PHYSICS NOTES

S2 ALL
Table of Contents
Unit 1: Sources of errors in measurement of physical quantities............................................- 2 -
Unit2: Quantitative analysis of linear motion.........................................................................- 8 -
Unit 3: Friction Forces..........................................................................................................- 20 -
Unit 4: Density, pressure in solids and fluids........................................................................- 22 -
Unit 5: Pascal’s law and its application.................................................................................- 27 -
Unit 6: Measuring liquid pressure with a manometer and a barometer................................- 31 -
Unit 7: Archimedes principle................................................................................................- 35 -
Unit 8: Work, Energy and Power..........................................................................................- 43 -
Unit 9: Conservation of mechanical energy in isolated system............................................- 47 -
Unit 10: Gas laws’ experiments............................................................................................- 52 -
Unit 11: Magnetism...............................................................................................................- 62 -
Unit 12: Electrostatics...........................................................................................................- 73 -
Unit13: Arrangement of resistors in electric circuit..............................................................- 90 -
Unit 14: Reflection of light in curved mirrors.......................................................................- 96 -
Unit 15: Basic electronic components.................................................................................- 105 -

1
Unit 1: Sources of errors in measurement of physical
quantities
1.1. Errors in measurements of quantities

Definition:
The uncertainty in the measurement of a physical quantity is callederror.
An error is the difference betweenmeasured value and true value of a
physical
quantity.
Error = Measured value -True value
Example:
If the length of a steel rod = 56.47 ± 0.03 cm then the true length is unlikely to be less
than 56.44 cm or greater than 56.50 cm.
The error (absolute error) can be |56.47cm-56.50cm|=|56.47cm-56.44cm|=0.03cm
Mistake is fault (wrong action) caused by the carelessness ofan untrained
experimenter.

1.2. Types of errors

1. Random errors(accidental errors)

They are errors whose source cannot be positively identified. They occur in a
random manner (or without plan).
They can have many causes:
(a) Operator errors or biases (unfair error)
(b)Varying environmental parameters (temperature, barometric pressure,
line voltage or lighting)
(c) Inherent variability of measuring instruments, etc.
 They can be minimized by repeating the measurements many times
and taking the average of all the values as the correct reading.

2. Systematic errors or Constant error (Persistent error)

Those errors occur due to defective setting of an instrument.
These errors are due to known reasons, i.e. fault instrument, improper
attention, change in condition, etc.
The causes of systematic errors are subdivided into 3 groups:

(a)Instrumental error

It is the same error repeated every time in a series of observations.

A common cause of this error is an instrument used.
Example: Scale of instrument badly calibrated
 In order to minimize this error, measurements are made by different
possible methods and the mean value so obtained is regarded as the
true value.
(b) Personal errors (or human errors):they are due to individual traits
Example:
2
  Improper setting of the instrument.
 Wrong recordings of the observation.
 Not taking into account sources of error and precautions.
 Usage of wrong values in the calculation.
 using the wrong units

 These errors can be minimized only if the observer is very careful in his
observations and sincere in his approach.

(c) External errors: they are due to external sources

 These errors can be minimized by identifying or knowing the source of
error.

1.3. Standard methods of for expressing error

1. Absolute error
It is defined as a half the limit of reading.
Thus absolute error=(1/2) limit of reading
It is also the difference between the measured value and true value.
Example 1:
The width of a board may be8.8±01cm :
The ±01 cm (plus or minus 0.1cm) is the absolute error,
Example 2: In the measurement, length=2 .55±0 . 05 m
0 . 05 m is the absolute error.

2. Relative or fractional error

It is the ratio of absolute error (or uncertainty) to the measured value.
Δx
er=
x
e r =relative error
Δx =absolute error
x =measured value

The percentage relative error

Δx
% er = ×100
is given by x
Example: If the measurement is 8.8 and the uncertainty is about
0.1cm,
The percentage error,
Δx 0 .1
% er = ×100= ×100=1 %
x 8. 8

3
1.4. Rules related to significant figures

Definition: A significant figure is a number of meaningful digits.

General rules
(a)All non-zero numbers are significant (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6,7,8 and 9)
(b) All zeros between non zero numbers are always significant
Example:209
(c)All zeros which are simultaneously to the right of the decimal point and at
the end are always significant
Example:13.00
It means that 13 was rounded off two decimal places.
So there are four significant figures.
(d) All zeros which are to the left of the decimal point and are in a number ¿
10 are always significant
Example:800.08

(e) All zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit in a decimal number are
unsignificant.
Example: 0.000462

Exercises
1. State the number of significant figures in the following table
Number Significant figures
43431 5
3.967 4
900.06 5
0.0004 1
0.000110 3
6.2000=62000x10-4 5
406.060 6
3000000=3x106 1

2. How many significant figures in each of the following numbers?

i) 30700 has three significant figures.
ii) 132.73 has five significant figures.
iii) 0.00345 has three significant figures
iv) 40.00 has four significant figures.

1.5. Rounding off the numbers

Rounding off a number is to approximate it to a less or exact value.

Example: if youwanted to round-off 2.6525272 to three decimal places then you would first
count three places after the decimal.

4
2.652|5272

All numbers to the right of cutting line (|)are ignored after you determine whether the
number in the third decimal place must be rounded up or rounded down.

Rule1: You round upthe final digit (make the digit one more) if the first digit after the |
was greater or equal to 5.

Rule2: You round downa digit if the first digit after the|was less than 5.

Therefore 2.652|5272=2.653 to 3 decimal places

2.652|4272=2.652to 3 decimal places

Example 1
Round-off π = 3.141592654 . . . to 4 decimal places.
Answer
π = 3.1416 rounded to 4 decimal places.
Example 2:
Round-off 9.191919 . . . to 2 decimal places
Answer
Answer 9.191919 = 9.19 rounded to 2 decimal places.
Exercise:
1. Round the following numbers:
(a) 123.517 ℓ to 2 decimal places
(b) 14.328 km·h−1 to one decimal place
(c) 0.00954 m to 3 decimal places
2. Write the following quantities in scientific notation:
(a) 10130 Pa to 2 decimal places
(b) 97815 m·s−2 to one decimal place
(c) 0.000001256 A to 3 decimal places

1.6. Fundamental quantities and their dimensions

1. Need of Measurement
Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to phenomena
according to the rule.

Example: to study the motion of a particle, measurement of its

displacement, velocity, and acceleration at any timeare needed.

2. Fundamental quantities and derived quantities

A physical quantity is a combination of a magnitude of number

(real number) and unit.

Unit of a physical quantity is defined as any division of the quantity

accepted as standard used to compare the given physical quantity.

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Example: A mass of 12kilograms or 12kg
12 is real number
Kilogram (kg) is a unit
Physical quantities can be classified into two namely, fundamental quantities
and derived quantities.
Fundamental quantities are quantities which cannot be expressed in
terms of any other physical quantity.
Example: length, mass, time, temperature are fundamental quantities.

Derived quantities are quantities that can be expressed in terms of

fundamental quantities.
Example: Area, volume, density etc.

3. Dimensional analysis of physical quantity

Definition: Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which
the fundamental quantities must be raised.
Example1
The dimensions of mass are written as [M]
The dimensions of length are written as [L]
The dimensions of time are written as [T]
displacement = [ L ]
velocity=
time [T ]
Example2
Dimensions of fundamental quantities
Fundamental quantity Unit symbol Dimension
Length metre M [L]
Mass kilogram Kg [M ]
Time second s [T ]
Temperature Kelvin K [K ]
Electric current Ampere A [ A]
Luminous intensity candela Cd [ cd ]
Amount of substance mole mol [ mol ]

Other examples of common quantities in mechanics

Quantity Dimensions
Area [L]2
Volume [L]3
Velocity [L][T]-1
Acceleration [L][T]-2
Force [M][L][T]-2
Energy [M][L]2[T]-2
Power [M][L]2[T]-3
Pressure [M][L]-1[T]-2
Momentum [M][L][T]-1
6
Note:
Some quantities that have no dimensions are calleddimensionless
quantities.
Examples: angle, specific gravity, pure numbers such as 0, 1, 2, 3 etc.

