MODULE 3 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Introduction
Have you ever wondered what the determinants of poverty and wealth are? Is it education
Aptitude or attitude; is it genetics or simply the luck of the draw?
And for those unfortunate enough to be poor; is it a constant state? Are they the Children of
Sisyphus; forever doomed to a life of struggle only to remain in the same social position in
which they started, or are they charters of their own faith, able to move up the social strata on
their own accord, not restricted by unforeseeable forces, or educational and social barriers?
Of interest as well, is the culture associated with the different classes. Are their distinct
behaviours, and values associated with the different social classes? And if so why?
Definitions
Social stratification – a society's categorization of its people into groups based on
socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social
status, or derived power (social and political).
Egalitarian society - one in which all members are equal; no one is rich or poor.
Social inequality – unequal distribution of wealth, power, prestige, opportunities and influence.
People are usually stratified according to income and wealth (class) but they can also be
stratified according to race and gender, religion and caste.
However, it is important to appreciate the fact that strata may be based on other factors such as
status and prestige, as Weber argued.
Please note that the term 'social class' is different from the term 'social group.' Social group is the
generic (all encompassing) term which refers to the stratified cohort to which one belongs,
regardless of whether the society is stratified according to race, caste, gender ". Wealth. If a
society is stratified according to income and wealth, then social groups are called social classes.
BASIC CONCEPTS
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⮚ This refers to the amount of honour and prestige enjoyed by a person occupying a
particular role in society.
⮚ Weber was of the view that status was derived from the amount of social honour and
prestige an individual was given by other members of the society.
⮚ Status may vary both within and between strata. Therefore he believed that the newly rich
did not enjoy the same status as those who were born into we example, "a butu in a benz
is still a butu.'.
⮚ Although social inequality exists in all societies, there may be differences in the manner
in which inequality is structured or different determinants of a person's status in society.
⮚ Societies may base status on ascribed or achieved factors.
▪ Ascribed statuses are those that are fixed at birth and unchangeable during
a person's lifetime. One's sex and race are examples of ascribed statuses.
▪ Achieved statuses are those that a person can achieve through his or her
lifetime. Becoming a lawyer or street vendor are examples of achieved
statuses.
⮚ Parsons argued that in contemporary Western society, achieved status is dominant while
ascribed status is obsolete. This is due to the fact that industrial societies, with their
universalistic meritocratic principles, are not conducive to ascribed statuses.
[Link] Class
⮚ Notions of social class have been widely associated with the writings of the great German
philosopher, Karl Marx (1818–83).
⮚ Marx thought that classes came about when differences in income were so great that one
(small) dominant group exploited the labour of a large mass of “property less”
individuals (who own nothing but their labour).
⮚ Later writers such as Max Weber (1864–1920), have concluded that income and wealth
are not the only determinants of social class. He is of the view that prestige, honour and
status are also used to determine social class.
Social class can be measured in 3 main ways:
⮚ Objective Measures
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⮚ Subjective Measures
⮚ Reputational Measures
(a)Objective Measures
⮚ One can assign people to various social classes based on objective. i.e tangible or
measurable criteria involving wealth, power and prestige.
⮚ Objective indicators include occupation, educational level, a number of dependents, type
of residence, infant mortality and life expectancy rates.
(b)Subjective Measures
⮚ Class is measured using perception, by asking respondents what they perceive their class
position to be.
(c) Reputational Measures
⮚ The reputational method is limited to smaller communities, where people are familiar
with each other's reputation. Social classes are measured by asking individuals their view
of what class others belong to, and based on reputations, persons will give their answers.
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⮚ The ruling class of a society is called the elites.
⮚ Pareto (1963) and Marxist writers such as John Scott (1982) were of the belief that elites
would always maintain their control through the practice of endogamy (marriage
restricted to their own social category) and attendance to superior schools. Elites are
usually a small proportion of society; in the Caribbean they are seen as the land and
business owners who are white. However, they also include heads of government, and top
professionals.
[Link]&Ethnicity
⮚ A race is a human population that is believed to be distinct in some way from other
humans, based on real or imagined physical differences.
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⮚ Racial classifications are rooted in the idea of biological classification of humans
according features such as skin colour or facial characteristics.
