the rope to move. The student is
causing resistance, just like a component (eg a
resistor) causes resistance in an electrical circuit.
The student’s hands will become warm as energy
is transferred to them, just like a resistor becomes
warm when current flows through it.
Analogy

• The teacher represents the cell.

• The students represent three resistors, labelled A, B and C.
• The students hands become warm represents the resistor
that becomes warm when current flows.
Strength points
1. Current as movement: the whole rope moves instantly — like
current flowing everywhere at once.
2. Good for series circuits: All parts of the rope move together, just
like the same current flows through every part of a series circuit.

Limitation points
1. The rope does not represent the wires. It represents the
electrons in the wires.
2. The rope cannot easily be used to model parallel circuits

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