Use of dimensions to check equations

Example1

Write the equation: s = ut + ½ at 2 in dimension form where s=distance,

u =initial velocity, t=time, a=acceleration

Solution

We have: [L] = [L][T]- 1[T] + [L][T]-2[T]2 therefore [L] = [L] + [L]

This proves the equation, since the length on the left-hand side of the
equation is obtained by adding together the two lengths on the right-hand
side.

Notice that ½ is a pure number having no dimensions and is therefore

omitted in the dimensional equation.

Example2
Show that the equation for impulse Ft = mv-mu is dimensionally correct.
Solution

Writing this in dimensional form we have:

[M][L][T]-2[T] = [M][L][T]-1 + [M][L][T]-1

Therefore [M][L][T]-1 = [M][L][T]-1 and the equation is correct, both sides

having the dimensions of momentum.

Problems

1. Use the method of dimensional analysis to check the validity of the

following equations

(a) E = mc2, where E is the energy obtainable from mass m and c is

the velocity of light.
(b) Energy stored in a wire = ½EAe2/L where E is the Young
modulus, A the cross-sectional area and L the original length
(c) Escape velocity from a planet = 2Rg o where R is the radius of the
planet and go the gravitational intensity at its surface
7
 2. What are the dimensions for the following quantities: (a) work
(b)energy (c) power (d) momentum (e) impulse (f) force (g)
density

Unit2: Quantitative analysis of linear motion

2.1. Motion in one dimension (rectilinear motion)

A rectilinear (or linear motion) is the motion along a straight line.

The important parameters required to study the motion along a straight
line are position, displacement, velocity, and acceleration.

2.2. Position, trajectory, displacement and distance

(a)Position is a particular portion of space occupied by something.

(b) trajectoryis the path followed by a moving body.

(b)distance is the total length of the path (or trajectory) followed by a

moving body.
(c) displacementis the shortest distance between the initial and final
position of the body.
It is also a distance travelled in a particular direction.

Example
Let the particle moves from a position A and then to position B.

The magnitude of the vector AB is the displacement.

The length of the trajectory is the distance.

The distance travelled is a scalar quantity and the displacement is a vector

quantity.

2.3. Speed and velocity

Speed: It is the distance travelled in unit time. It is a scalar quantity.

8
Velocity: The velocity of a particle is defined as the rate of change
ofdisplacement of the particle.
It is also defined as the speed of the particle in a given direction. The velocity
is a vector quantity. It has bothmagnitude and direction.
Displacement
Velocity=
time taken
Its unit is m/s.

2.4. Types of rectilinear motion

There two types of linear motion.

Uniform rectilinear motion with constant velocity and uniform accelerated or
decelerated motion.

A. Uniform rectilinear motion with constant velocity

A particle is said to move with Uniform rectilinear motion if it moves along a

fixed direction andcovers equal displacements in equal intervals of time and
its velocity is constant.
−
Average Velocity ( v ): is the displacement per unit time. Let x1 and x2 be its
positions at instants t1 and t2, respectively.

Then mathematically we can express average velocity as

displacement
Average velocity=
time taken
− x 2−x 1 Δx
v= =
t 2−t 1 Δt

wherex2 – x1 = Δx change in position

t2 – t1 = Δt change in time

total dis tan ce travelled

Average speed=
total ime taken
Example1:
The position of an object moving along the x-axis is defined as x=
20t2 where tis the time measured in seconds and position is expressed
inmetres. Calculate the average velocity of the object over the time interval
from 3sto 4s.

9
Example 2:
A person runs on a 300m circular track and comes back to the starting point
in 200s. Calculate the average speed and average velocity.
Ans:1.5m/s.

Graphs of linear motion

1. Position-Time Graph for Uniform Motion

Example
If the object covers a distance of 10m in each second for 5 seconds, the
positions of the object at different times will be as shown in the following
table.

In order to plot this data, take time along x-axis assuming 1cm as 1s, and
position along y-axis with a scale of 1cm to be equal to 10m.

10
The graph is a straight line

The motion is uniformbecause the velocity of the moving object is constant.

2. Velocity-Time Graph for Uniform Motion

Velocity = constant
i.e., line parallel to time axis represents that the particle is moving with
constant velocity.

Activities

1. Is it possible for a moving body to have non-zero average speed but

zero average velocity during any given interval of time? If so, explain.
2. A lady drove to the market at a speed of 8 km/h. Finding market
closed, she came back home at a speed of 10 km/h. If the market is

11
 2km away from her home, calculate the average velocity and average
speed.
3. The position versus time graph below describes the motion of an
athlete.
What is the velocity of the athlete during the first 4 seconds?
What is the velocity of the athlete from t = 4s to t = 7 s?

B. Uniform accelerated or decelerated motion

A Uniform accelerated motion is the motion of a particle with constant

acceleration and the velocity changes with time.

Acceleration
Acceleration of a particle is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
Acceleration is a vector quantity.
The average acceleration of an object is given by,
Final velocity−Initial velocity
average acceleration=
time taken for change in velocity
− v 2 −v 1 Δv
a= =
t 2 −t 1 Δt
1. Equations of motion

change in velocity
acceleration=
time taken
If u is the initial velocity and v, the final velocity of the particle after a time t,
then the acceleration,

v−u
a=
t
Velocity
v=u+at (1)
Average velocity

12
−
u+ v u+u+ at 2 u+at
v= = =
2 2 2 (2)
Displacement
displacement=average velocity×time
−
s=v ×t
2 u+at
s= ×t
2
1
s=ut + at 2
2 (3)

v−u
t=
From Eq. (1) a
Eq.(3) becomes

( ) ( )
2
v−u 1 v−u
s=u + a
a 2 a
v 2−u 2
s=
Or 2a
2 2
v =u +2 as (4)
Eq. (4) can be used when the time is not given.

In summary we have
v=u+at
1
s=ut + at
2
2 2
v =u +2 as
These are the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
Note: The negative acceleration is often calleddecelerationor retardation.
So we can say that an increase in the rate of change of velocity is
acceleration, whereas the decrease in the rate of change of velocity is
retardation.
Examples
1. The velocity of a car moving towards the East increases from 0 to
12m/s in 3.0 s. Calculate its average acceleration.

13
 2. A racing car is travelling north. It accelerates uniformly covering a
distance of 725 m in 10 s. If it has an initial velocity of 10 m/s, find its
acceleration.
Solution
1
s=ut + at 2
2
1
725=10(10)+ a (10)2
2
2
a=12. 5 m/s

3. A motorcyclist moves along a straight road with a constant

acceleration of 4m/s2. If initially she was at a position of 5m and had a
velocity of 3m/s, calculate
(i) the position and velocity at time t = 2s, and
(ii) the position of the motorcyclist when its velocity is 5m/s.
Solution
(i)Position at t=2s
1
s=s 0 +ut + at 2
2
s0 = 5m is the initial position
1
s=5+3×2+ ×4×22 =19 m
2
v=u+at
v=3+ 4×2=11m/s
(ii)When v=5m/s
2 2
Use v =u +2 a( s−s 0 )
2 2
Or 5 =3 + 2(3)( s−5)
s=7 m

2. Graph for uniform accelerated Motion

(a)Position-Time Graph for uniform

In this case the distances covered in equal intervalsof time are not equal.

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(b)Velocity - time graph

a = constant and v is increasing uniformly with time

i.e., line with constant slope represents uniform acceleration of the particle.

Negative constant acceleration but initial velocity of the particle is positive.

Example
In the following graph, find the distance travelled by the body in metres.