⮚ Ethnicity, while related to race, refers not to physical characteristics but social traits that
are shared by a human population. Some of the social traits often used for ethnic
classification include:
● Nationality
● Tribe
● Religion
● Language
● Culture
⮚ Unlike race, ethnicity is not usually externally assigned by other individuals. The term
ethnicity focuses more upon a group's connection to a perceived shared past and culture.
⮚ M.G. Smith claims that Caribbean islands are stratified according to race, and that
different races have their own distinct culture with variations of the major institutions
(family, education, religion, etc.), thus the Caribbean is comprised of plural societies.
[Link] and Gender
⮚ Sex refers to biological characteristics or differences between males and females while
gender refers to social characteristics or differences. Gender is learned while sex is
ascribed.
⮚ Feminists argue that almost all societies are stratified according to gender With males
ascribed dominant and high social statuses and females ascribed inferior low social
statuses.
⮚ One notable feminist, S. Firestone, showed that there is a sex-class system in which men
belong to the dominant (exploiter) class and women, regardless of their economic
situation, occupy the subordinate class position.
⮚ Robert Stoller (1968) suggested that gender relations were culturally rather than
biologically based. The social beliefs about males and females and not their actual
biological makeup determine how they are treated in society.
[Link] Mobility
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Social mobility is the movement, usually of individuals or groups, from one social position to
another within the social stratification system.
⮚ The extent of social mobility in any society depends greatly on the type of stratification
system that exists; whether the society is 'open' or 'closed'.
⮚ An 'open' society, based upon achieved statuses, allows its members to attain up ward
social mobility regardless of race, ethnicity, religion and gender.
⮚ A “closed society,” is based upon ascribed statuses, does not allow movement up or
down the social strata.
⮚ Vertical mobility refers to movement up or down in social hierarchy which results in a
change in social class.
⮚ Vertical mobility normally involves intergenerational mobility – a change position that
takes place over two or more generations. Many people who toiled in the cane fields in
the Caribbean experienced this type of vertical mobility as their sons, daughters and
grandchildren became doctors, lawyers and engineers.
⮚ Another type of vertical mobility is intragenerational mobility, a change in social position
of a person that takes place during his or her lifetime.
⮚ When people experience changes in their jobs, but there is no corresponding change in
their social status, then they are said to be experiencing horizontal mobility. For example,
a person may make several horizontal career changes but does not significantly alter his
or her position in the social hierarchy.
⮚ He may undergo a career change from an accountant to a lawyer which may be important
to him but this may result in little mobility as there would not be any significant change
in his privilege, power or wealth.
TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS
All stratification systems may be broadly subdivided into two main types:
⮚ Closed
⮚ Open.
Closed System of Stratification
⮚ A closed system is a rigid system with clearly demarcated boundaries.
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⮚ Social statuses are strictly defined and determine access to opportunities.
⮚ Social position is ascribed at birth (ascribed status).
⮚ There is no social mobility from one level to another.
Examples of Closed Stratification Systems
⮚ Slavery
⮚ Caste system
⮚ Medieval/ Feudal/Estate society
(a)Slavery
⮚ Slavery is a system where some human beings are treated as objects of property,
belonging either to another individual or to a social group, such as in the Caribbean and
North America.
⮚ As an institution, slavery was reinforced by beliefs of racial inferiority of the enslaved
and justified by the legal system.
⮚ The enslaved occupied the lowest strata of the society as their position was ascribed. As
an established official institution, slavery has been eradicated throughout the world.
⮚ The criteria was Race, Wealth and Skin Colour.
(b)Caste System
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⮚ In a caste system of stratification, an example of which is traditional India, a person’s
position such as occupation and social relationships is determined at birth by ascribed
statuses such as skin colour.
⮚ People who are born into the caste system spend their entire lives within their caste with
little or no chance of changing their position. In the caste system. each position is defined
in terms of purity or pollution relative to each other (Javaram 1987).
⮚ In the caste system the most pure – Brahmins or priestly - is allocated the highest status
and are superior to all others in the hierarchy. The least pure - Panchamas or
‘untouchables' are inferior to all of the other castes and are at the base of the hierarchy.
⮚ The caste system is reinforced by the practice of endogamy - marrying within the caste –
and ritualistic religious values that emphasized practices which involved avoiding contact
with members of a lower caste. If a member failed to adhere to the rituals and practices of
his or her caste then he would reincarnate into an inferior caste.
⮚ Today, the Indian caste system has been outlawed, however it does exist informally.