15
Solution
1st method: area method
One can use the area of a trapezium
1
area of trapezium= ( big base+small base )×(height )
2
1
area of trapezium= [ ( 30−0 )+(20−10 ) ]×(10−0)=200
2
the distance travelled by the body is 200m
2nd method: using equations of motion
Phase1: 0 to 10sec

v 2 −v 1
a=
t 2 −t 1
10−0
a= =1 m/ s 2
10−0
1 2
s1 =ut + at
Displacement 2
1
s1 =0(10−0 )+ (1)(10−0)2 =50 m
2
Phase2: 10 to 20sec
v −v
a= 2 1
t 2 −t 1
10−10
a= =0 m/ s2
20−10

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 1
s2 =10(20−10)+ (0)(20−10)2 =100 m
Displacement 2
Phase3: 20 to 30sec

v 2 −v 1
a=
t 2 −t 1
0−10
a= =−1 m/s 2
30−20
1
s3 =10(30−20 )+ (−1 )(30−20 )2 =50 m
Displacement 2

Total displacement 1 2 s=s + s + s =50 m+100 m+50 m=200 m

3
3. Motion under gravity

All freely falling bodies are attracted towards the centre of the earth with a
uniform acceleration calledacceleration due to gravity (g).
Near the earth’s surface g=10m/s2
1
gmoon= [ g ]=1 .67 m/s 2
6 earth
On the moon’s surface
The free fall of a body towards the earth is one of the most common
examples of motion with constant acceleration.
Special Cases
Case (i) : For downward motion
For a particle moving downwards, a = g, since the particle moves in the
direction of gravity.
Case (ii) : For a freely falling body
For a freely falling body, a = g and u = 0, since it starts from rest.
Case (iii) : For upward motion
For a particle moving upwards, a = − g, since the particle moves against the
gravity.

Example 1

A stone is dropped from a height of 50m and it falls freely. Calculate the (i)
distance travelled in 2 s, (ii) velocity of the stone when it reaches the ground.
Solution
1
h=ut + at 2
(i)Distance (height) 2
1
h=0×2+ (10)(2 )2=20 m
2
(ii)At the ground s=50m
2 2
Using v =u +2 a( s−s 0 )
2 2
We get v =0 +2(10 )(50−0 )=10 m/s

17
Example 2

A body projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 40m/s from the

ground, comes to rest momentarily at the top most position and returns to
the ground. Calculate.
(a) The maximum height reached by the body.
(b)The total time of flight
Solution
(a) u=40m/s, v=0
g=-10m/s2(for the upward motion)
2 2
From v =u +2 gh
02 =402 +2(−10 )h , h=80 m
(b) v=u+ gt
0=40−10 t , t =4 sec
t f =2 t=2×4=8 sec
The total time of flight

Activity: Determining the acceleration due to gravity

Aim:To determine the acceleration of an object in freefall.

Apparatus: Large marble, two stopwatches, measuring tape.
Method:
1. Measure the height of a door, from the top of the door to the floor,
[Link] down the measurement.
2. One person must hold the marble at the top of the door. Drop the
marble to the floor at the same time as he/she starts the first
stopwatch.
3. The second person watches the floor and starts his stopwatch when
the marble hits the floor.
4. The two stopwatches are stopped together and the two times
subtracted. The difference in time will give the time taken for the
marble to fall from the top of the door to the floor.
5. Design a table to show the results of your experiment. Choose
appropriate headings and units.
6. Choose an appropriate equation of motion to calculate the acceleration
of the marble. Remember that the marble starts from rest and that it’s
displacement was determined in the first step. Write a conclusion for
your investigation.
7. Answer the following questions:
(a) Why do you think two stopwatches were used in this investigation
(b) Compare the value for acceleration obtained in your investigation
with the value of acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m·s−2). Explain your
answer.
Exercises

18
1. A stone is dropped from a window. It takes the stone 1.5 seconds to
reach the ground. How high above the ground is the window?
2. An apple falls from a tree from a height of 1,8 m. What is the velocity
of the apple when it reaches the ground?
3. A car initially at rest accelerates at 4 m/s 2 while covering a distance of
100 m. Then the car continues at constant velocity for 500 m. Finally it
slows to a stop with a deceleration of 3 m/s 2. Determine the total time
of this displacement.
4. A motorcycle, travelling east, starts from rest, moves in a straight line
with a constant acceleration and covers a distance of 64 m in 4 s.
Calculate
(a)its acceleration
(b)its final velocity
(c) at what time the motorcycle had covered half the total distance
(d) what distance the motorcycle had covered in half the total time.
5. Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.
(a) A scalar is the displacement of an object over a time interval.
(b) The position of an object is where it is located.
(c) The sign of the velocity of an object tells us in which direction it is
travelling.
(d) The acceleration of an object is the change of its displacement over
a period in time.
6. A velocity-time graph for a ball rolling along a track is shown below.
The graph has been divided up into 3 sections, A, B and C for easy
reference. (Disregard any effects of friction.)

19
 a. Use the graph to determine the following
i. the speed 5 s after the start
ii. the distance travelled in Section A
iii. the acceleration in Section C
b. At time t1the velocity-time graph intersects the time axis.
Use an appropriate equation of motion to calculate the
value of time t1(in s).

Unit 3: Friction Forces

3.1. Solid friction force

1. Definition
Friction force is a force that opposes relative sliding motion of two surfaces
of objects in contact. This force depends upon the nature of the surfaces in
contact and the weight of the object.

2. Types of friction forces

(a)Static friction force

It is the force that arises between two objects in contact at rest.
It is an equilibrium force.
The magnitude of this force is given by
F s =μs mg
F s =Static friction force,m =mass of an object, μ s =coefficient of static friction
g =acceleration due to gravity

(b)Kinetic friction force

It is the force that arises between two objects in contact when one is
sliding relative to another. It is an opposing force.
The magnitude of this force is given by
F k =μ k mg
F k =Kinetic friction force,m =mass of an object, μk =coefficient of kinetic
friction
g =acceleration due to gravity

Example1
A 2.50 kg block is resting on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of static
friction between the surfaces in contact is 0.350. Calculate the maximum
magnitude of force of static friction between the surfaces in contact.

Solution
F s =μs mg
F s =(0 . 350)(2 .50 )(10 )=8 .75 N
20
Example2.
An object of mass 2kg is sliding on an inclined plane with the coefficient of
kinetic friction 0.2. Find the kinetic friction force of contact.
Solution
F k =(0 . 2)(2)(10 )=4 N

3.2. Fluid friction force

Friction force in a fluid (gas or liquid) is due tothe viscosity.

Viscosity is a measure of how easily a fluid flows.

If the friction force is large as in glycerin or liquid glue, the viscosity of the

liquid is high.

If the friction force is low as in water, the viscosity of the liquid is low.

Air has very low viscosity compared to the liquids.

The resistance due to fluids is called the viscous drag.

When the net forces (total forces) acting on a body moving downwards in

fluid becomes zero, the acceleration is zero, and the maximum downward

velocity possible for that body is called terminal velocity.

3.3. Factors affecting friction forces

(a)Adhesion: is a property of sticking together (as glue and wood) or the

joining surfaces of different composition.

The opposite of adhesion is cohesion.

Cohesion is a property of sticking together (as oxygen O2) or the joining

surfaces of same composition.

(b)Smoothness: is a property of being smooth of a given surface.

(c)Area of the contact with the surfaces:

21
The higher the area of contact the higher the friction force it is.

The higher the weight of an object the higher the friction force it is.

3.4. Uses of friction forces (=advantages)

Friction force helps us:

-To walk

-To write

-To make fire

-In braking vehicles and machines

-To hold screws and nails in place

-To keep nuts on [Link]

3.5. Disadvantages of friction forces

-Cause wear and tear of contact surfaces of the machines

-Cause unnecessary heat and loss of energy

-Cause unnecessary noise

-Increase the costs of running machine as we try to minimize it.

-Lower efficient of the [Link]

3.6. Ways of minimizing (=reducing friction forces)

Friction can be minimized by:

-Making surfaces as smooth as possible

-Oiling or greasing

-Use of ball or roller bearing

-Putting graphite between moving [Link]

22
Unit 4: Density, pressure in solids and fluids
4.1. Measurement of density

Density of solid
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance:
mass m
Density= ρ=
volume or V
3 3
The S.I unit is kg /m but you may also use g/cm
It is useful to remember that these units are related by:
1 kg /m3 =10−3 g /cm3 .
Relative density (specific gravity)
Relative density or specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of
the density of the substance to the density of water.
density of a subs tan ce
Re lative density=
density of water
ρs
R . D=
ρW
Relative density has no unit. The density of water has been taken as
reference.
−3 −3
Density of water ρW =1000 kgm or 1gcm .
If equal volumes of the substance and water are considered
mass of a subs tan ce
Re lative density=
mass of equal volume of water
Relative density of liquid is measured by an instrument called a
hydrometer.
Worked example
Example1
A cube of copper has a mass of 240 g. Each side of the cube is 3.0 cm long.
Calculate the density of copper in g cm-3 and in kg m-3.
Solution
m
ρ=
V and Volume of a cube V =3 cm×3 cm×3 cm=27 cm3

23
 240 g
ρ= =8. 9 gcm−3 −3
or ρ=8 .9 kgm
3
27 cm
Example 2
Calculate the relative density of a solid block of density of 78kgm -3.
−3
(Assume the density of water ρW =1000 kgm )
Solution
ρ 78
R . D= s = =0 .078
ρW 1000
Experiment to determine the relative density of a liquid using a
density beaker

Procedures:
We need to take the measurements below:
-mass of the empty beaker M 1
-mass of the beaker full of liquid M 2
-mass of beaker full of water
M3
mass of liquid
Re lative density=
mass of equal volume of water
M 2 −M 1
R . D=
M 3 −M 1
Activity
In an experiment to determine the R.D of a liquid, the following
measurements were taken:
-mass of the empty bottle 50g
-mass of the beaker full of liquid 250g
-mass of beaker full of water 400g
(a)Calculate the R.D of the liquid
(b)Calculate the density of the liquid.

4.2. Pressure in solids

Definition of pressure
If F is the magnitude of a force exerted perpendicular to a given surface of
area A, then the pressure P is the force divided by the area:
Force
Pr essure=
Area
F
P=
A
SI unit: Pascal (Pa)and1Pa=1N/m2

24
Pressure in solid can be measured by an instrument called barometer.
Example
A chair stands on four feet, each of area 10 cm 2. The chair weighs 80 N.
Calculate the pressure it exerts on the floor.
Solution
F weight 80 N
P= = = =20000 Pa
A A 4 (0 .0010 m2 )

Activity
Estimate the pressure you exert on the floor when you stand on both feet.
(You could draw a rough rectangle around both your feet placed together to
find the area in contact with the floor. You will also need to know your mass
in order to deduce your weight.)
4.3. Pressure in a fluid
The pressure in fluid (gas or liquid) depends on three factors:
• the depth h below the surface
• the density of the fluid ρ
• the acceleration due to gravity g .

Pressure due to the liquid column acting on the base

Force F mg
Pr essure= = =
Area A A
mg ρ Vg ρ( Ah )g
P= = =
A A A
P= ρ gh
Let us now make three small holes on the sides of a cylinder on which water
can pass through.

25
Water from hole A travels a long distance X3 and indicates high pressure.
Water from hole C travels a short distance X 1 and indicates low pressure.
Therefore pressure is proportional to the height.
Note:
The pressure does not depend upon the area of the base or the shape of the
liquid column as shown below

Pressure is the same for all the bases of the liquid columns. Pressure in fluid
can be measured by an instrument called manometer.
Example
A cube of side 0.20 m floats in water with 0.15 m below the surface of the
water. The density of water is 1000 kg m−3. Calculate the pressure of the
water acting on the bottom surface of the cube.
26
Solution
Use the equation for pressure: P= ρ gh =(1000)( 9. 81 )(0. 15 )=1470 Pa
Variation of Pressure with Depth
Consider a liquid in a container and an imaginary right circular cylinder of
cross sectional area A and height h in an incompressible liquid of uniform
density ρ , as shown in Fig. below.

Let the pressure exerted by the liquid on the bottom and top faces of the
cylinder be P1, and P2, respectively.
Therefore, the upward force exerted by the liquid on the bottom of the
cylinder F 1=P1 A
The downward force on the top of the cylinder is F 2=P2 A
The gravitation force (weight) of the cylinder g
F =mg=ρ Ahg
When the cylinder is in equilibrium position in a liquid the total force acting
on it is zero.
Thus ∑ F= F 2+F g−F 1=0 or P 2 A+ ρ Ahg−P1 A=0
P1 =P2 + ρ hg P1 −P2 =ρ hg
or
So, the pressure ΔP at the bottom of a column of liquid of height h is given
by
ΔP=ρ hg
That is, hydrostatic pressure due to a fluid increases linearly with depth.
If we consider the upper face of the cylinder to be at the open surface of the
liquid, then P2 will have to be replaced by P atm(Atmospheric pressure).
If we denote P1 by P, the absolute pressure at a depth below the surface will
be
P−P atm=ρ hg
27
P=P atm +ρ hg

Exercises
1. A cube of copper has a mass of 240 g. Each side of the cube is 3.0 cm
long. Calculate the density of copper in g cm −3 and in kg m−3.
2. The density of steel is 7850 kg/m 3. Calculate the mass of a steel sphere
of radius 0.15 m.
3. A water bed is 2.00 m on a side and 30.0 cm deep.
(a)Find its weight.
(b)Find the pressure that the water bed exerts on the floor. Assume
that the entire lower surface of the bed makes contact with the floor.
4. The four tires of an automobile are inflated to a gauge pressure of
2.0 x105 Pa. Each tire has an area of 0.024 m 2 in contact with the
ground. Determine the weight of the automobile.
5. A container is filled to a depth of 20.0 cm with water. On top of the
water floats a 30.0cm-thick layer of oil with specific gravity 0.700.
What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of the container?

28
Unit 5: Pascal’s law and its application
5.1. Pascal’s law

It states that a change in the pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted

undiminished to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the container.
OrPascal’s law states that if the effect of gravity can be neglected then the
pressure in a fluid in equilibrium is the same everywhere.

5.2. Application of Pascal’s law

1. Hydraulic lift
An important application of Pascal’s law is the hydraulic lift used to lift heavy
objects.
It consists of a liquid container which has pistons fitted into the small and
large opening cylinders.

A force of magnitude F1is applied to a small piston of surface area A1.

A small force F 1 is applied to piston of area A1, this force produces on the
liquid immediately below it a pressure
F
P= 1
A1
29
The pressure is transmitted equally throughout the liquid and acts also upon
the piston of larger area A2 in the upward direction.
The force on this piston is
F1
F 2=PA 2 = A
A1 2
F2 F1
=
A2 A1

2. Hydraulic Brakes

The wheel cylinder of hydraulic drum brakes acts as a double hydraulic press
in that the pressure in the input line from the brake pedal is exerted in both
directions on the movable wheel cylinder pistons.

In both directions, this multiplies the force on the fluid by the ratio of the
area of the cylinder to the area of the supply line.

30
Besides the multiplication of force achieved, Pascal's principle guarantees
that the pressure is transmitted equally to all parts of the enclosed fluid
system. This gives straight braking of the wheel.

Example1
In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small
piston that has a circular cross section and a radius of 5.00 cm. This pressure
is transmitted by a liquid to a piston that has a radius of 15.0 cm. What force
must the compressed air exert to lift a car weighing13 300 N? What air
pressure produces this force?

Solution
Because the pressure exerted by the compressed air is transmitted
undiminished throughout the liquid, we have

( ) π (5 .00×10−2 m )2
A1
F 1= F 2= −2 2
(1 . 33×10 4 N )=1 . 48×10 3 N
A2 π (15 .00×10 m)

The air pressure that produces this force is

F1 1 . 48×10 4 N
P= = −2 2
=1 .88×105 Pa
A1 π (5 . 00×10 m)
31
Example2
A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a maximum mass of
3000 kg. The area of cross−section of the piston carrying the load is 425 ×
104m2. What maximum pressure would the piston have to bear?

Unit 6: Measuring liquid pressure with a manometer and a

barometer
6.1. Atmospheric pressure
Earth’s surface is surrounded by a thick layer of air called the atmosphere.
Air is denser at the sea-level than high up in the mountain.
The pressure exerted by air is called atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called a barometer.

6.2. Measuring pressure

(a)Torricelli’s Barometer
Barometer is invented by Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647).
He took a tube of about 1 m long filled with mercury of density 13,600 kg m –3
and placed it vertically inverted in a mercury tub as shown is Fig. below.

32
He observed that the column of 76 cm of mercury above the free surface
remained filled in thetube.
In equi1ibrium, atmospheric pressure equals the pressure exerted by the
mercury column. Therefore, atmospheric pressure
Patm =ρ hg where ρ is the density of the mercury and h is the height of the
mercury column.
Patm =(13600 )(0 .76 )(9 . 80)=1. 013×10 5 Pa=1 atm
Conclusion: 1 atmosphere=0.76m (or76cm) of mercury=1.013×10 5
Pa.
Pressure can also be expressed into Torricelli,
1 torr =1mmHg=133.32Pa
Another of pressure sometimes used (in meteorology and on weather maps)
is the bar:
1bar=1.00×105 Pa.
1 atm=1.013bar

(b)Manometer
Manometer is an instrument used to measure fluid pressure.