India's Caste System
Brahmins🡪 Teachers and religious people
Kshatriya🡪Rulers, warriors and administrators
Viashia🡪Merchants, traders, farmers and craftsmen
Sudras🡪Manual workers, labourers and farmers
Panchamas(Untouchables)🡪Live apart from the rest of society; perform tasks considered
unclean and degrading: such as working with the dead- both animal and human. They include
undertakers, butchers and scavengers.
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(C) Feudal Society
⮚ In feudal society the social group into which you determines your life chances (quality of
life , your rights as a citizen and survivability).
⮚ In There is almost zero chance of moving up and down social ladder the poor remain
poor all their lives and are very vulnerable.
⮚ In contrast the wealthier classes have more privileges, are less vulnerable and have better
life chances.
⮚ Most people though remain in social class.
⮚ The feudal system existed in Medieval Europe.
⮚ During the Middle Ages the major estates were ranked according to their obligations and
rights. The aristocracy and landed gentry at the top, , the clergy (abbots and bishops) in
the middle and the merchants, artisans, peasants bottom of the social hierarchy.
Class System
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⮚ In a class system of stratification, achieved statuses as opposed to ascribed statuses
constitute the basis for the unequal distribution of resources.
⮚ A class system is categorized by large groups of people who share similar economic
characteristics.
Open System of Stratification
⮚ An open form of stratification is based primarily on economic criteria; particularly
income.
⮚ Social position is achieved through one's efforts.
⮚ The boundaries between classes are more flexible than with the closed system.
⮚ There is opportunity for social mobility as individuals can move up or down the class
system, and therefore their status can improve or decline.
⮚ Class membership depends, at least in part, on characteristics which the individual can
control.
⮚ The class system in modern industrial society is the best example of an open system of
stratification.
⮚ According to Giddens (2001, 282) there have been four basic types of stratification
systems in human history: slavery, caste, estate and class. The first three types are closed
stratification systems, whereas social class is an example of an open stratification system.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
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Assumptions
⮚ Social inequality is necessary and Contributes to the well-being of society.
⮚ Stratification systems are fair people are placed in positions base on merit.
⮚ Inequality of rewards exist because some roles are more demanding than others.
⮚ All societies as some form division
(a) Davis and Moore (1945)
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⮚ Sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore believed that stratification serves an
important function in society. In any society, a number of tasks must be accomplished.
⮚ Some tasks, such as cleaning streets or serving coffee in a restaurant, are relatively
simple. Other tasks, such as performing brain surgery or designing skyscrapers, are
complicated and require more intelligence and training than the simple tasks.
⮚ Those who perform the difficult tasks are therefore entitled to more power, prestige, and
money. Davis and Moore believed that an unequal distribution of society’s rewards is
necessary to encourage people to take on the more complicated and important work that
required many years of training.
⮚ According to Davis and Moore, a firefighter’s job is more important than, for instance, a
grocery store cashier’s. The cashier position does not require the same skill and training
level as firefighting.
⮚ Without the incentive of higher pay and better benefits, why would someone be willing to
rush into burning buildings? If pay levels were the same, the firefighter might as well
work as a grocery store cashier. Davis and Moore believed that rewarding more important
work with higher levels of income, prestige, and power encourages people to work harder
and longer.
⮚ Davis and Moore stated that, in most cases, the degree of skill required for a job
determines that job’s importance. They also stated that the more skill required for a job,
the fewer qualified people there would be to do that job. Certain jobs, such as cleaning
hallways or answering phones, do not require much skill. The employees don’t need a
college degree. Other work, like designing a highway system or delivering a baby,
requires immense skill.
Davis and Moore(Synopsis of Above)
⮚ Some jobs are functionally more important than others.
⮚ People are more motivated to perform difficult and demanding tasks if they are well
rewarded.
⮚ Ensures that those who perform the best are rewarded.
⮚ Reward who make sacrifices are rewarded.
(b) Talcott Parsons
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⮚ People who meet societies success goals should be rewarded.
⮚ Stratification comes from commonly held value that people accept.
⮚ Those who hold leaderships skills and responsibilities should be rewarded. Since not
everyone possess these abilities.
⮚ Social allow various groups to be integrated into society.
CRITICISMS OF FUNCTIONALSIM
⮚ Sociologist Melvin Tumin took issue with Davis and Moore’s theory. He disagreed with
their assumption that the relative importance of a particular job can always be measured
by how much money or prestige is given to the people who performed those jobs. That
assumption made identifying important jobs difficult.