One end of a U-shaped tube containing a liquid is open to the atmosphere,

and the other end is connected to a system of unknown pressure P. The
P + ρhg where ρ the density of the fluid is. The
pressure at point B equals atm
pressure at B, however, equals the pressure at A, which is also the unknown
pressure P.
We conclude that
P=P atm +ρ hg

The pressure P is called the absolute pressure, and

P−P atm is called the
gauge pressure.

Effects and applications of atmospheric pressure

33
(a)Crushing –can experiment:
When the steam produced expels the air from inside the can and the sealed
can allowed cooling, the can crushes.
(b)Coin and drop of water experiment:
It becomes difficult to lift the coin off the table when a drop of water is
placed underneath the coin.
(c)Drinking straw:
When one end of a drinking straw is placed well inside a liquid and the air
sucked out from the other end, the liquid level rises in the tube.
(d)Syringe:
When the nozzle of a syringe is placed inside a liquid and the piston pulled
upwards, the liquid is pulled into the barrel of the syringe.
(e)Siphon:
The pressure difference created by the siphon (a flexible tube used to
remove the liquid from a fixed container to the outside) forces the liquid to
come out.
(f)Lift pump, Force pump:
These are devices that use the principle of pressure difference created to
raise water to higher level or to force air into the tyre of a bicycle
respectively.
Worked examples

1. On a certain day a barometer reads 750mm of mercury (750mmHg).

Calculate the pressure in Pascals.
Solution: P= ρhg=(13600)(0 . 750)(10 )=102000 Pa

2. On a certain day the atmospheric pressure was 104000Pa. Express this

pressure in mmHg.
Solution: P= ρhg
P 104000
h= = =765 mmHg
ρg (13600 )(10 )
Activity 1
Describe an experiment to show that pressure in a liquid increases with
depth.
Activity 2
Describe an experiment to show that pressure at a point in a liquid is
independent of the shape of the container.
Activity 3
Describe an experiment to show that pressure at the same depth in a liquid
acts equally in all directions.

6.3. Surface tension

Surface tension is the property of the free surface of a liquid at rest to
behave like a stretched membrane in order to acquire minimum surface
area.

34
As a result, the surface of a liquid acts like a stretched membrane, you can
visualize its existence easily by placing a needle gently on water surface and
see it float.
Let us now understand this physically. Consider an imaginary line AB drawn
at the surface of a liquid at rest, as shown in figure below.

The surface on either side of this line exerts a pulling force on the surface on
the other side.
The surface tension of a liquid can be defined as the force per unit
length in the plane of liquid surface.
F
T=
L
T=surface tension
F= normal force to the imaginary line of length L
SI unit of surface tension is N/m.
Exercises
1. (a)Give four examples of practical application of surface tension.
(b)How do insects run on the surface of water?
(c)Explain the following statements in terms of pressure:
(i)It is difficult to cut a wooden rod using a blunt edged knife.
(ii)Racing cars are fitted with tyres of large area.
(iii)People use straws to drink soda, water or juice.

35
Unit 7: Archimedes principle
7.1. Upthrust

When a solid is immersed in fluid (liquid or gas), it displaces some fluid

upwards.

For example, the liquid exerts an upward force on the solid, called Upthrust.
It is also an apparent loss of weight in liquid.

This upward thrust exerted by a fluid on bodies immersed in it, is also

calledforce due to buoyancy.

Many objects, such as wood, float on the surface of water. This is an example
of buoyancy.

This effect is caused by the difference in pressure between the bottom of the
object.
Consider a cylinder of height Δh whose top and bottom ends have an area A
and which is completely submerged in a fluid of density ρ as shown below.

36
Δp= p bottom−p top
Δp= p 2− p1
Or

Δp= ρ gh 2 −ρ gh 1= ρg(h2 −h1 )=ρgΔh

F
p=
Using A

Or
F =ρ gV F=ρgΔ hA=ρ gV
B
This is a force due to buoyancy or upthrust.
m
F B =ρ gV = gV =mg
Thus V
Therefore the upthrust=weight of the fluid displaced.
The volume of the liquid displaced is equal to the immersed volume of the
solid.

A fundamental principle affecting objects submerged in fluids was discovered

bythe Greek mathematician and natural philosopher Archimedes.

Archimedes’sprinciple can be stated as follows:

Any object completely or partially submerged in a fluid, it experiences an

upthrustforce which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
object.
37
If the weight of the block acting vertically downwards is W, then the resultant
downward force (apparent weight of the block), F , acting on the
block=weight of block MINUSupthrust

That isF=W −ρ gV
Example 1
−3 3
A cubic decimeter,1 .0×10 m , of a granite buildingblock is submerged in
3 3
water. The density of granite is2 .70×10 kg /m .

a. What is the magnitude of the buoyant force acting on the block?

What is the apparent weight of the block?
b.

Example2

A body has a mass of 8kg and density of 750kg/m 3. What is the spring
balance reading if the body is:

(a) weighed in air

(b)Weighed when completely submerged in a liquid of density 500kg/m 3?

Solution
(a)weight in air =mg=8×10=80N
(b)weight under liquid=weight in air-upthrust due to liquid
But upthrust =vρg=(8/750)(500)(10)=53.33N
Apparent weight when in liquid=Wair-upthrust
=80-53.33=26.7N (1d.p).

Verification of Archimedes principle

38
Archimedes’sprinciple may be verified using a spring balance, an overflow
can (eureka can), a compression balance calibrated in newtons and a beaker
of known weight, as shown in fig. below:

Upthrust=weight of solid in air-weight of solid in water

U =W 1 −W 2

Also, Upthrust, U=weight of liquid displaced, i.e. liquid collected from the
overflow can in the beaker.

Hence the apparent loss of the weight of the object= weight of equal volume
of liquid displaced by the object.

Law of flotation

Whenever a body is submerged in a liquid, there are two forces acting on the
body. The weight of the body,W, acting downwards, and the upthrust U on
the body due to the displaced liquid acting upwards. Let us consider three
cases when an object is immersed in a liquid.

39
(a)If the weight of the object, W, is greater than the upthrust, U, i.e. the
density of the object is greater than the density of the displaced liquid, the
object sinks into the liquid.

(b)If the weight of the object, is equal to the upthrust, U, i.e. the density of
the object is equal to the density of the displaced liquid, the object remains
in equilibrium under the liquid anywhere.

(c)If the weight of the object, W, is less than the upthrust,U, i.e. the density
of the object is less than the density of the displaced liquid, the object floats
partially in the liquid.

The law of flotation states that a floating object displaces its own
weight of the fluid.

Alternatively, the weight of the floating object=weight of fluid

displaced.

Activity1: Experiment to verify the law of floatation

-A piece of wood is weighed and it weight W 1 in air is recorded.

-Then water is put in eureka can until it flows out of the spout.

-After water has stopped dripping, an empty beaker is put below the spout.

-The cork is then carefully put in eureka can water and some water flows into
the beaker.

40
-After water stops flowing, the weight of the water in the beaker W is taken
and it is found to be equal to W 1, the weight of the cork within experimental
error limits, hence verifying the law of floatation.

Activity 2: Experiment to determine the relative density of a solid

like iron

We need to take the following measurements:

-Weight of the solid W1in air, is obtained using a spring balance.

-The apparent weight of the body W 2 when completely under water is also
obtained.

-The experiment is repeated to get the average value of W 1and W2.

-Relative density of the solid is then computed from
Weig h tinair
R . D=
Upt hrustinwater

W1
R . D=
That is
W 1−W 2
Activity 3: Experiment to determine the relative density of a liquid

We need to take the following measurements:

-Weight of the sinker W1 in air, is obtained using a spring balance.

41
-The apparent weight of the sinker W 2 when completely under water is also
obtained.

-The apparent weight of the sinker W3 when completely under the liquid.

-The experiment is repeated to get the average value of W 1, W2 and W3.

-Relative density of the liquid is then computed from

Upt hrustinliquid
R . D=
Upt h rustinwater
W 1− W 3
R . D=
W 1 −W 2
That is

Worked example
1. A body of mass 5kg weighs 30N in a liquid. Find the upthrust on the
body due to liquid.
Solution
Upthrust=Wair-Wwate
=5x10-30=20N
2. A piece of solid of mass 800kg and volume 30cm 3is fully immersed in
a liquid of density 800kg/m [Link] the weight of the solid in the
liquid.
Solution
Weight of liquid in air, Wair=0.800x10=10N
upthrust =vρg=(30x10-6)(800)(10)=0.24N
Weight of solid in liquid F= Wair-Upthrust
F=8-0.24=7.76N
3. A metal block of density7800kg/m3 weighs 117N in air and 105N in
liquid when wholly immersed. Calculate the density of the liquid.
Solution
Weight of the solid in air =117N
Mass of the solid=117/10=11.7kg
Volume of solid=mass/density=11.7/7800=0.0015m3
Apparent loss of weight in liquid F=W −ρ gV

=117-105=12N=upthrust

U =ρ gV =mg
12= ρliq×10×0 . 0015 V
ρliq =800 kg/m3
7.2. Some applications of floating objects

1. A ship made of steel floats over water even though the density of steel is
about 8times greater than that of water. The ship is like a closed hollow
42
object so that it displaces a much larger volume of water than the actual
volume of steel used in its construction. Therefore, it dips only to a level
where its weight equals the weight of water displaced.

2. Ice floats on water because the density of ice is less than that of water.

Density of ice is only 900kg/m3 that of water is 1000kg/m3.

3. A person can swim in sea water more easily than in fresh water. The
density of sea water is greater than that of pure water and exerts greater
upward force on a body immersed in it than fresh water.

[Link]
Relative density of liquid is measured by an instrument called a
hydrometer.

In a hydrometer, the lower wide bulb is loaded with a lead shots or mercury
to keep the hydrometer floating upright in the liquid.
The upper thin stem of uniform cross section gives the instrument the
greater sensitivity. The hydrometer will sink further in a liquid of low relative
density.
A lactometer is a hydrometer that is used to test the purity of milk.
A hydrometer can also be used to:

43
-determine the level of charge in batteries
- determine the level of sugar in some drinks
- determine the alcoholic content of drinks.

EXERCISES

1. A girl is floating in a freshwater lake with her head just above the
water. If she weighs 610 N, what is the volume of the
submerged part of her body?(Density of water is 1000kg/m 3).
2. What is the upthrust on a body which displaces 0.5m 3 of water.
3. A body of mass 3kg and volume 6×10 -4m3is hung from a spring
balance with a light string. What does the balance read when:
(a) The body is in air,
(b) The body is fully immersed in water,
(c) The body is half immersed in water,
(d) 25% of the volume of the body is immersed in paraffin oil of density
800kg/m3?
4. A steel sphere of density 8000kg/m3 and volume136cm3 floats in
mercury of density 13600kg/m3. What volume of the sphere remains
above the mercury surface?

Unit 8: Work, Energy and Power

8.1. Doing work

Work is said to be done when a body undergoes a displacement as a results

of the application of the force.

The work doneby a force is defined as the product of the force and the
distance moved in the direction of the force:
W=F×s
wheres is the distance moved in the direction of the force. Work is a scalar
quantity and its SI unit is the joule (J).

Example
A stone weighing 5.0 N is dropped from the top of a 50 m high cliff. What is
the work done by the force of gravity?

Solution
Since F and s are in the same direction, there is no problem:
work done = F × s = 5.0 × 50= 250 J

44
Note: The work done can be given by the area under the Force versus
displacement graph.

Work done equals area under the F versus S graph.

Example
The following graph shows how a force varies with distance as it acts on a
mass of 3.0kg, initially at rest.

How much work was done by the force in moving the body 5.0m?
Solution
45
Work done =area under the F versus S graph.
=(1/2)[(5-0)+(10-0)](2-0)+(1/2)[(10-0)+(20-0)](4-2)+(1/2)(5-4)(20-0)
=15+30+10 =55J
8.2. Power

Power if the rate at which work is done.

work
Power=
time
W
P=
t
W =work done in joules
t=time in seconds
P=Power in joules/second or watts
work Force×dis tan ce
Power= =
Also time time
Power=Force×velocity
P=Fv
Example
The electric motor of a model train accelerates the train from rest to 0.620
m/s in 21.0 [Link] total mass of thetrain is 875 g. Find the average power
delivered to the train during the acceleration.

Solution
P=Fv
v
F=ma=m =(0 . 875 )
t (
0 . 620
21×10−3 )
=25 . 8 N

P=25 . 8×0 .620=16 Watts .

8.3. Energy
Energy of a body is its capacity to do work.
It is the total work that a body can do. The S.I unit of energy is Joule (J), the
same as that of work.

Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy of a body is the sum of its potential energy and kinetic
energy.
1. Potential energy (P.E)
Potential energy can either be gravitational potential energy or elastic
potential energy.

(a)Gravitational potential energy

46
Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of
its position. It is a work done by gravity.
Gravitational potential energy
= weight × change in height
P . E=mgh
m=mass of a body
g=gravitational acceleration

(b)Elastic potential energy

Elastic potential energy (or strain energy) is the energy is due to the
compressed or stretched spring.

As the end of a spring is pulled by the force F, the spring is stretched by the
length e called the extension.
The work done in stretching the spring by an increasing force from 0 to F
( 0+ F ) 1
= e= Fe
=average force ×extension 2 2
From Hooke ‘s law of extension, F ∝ e
That is F=ke
k =Force constant of the spring in N/m.
1 1
= (ke )e= ke 2
2 2
work done

Work done is stored as elastic potential energy.

The elastic potential energy
1 1
E P= Fe= ke 2
2 2
47
Example
Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in a spring when stretched
through 4cm by a force of 2N.
Solution
The elastic potential energy
1 1
E P= Fe= (2)(0 . 04 )=0 . 04 J
2 2
Test yourself
Calculate how much gravitational potential energy is gained if you climb a
flight of stairs. Assume that you have a mass of 52 kg and that the height
you lift yourself is 2.5 m.
2. Kinetic energy (K.E)
Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving object. We imagine a car being
accelerated from rest (u = 0) to velocity v.
To give it acceleration a, it is pushed by a force F for a distance s. Since u =
0, we can write the equation v2 =u2 + 2as as: v2 = 2as
1 1 2
m mv =(ma)s
Multiplying both sides by 2 gives: 2
Now, ma is the force Faccelerating the car,
1 2
mv =(F ) s
2
The force × the distance it moves, that is, the workdone by the force. So we
1 2
mv =W f
have: 2 = work done by force F.
This is the energy transferred to the car, and hence its kinetic energy.
Therefore, for an object of mass m travelling at a speed v, we have:
1
K . E= mv 2
2
kinetic energy

What is a kilowatt-hour (kWh)?

One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the amount of energy used by an engine
operating at a power of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour.
1 kWh=3 .6×106 J
Worked example
Calculate the increase in kinetic energy of a car of mass 800 kg when it
accelerates from 20 m s-1 to 30 ms-1.
Solution
1
K . E= mv 2
2
1
K . E i= mu 2
Initial kinetic energy 2

48
 1
K . E f = mv 2
Final kinetic energy 2
Change of kinetic energy
1 2 1 2 1 2 2
ΔK . E=K . E f −K . E i= mv − mu = m(v −u )
2 2 2
1
ΔK . E= 800(302 −202 )=200000 J =200 kJ
2

Unit 9: Conservation of mechanical energy in isolated system

9.1. Energy transformation
Energy may be transformed or converted from one form to another. The
following are some examples of energy transformation.

1. When a fruit falls down from a tree, the gravitational potential energy
is converted into kinetic energy just before hitting the ground.
On hitting the ground, the kinetic energy of the fruit is converted into
sound and heat energy. The same is the case of waterfalls.
2. When a ball is thrown vertically upwards, the kinetic energy at the
bottom is converted into the gravitational potential energy at the top
most position.
A device which converts one form of energy to another is called a
transducer.

Examples of transducers
Transducer Transformation of
energy
Microphone Sound to electrical
Loudspeaker Electrical to sound
Battery Chemical to electrical
Light bulb Electrical to light

9.2. Law of conservation of energy

Let us consider a ball of mass m on a simple pendulum.