⮚ Tumin countered the Davis-Moore thesis in “Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical
Analysis.” Tumin questioned what determined a job’s degree of importance.
⮚ The Davis-Moore thesis does not explain, he argued, why a media personality with little
education, skill, or talent becomes famous and rich on a reality show or a campaign trail.
⮚ The thesis also does not explain inequalities in the education system or inequalities due to
race or gender.
⮚ Tumin believed social stratification prevented qualified people from attempting to fill
roles. For example, an underprivileged youth has less chance of becoming a scientist, no
matter how smart she is, because of the relative lack of opportunity available to her.
⮚ The Davis-Moore thesis also does not explain why a basketball player earns millions of
dollars a year when a doctor who saves lives, a soldier who fights for others’ rights, and a
teacher who helps form the minds of tomorrow will likely not make millions over the
course of their careers.
Criticism of Functionalism(Synopsis of Above)
⮚ Melvin Tumin argues it is not easy to establish which are functionally more important
⮚ Functionalists tend to ignore the dysfunctions in stratification of society
⮚ Some stratification systems serve to demotivate e.g. Apartheid and caste system
⮚ Davis and Moore’s meritocratic society does not reflect reality.
[Link]
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⮚ Karl Marx based his conflict theory on the idea that modern society has only two classes
of people: The Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat. The Bourgeoisie are the owners of the
means of production, things such as the factories, businesses, and equipment needed to
produce wealth. The Proletariat are the workers.
⮚ According to Marx, the bourgeoisie in capitalist societies exploit workers. The owners
pay them enough to afford food and a place to live, and the workers, who do not realize
they are being exploited, have a false consciousness, or a mistaken sense, that they are
well off. They think they can count on their capitalist bosses to do what was best for
them.
⮚ Marx foresaw a workers’ revolution. As the rich grew richer, Marx hypothesized that
workers would develop a true class consciousness, or a sense of shared identity based on
their common experience of exploitation by the bourgeoisie. The workers would unite
and rise up in a global revolution.
⮚ Once the dust settled after the revolution, the workers would then own the means of
production, and the world would become communist. No one stratum would control the
access to wealth. Everything would be owned equally by everyone.
Marxist Theory(Synopsis of Above)
⮚ Marxists have two class model of society the ruling class and subject class.
⮚ It’s a system of exploitation where capitalist gain at the expense of the working class
⮚ The system continues to perpetuate itself because some groups have more advantage over
others
⮚ Marx advocates a society where things are communally owned.
CRITICISMS OF MARXISM
⮚ The class structure today is more complex than Bourgeoise-Proletariat. In most Western
Nations and increasingly in developing nations there is an extensive middle class who
have stocks and shares invested in Corporations run by what Marxists would call the
Bourgeoise.
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⮚ Classic Marxist theory is too economically deterministic. Marx argued that ‘economic
laws’ determined not only the shape of society but also the direction of history itself. On
reflection, however, it is clearly the case that other factors shape society and history too.
⮚ Different societies have responded differently to the global spread of Capitalism – some
have pushed neo-liberalism ,others have taken a social democratic line and used the state
as a buffer to protect citizens from the worst excesses of Capitalist exploitation
(Scandanavian countries),China has developed a form of autocratic-capitalism and other
countries (Cuba and more recently Venezuala) have rejected it in favour of a Socialist
dictatorship.
⮚ The Communist Revolutions in Eastern Europe did not lead to greater equality and
freedom as Marx has predicted, therefore communism was not the answer to capitalism.
⮚ Max Weber took issue with Marx’s seemingly simplistic view of stratification. Weber
argued that owning property, such as factories or equipment, is only part of what
determines a person’s social class. Social class for Weber included power and prestige, in
addition to property or wealth. People who run corporations without owning them still
benefit from increased production and greater profits.
Criticisms of Marxism(Synopsis of Above)
⮚ Working class is not homogeneous group.
⮚ Economic factors are not only criteria for social stratification.
⮚ Marxist do not acknowledge the existence of a middle class.
[Link] WEBER
⮚ Webber argues that social stratification is the product of economic power, political power
and status.
Economic Social Class
⮚ Weber expanded the ruling class to include managers, professionals and administrators.
⮚ Peoples skills, qualification and work experience may give them an advantage other
(class situation).
⮚ People in the same class share the same chances of obtaining scarce resources of jobs,
income and property.