49
Figure: Simple pendulum
Mechanical energy= Potential energy +Kinetic energy
M . E=P. E+K . E
1
M . E=mgh+ mv 2
2
When the ball is in the extreme positions (2), its velocity is zero, and K.E=0.
M . E=mgh+0=P . E (1)
When the ball passes through the position 1, P.E=0but K.E is maximum.
1
M . E=0+ mv 2 =K . E
2 (2)
Eq. (1)= Eq. (2)
1 2
mv =mgh
2
This verifies that the loss in K.E is equal to the gain in P.E.
Law of mechanical energyconservation
Law of conservation of mechanical energy states that: in an isolated system
(System which does not interact with the surroundings), the total mechanical
energy remains constant.
Alternatively, the energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only
be converted from one form to another.

9.3. Applications of the law of mechanical energy conservation

Example 1
A 150g balls falls vertically downwards from a height of 1.8m on a horizontal
plate. On hitting the plate, the ball rebounds to a height of 1.25m. Find:
(a)The velocity of the ball just before hitting the plate,
50
(b)The kinetic energy of the ball as it hits the plate,
(c) The kinetic energy of the ball as it leaves the plate.
(Take g=10m/s2).
Solution
(a)Initial velocity u=0
Distance s=1.8m
g=10m/s2
Final velocity, v=?
From v2= u2+2gs
v2= 02+2(10)(1.8)=6m/s.
v=6m/s.
1 1
K . E= mv 2 = (0 . 150 )(6 )2 =2 .7 J
(b 2 2
(c)Final velocity v=0
g=-10m/s2
Distance s=1.25m
Initial velocity, u=?
From v2= u2+2gs
02= u2+2(-10)(1.25)
u=5m/s.
The rebound velocity is 5m/s.
1 1
K . E= mu2 = (0 .150 )(5)2 =1 .875 J
(d)K.E on rebound 2 2
Example 2

Find the velocity with which the ball strikes the ground when it drops from a
height of 1.8m. (Take g=10m/s2).
Solution

By law of conservation of energy

Gravitational [Link]=[Link]
1 2
mgh= mv
2
2
v =2 gh=2(10 )(1. 8 )
v 2=2 gh=2(10 )(1. 8 )
v=6 m/s
The ball strikes the ground with a velocity of 6m/s.
Test yourself
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 15m/s.
Calculate the maximum height reached by the ball.
(Take g=10m/s2)

9.4. Definition: Work-Energy Theorem

51
The work-energy theorem states that the work done on an object is equal to
the change in its kinetic energy:
ΔW = ΔK . E=K . Ef −K . Ei
Example
The driver of a 1 000 kg car traveling at a speed of 16.7 m/s applies the car’s
brakes when he sees a red robot. The car’s brakes provide a frictional force
of 8000 N. Determine the stopping distance of the car.
Solution
Mass m=1000kg
Speed v=16.7m/s
Frictional force F=-8000N
The negative sign indicates that this force opposes the motion of the car.
1 1
K . E= mv 2 = (1000 )(16 .7 )2 =139445 J
2 2
Assume the stopping distance is d
W =F . d=(−8000 )d
ΔK . E=W
K .E f −K . Ei=(−8000)d
0 J−139445 J =(−8000 )d
d=17. 4 m
Test yourself

A 6.0-kg block initially at rest is pulled to the right along a horizontal,

frictionless surface by a constant horizontal force of 12 N. Find the speed of
the block after it has moved 3.0 m.
9.5. Sources of energy
(a)Renewable sources of energy: those which can be replaced fairly fast.
Example:
-Solar energy
-Geothermal
-Biomass
-Biogas
-Tidal energy
-Wind energy
(b)Non-renewable sources of energy: those which take millions of years
before to be replaced.
Example:
Fossils energy and nuclear energy
Exercises
1. A man of mass 70 kg climbs stairs of vertical height 2.5 m. Calculate the
work done against the force of gravity. (Take g = 9.81 m s2.)
2. A stone of weight 10 N falls from the top of a 250 m high cliff.
(a) Calculate how much work is done by the force of gravity in pulling
the,stone to the foot of the cliff.
(b)How much energy is transferred to the stone?

52
3. Calculate how much gravitational potential energy is gained if you climb
aflight of stairs. Assume that you have a mass of 52 kg and that the height
you lift yourself is 2.5 m.

4. A particle is subject to a force Fxthat varies with position as in Figure

below. Find the work done by the force on the particle as it moves the whole
distance.

5. Cite two examples in which a force is exerted on an object without doing

any work on the object.
6. (a) If the speed of a particle is doubled, what happens to its kinetic
energy? (b) What can be said about the speed of a particle if the
net work done on it is zero?

Unit 10: Gas laws’ experiments

10.1. Variables of the state of a gas
In general the state of a gas is characterized by three parameters:
-The volume V occupied by a gas
-The pressure P of the gas
-The thermodynamic temperature T

A. Boyle’s law:
Boyle’s law states that, the volume of gas is inversely proportional to the
absolute pressure applied to it when the temperature is kept constant.
1
V∝
That is P Or PV = constant

53
If
P1 and V 1 are initial pressure and volume, P2 and V 2 are final pressure and

volume, then P1 V 1 =P2 V

The process in which, the volume occupied by a gas and the pressure, at
constant temperature is called an isothermal process.
Experiment to verify Boyle’s law

The pressure of the trapped air in the strong glass tube can be changed with
the help of a foot pump.
Since the pressure is transmitted through the oil in the reservoir to the
trapped air the pressure of the trapped air is the same as the pressure above
the oil in the reservoir.
The pressure of the trapped air, P, can be measured by the bourdon gauge.
The volume of the trapped air, V, is measured from the scale.
The experiment may be repeated several times by changing the pressure of
the trapped air and the corresponding volume of air.
The reading of P, V and 1/V can be tabulated as shown below:
P V 1/V

54
The graph of P against 1/V is is a straight line.
The graph P−V is isothermal.

1
The graph between P and V is a straight line inclined to volume axis.
Example
A gas of volume 84cm3is compressed gradually at constant temperature
until its pressure rises from 75cm of Mercury to 140cm of mercury. Find the
final volume of the gas.
Solution
Initial pressure 1
P =75 CmHg

Final pressure P1 =140 CmHg

3
Initial volumeV 1 =84 cm
Final volume V 2 =?
From P1 V 1 =P2 V 2
(75 )(84 )=140 V 2 , V 2 =45 cm 3

B. Charles’ law
Charles gas law, states that, at constant pressure, the volume of a given
amount of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
V
=
That is V ∝ T Or T constant
For two states characterized by (
V 1 ,T 1 ) and
V1 V2
=
V ,T
( 2 2 ) the equation takes the form T 1 T 2
The process that occurs when the pressure of a gas is constant is called an
isobaric process.
55
Verification of Charles’ law

Water is heated slowly and stirred gently so that the temperature of the
trapped air is equal to the thermometer reading.
The length of the trapped air column is measured at different temperatures
and the readings tabulated as shown below.

T/K V/cm3

The graph of volume V against temperature T is a straight line.

The graph V −T is an isobaric graph.

56
 0
Note that the temperature of −273 C=0 K is called an absolute zero.
It is the temperature at which the pressure and volume of an ideal gas are
zero.

Example
A fixed mass of gas at constant pressure has a volume of 100cm 3 at 270C.
Find its volume at temperature of 540C.
Solution
Initial temperature T 1=( 27+273 ) K =300 K
Final temperatureT 2=( 54+273 ) K=327 K
V 1 =100 Cm 3 , V 2 =?
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
100 V
= 2
300 327
V 2 =109 Cm 3

C. Gay Lussac ‘s law

The law states that at constant volume, the absolute pressure of a gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
P
=
That is P∝ T Or T constant
For two states characterized by (
P1 ,T 1 ) and (
P2 , T 2 ) the equation takes
P1 P2
=
the form T 1 T 2

57
The process, in which the volume occupied by a gas is constant, is called an
isochoric process.

Experiment to verify pressure law

Water is heated slowly and stirred gently so that the temperature of air in
the glass bulb, is the same as thermometer reading. The pressure exerted by
the air in the glass bulb is measured with the pressure gauge at different
temperatures and the readings tabulated as shown below.