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Weber’s Class Structure
⮚ Propertied upper class
⮚ White-collar professionals
⮚ Petty bourgeoisie
⮚ Manual working class
Status Situation
⮚ One’s position based on the esteem given to certain criteria it can influence one’ life
chances.
⮚ Some groups enjoy much prestige in the society while being only being paid modestly
e.g. University professors, whilst mason and plumbers do not.
⮚ Status groups reflect how groups are stratified according to levels of prestige.
Party
⮚ A party is a group with similar levels power of power. Weber defined power as being
able to influence others and override decisions. Such power does not have to be allied
with wealth.
⮚ Politician will have the power to change laws and institute policy.
Strengths of Weber’s Contribution
⮚ Two class model is inadequate
⮚ Economic explanation alone cannot by themselves explain stratification
⮚ High economic power may not equate high status.
⮚ The subjective views of one’s status can influence where class or social positions are
concerned.
⮚ Economic power may or may not be independent of political power.
THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN THE CARIBBEAN
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SOCIAL STRATIFICATION DURING SLAVERY (1640-1838)
Plantation Society (1640-1838)
⮚ Closed system based on Race, Class and colour
⮚ Based on ascribed status.
⮚ Known as Plantation society
⮚ Race and class was linked
⮚ No social mobility – static and oppressive.
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Pyramid Showing Post- Slavery Society(1838-1938)
Post Slavery Society (1838 -1938)
⮚ Indentured labourers were imported into Trinidad Jamaica and British Guiana these
immigrants fell at the bottom of the table.
⮚ Blacks and Indians were firmly rooted at the bottom by 1917.
⮚ Some blacks and educated Coloureds become a part of the Middle Class .
⮚ Slight downward mobility for a few whites slip to the middle class however White
remain highest earners.
1945 Social Pyramid
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Post -World War II
⮚ In the 1940 and 1950 more primary schools built close Universal primary education
achieved
⮚ Not enough secondary schools moreover fees were expensive
⮚ Many lower class families still made the effort to send children to secondary school
⮚ Religious bodies acted as facilitators for those who could not afford it but showed
promise.
Pyramid Representing 1950s and Later Independence
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Post world war II
⮚ The Black power movement began to agitate equality and social justice.
⮚ Efforts were made to increase equality and the thrust in education resulted in the
emergence of black middle class. This contributed to changes in social stratification
ascriptive factors were beginning to erode.
⮚ Constitutional developments universal adult suffrage later internal self-government.
Post-Independence
⮚ By the 1940s and1950s local leaders began to agitate for self-government and
independence from Britain.
⮚ These leaders promised to open up education further saying it was the right of all.
⮚ Many Caribbean countries gain independence in the 1960s and 1970s.
⮚ National governments sought the help of international lending agencies
⮚ The tide was turned towards an open system
⮚ Despite efforts to build schools secondary schools were in short supply common entrance
examinations were used to place the most able into the limited spaces
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IMPACT OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS ON CARIBBEAN SOCIETIES
[Link] Ryan
Selwyn Ryan (1991) using Trinidad as an example believes that ascriptive values that permeated
Trinidad society no longer exist. This he believe his owing to several factors:
⮚ Politics: The takeover by nationalist governments meant employment in government and
the public services for other persons apart from British expats . Policies became more
geared towards national development.
⮚ Education: expansion education and of the public school system as helped social
mobility. This has created a new elite with a focus on meritocracy. These new elites had
displaced those who previously held the top position.
⮚ The exit of expats and French Creoles and the inclusion technocrats in both public and
education created more employment for other underemployed groups.
⮚ The National Joint Action Committee a black conscious party played a pivotal role in
getting the ruling PNM to integrate blacks into the commercial and industrial system.
In summary Ryan found that the male ,white dominated social order that once existed had
given way to a new order based on academic achievement and new wealth.
2. Talcott Parson/ Davis and Moore
⮚ Social stratification and social Inequality is not at odds with Social Harmony.
⮚ Social stratification and its resulting inequalities grow out of the needs of society.
⮚ Davis and Moore(1945)pointed to the variety of tasks in societies today, some more
important than others which would need highly talented man-power who would earn
high rewards. Others who have less important task may earn less.
3. Derek Gordon: Class, status and social mobility In Jamaica(1987)
⮚ Between 1943 and 1984 there was significant upward movement to the middle and upper
middle class.
⮚ Jamaica has shifted from a narrow plantocratic society to more a dynamic capitalism.
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⮚ Between 1943-1984 the number of black persons in higher professional to managerial
position moved 20 to 42 percent
⮚ Owing to this Jamaica can be seen as a largely open capitalist society with movement
allowed in both class and status.
⮚ However, Gordon’s research also showed that opportunities still remained unequal
⮚ People with agricultural and domestic background or unskilled back grounds had
virtually no chance at the top of the middle stratum. 1000 persons only seven men or four
women from farming backgrounds would become managers
⮚ Members of the elite use their privileges to ensure benefits for their own children . Thus,
their sons and daughter end up in the same position as their parents.
[Link] James
⮚ Caribbean Marxist CLR James posits that despite the social mobility of the Brown and
black Middle class none of these groups never gained economic assets or control of
capital.
5. Beckford, Levitt and Best
Theorist such as George Beckford, Lloyd Best and Kari Levitt (2001) continued to refer
Caribbean societies as plantation societies mainly because:
⮚ Some racial groups such as whites and near-whites continue to be at the top.
⮚ The bottom is dominated by Indians and blacks.
⮚ Skin colour and hair texture still remain a dimension and while it is not official remains
pervasive.
⮚ Things European and or foreign still are considered better.
6. Ishmael Baksh
⮚ The education system showed the inequalities that were inherent in the stratification
system of Trinidad and Tobago. Ishmael Baksh (1986) in Education, and Equality of
Opportunity in Trinidad and Tobago states that true equality does not exist in Trinidad
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since students of the lower classes are disproportionately assigned to junior secondary
schools and are more likely to be technically oriented.
⮚ These students are more likely to have lower educational and occupational goals. The
illusion of equality of educational opportunity means that education functions as
restricting social mobility for the lower classes (Baksh).
7. Lloyd Braithwaite(1953)
⮚ With reference to Trinidad he noted stratification was based chiefly on colour and race.
He described the society as caste -like comprised of whites at the top and blacks and
others at the bottom.
⮚ He argues that Trinidad showed many features of a plural society with different cultural
groups having their own institutions and beliefs.
Social Marginalisation or Social Exclusion
⮚ This occurs when a significant proportion of the citizens because of poverty cannot
effectively participate in social life.
⮚ These persons have been called the working poor and the under-class.
⮚ They perform poorly in education which prevents them from getting into well-paying
jobs, this cause them to exist on the fringes of society.
⮚ They exist in slums and poorly constructed dwellings and have limited choices.
Some Would Argue A More Realistic Look at Caribbean Social Stratification
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Social Marginalisation or Social Exclusion (Continued)
⮚ The “working poor” those individuals are in employment but who’s wages cannot or can
barely afford the basic necessities. Their very basic wages means that their path to social
mobility remains blocked.
⮚ The underclass consist of some elderly person (especially men) unemployed youth ,the
disabled, unskilled and uneducated women. This not only speaks to poor life chances but
also social exclusion as well .
⮚ The preceding portrays a more realistic view of post independent Caribbean society.
Social Stratification and Crime
⮚ A continuing Impact that the marginalisation of the lower classes is having is the
escalation of violent crime, particularly among the young males in the underclass
(Jeniffer Mohammed p288). The attraction of lies in grasping at what another has ,
something that is desirable and valuable, and at the same time not getting caught. This is
the motivation for violent and non-violent crime
⮚ Mohammad also posits that among the members of the lowest social class, where there is
extreme hunger ,hopelessness and destitution these persons have little to lose. They form
a ready pool of potential criminals easily manipulated by those of higher social standing.
⮚ Violent crime has become an everyday occurrence in territories such as Trinidad, Jamaica
and Guyana ,one of the root causes of this crime wave lie in the extreme marginalization
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of the poorest sectors of the community whose plight are not seriously taken up by
national governments.
Gender and Stratification
⮚ Jamaican females have twice the unemployment rate despite the fact that they have
qualifications.
⮚ Women tend to be concentrated in the narrow range of occupation middle management
and service industries whereas men are employed over a wider range of areas.
⮚ Women earn less than men and are paid less for same job.
⮚ Education has brought improvements as they are now employed in higher status jobs
⮚ The possibility of maternity is one reason why men may not sponsor women to carry
heavier leadership roles. Thus some believe a Glass ceiling exist where women are
concerned.
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