T/K P/Pa

The graph of P against T is a straight line.

The graph P−T is an isochoric graph.

58
Example
A fixed mass of gas exerts a pressure of 76cm of mercury at 27 0C.
(a)Find the pressure exerted by it at 1000C.
(b)State two physical properties of the gas assumed constant.

Solution
(a)From the pressure law
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
76 P2
=
27+273 100+273
P2 =94 . 5 cmHg
(b)The mass and volume of the gas are kept constant.

General gas equation

Summarizing the above three laws in one equation involving two states

( P1 ,V 1 , T 1 ) and( P2 ,V 2 ,T 2 ) we get

P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1 T2 .
The ideal gas law states that the absolute pressure P of onemole of a gas
PV
=
contained in a volume V is related to the absolute temperature T by T
constant

59
PV
=R
T , R is called universal gas constant.
Experiment confirms that; at the standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.)
1mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 litres.
That is
5
V =22. 4 litres=22 . 4×10−3 m3 P=760 mmHg=1. 013×10 Pa
T =273 K
PV 1 . 013×10 5×22. 4×10−3
R= =
Then T 273
R=8 .31 J /mol . K
It is the same for all gases.

The density of the gas

The density of a gas is very sensitive to changes of temperature and
pressure.
For n moles, the gas equation is PV =nRT
If the mass of gas is m and M is the molar mass of the gas molecules, then
the number of moles n=m/ M
m
pV =nRT = RT
So with a mass m, M
The density ρ of gas=m/V
mRT RT
P= =ρ
Then VM M
PM
=ρ
RT
Example1
A helium party balloon, assumed to be a perfect sphere, has a radius of
18.0cm at room temperature (200C), its internal pressure is 1.05atm. Find
the number of moles of helium in the baloon and the mass of the helium
needed to inflate the balloon to these values.
Answer
We get the volume V from the formula for a sphere:
4 4
V = πr 3 V = π (0 . 180 m)3 =0 .0244 m3
3 , 3
P=1 . 05 atm=1 . 064×105 N /m 2 .
T =(20+ 273)=293 K .

60
 R=8 .314 J /mol . K , therefore
PV (1 .064×10 5 N /m2 )×(0 . 0244 m3 )
n= = =1. 66 mol
RT 8 .314 J /mol . K (293 K )
M=4 . 00 g /mol
The mass of helium with molar mas
m=n×M=(1. 66 )(4 )=6 . 64 g
is
Example 2
What is the density of carbon tetrachloride vapour (CCl 4) at 714 torr and
1250C?
Solution
Molar mass of (CCl4) is
M=(12)+( 4 )(35. 5 )=154 g/mol=0 . 154 kg /mol
Temperature
T =273+125=398 K
760 torr=101325 Pa
714 torr=95192. 2 Pa
The density
PM (95192. 2 )( 0. 154 )
ρ= = =4 . 43 kg/m3
RT (8. 31 )(398 )
Avogadro ‘s hypothesis
In 1811 Avogadro, Italian physicist
(1776-1856) suggested that chemically active gases, such as oxygen,
existed not as single atoms, but as pairs: he proposed to distinguish between
an atom, O, and a molecule, O2.
In 1814 he put forward another idea, called Avogadro’s hypothesis: equal
volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contains equal
numbers of molecules.
The number of molecules in one mole is equal to Avogadro’s number.
N A =6 . 02×1023 molecules/mole
The total number of molecules
N=nN A
n is the number of mole.
N
n=
NA
Using this value in PV =nRT
N
PV = RT
We get NA

61
 N
PV = (8 . 31)T =NK B T
(6 . 02×10 23 )

−23
Where K B =1. 38×10 J /K is called Boltzmann constant.

Dalton’s law of partial pressure

Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the total pressure exerted by the
mixture of two or more non reacting gases in definite volume is equal to the
sum of partial pressures of the constituent gases.

According to this law if the gases filled in a vessel do not react chemically,
then the combined pressure of all the gases is due to the partial pressure of
the molecules of the individual gases.

When the containers are connected by opening the tap T, the gas mix and
reach the same pressure at constant temperature.

From the first gas:

-the initial state ( P1 , V 1 , T )
( P ′ , V 1 +V 2 ,T )
-the final state after the mixture 1

From Boyle ’s law:

'
P1 V 1 =P1 (V 1 + V 2 )
P1 V 1
P ′=
1 V 1 +V 2

From the second gas:

62
 -initial state( P2 , V 2 , T )
- Final state after the mixture
'
( P2 , V 1 +V 2 ,T )
P2 V 2 =P ′ (V 1 +V 2 )
From Boyle’s law: 2

P2 V 2
P ′=
2 V 1 +V 2
P ′ + P ′ =P
Therefore the pressure of mixture is given by 1 2

P V P V P V +P V
P= 1 1 + 2 2 = 1 1 2 2
V 1 +V 2 V 1 + V 2 V 1 +V 2
(Total pressure)

Example
As shown in figure below, two flasks are connected by an initially closed
stopcock. One flask contains krypton gas at 500mmHg, while the other
contains Helium at 950mmHg. The stopcock is now opened so that the gases
mix. What is the final pressure in the system? Assume constant temperature.

P1 V 1 P2 V 2
P= +
V 1 +V 2 V 1 + V 2
(500 )(250 ) (950 )(450 )
P= + =789 mmHg
250 +450 250+ 450

Unit 11: Magnetism

63
11.1. Some definitions

Magnetism:Magnetism is the study of magnet and its properties on another

object.
It is also an attraction for iron; associated with electric currents as well as
magnets and characterized by fields of force.

Magnetic fieldis defined as lines of force surrounding a permanent magnet

or a moving charged particle. The magnetic field is a vector quantity.

Representing magnetic fields

Important:
1. Field lines never cross.
2. Arrows drawn on the field lines indicate the direction of the field.
3. A magnetic field points from the north to the south pole of a magnet.
[Link] field is strongest where the field lines are closest together.
Other magnetic field patterns:

64
Figure.a: for a bar magnet; Figure.b: for two attracting bar magnets;
Figure.c: for two repelling bar magnets.

Activity:Investigation of the Field around a Bar Magnet

1) Take a bar magnet and place it on a flat surface.
2) Place a sheet of white paper over the bar magnet and sprinkle some
iron filings onto the paper.
3) Give the paper a shake to evenly distribute the iron filings.
4) In your workbook, draw the bar magnet and the pattern formed by
the iron filings.

11.2. The Earth’s magnetic field

The earth has two sets of north poles and south poles: geographic
polesand magnetic poles.

The earth behaves as a powerful magnet. The earth magnetism is caused by

its rotation about its rotational axis and the hot air blowing from the equator
to two hemispheres.
From the picture you can see that the direction of magnetic north and true
north are not identical. The geographic North Pole, which is the point through
which the earth’s rotation axis goes, is about 11.5 0away from the direction of
the magnetic north pole (which is where a compass will point). However, the
magnetic poles shift slightly all the time.

65
The compass tells us that what we call the magnetic north pole is
actually the south pole of the bar magnet.

11.3. Structure of an atom

An atom may be defined as the smallest part of an element that takes part in
chemical reaction. It is composed of densely packed positively charged
nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged
revolving electrons.

The proton is positively charged particle of the atom present in the nucleus.
1
p,1 p

−27
Mass of proton m p =1 .673×10 kg

−19
Charge of proton q=e=1 . 60219×10 C

The neutron is the neutral particle of the atom present in the nucleus.
1
n , or0 n

−27
Mass of neutron m n =1. 675×10 kg

Charge q=0 (neutral).

The electron is the negatively charged particle of the atom distributed

0
around the nucleus.e , −1 e ,e
−

q=−e=1 . 60219×10−19 C
Charge
66
11.4. Magnetic domains

When the magnetic fields of the electrons in a group of neighboring atoms

are all aligned in the same direction, the group is called a domain.

When a piece of iron is not in a magnetic field, the domains point in random
directions, and their magnetic fields cancel one another out. If, however, a
piece of iron is placed in a magnetic field, the domains tend to align with the
external field, as shown in Figure below.

Classification of Magnetic materials

Materialscan be classified as belonging to one of three categories, depending
on their magnetic properties. Ferromagnetic, Paramagnetic and
diamagnetic materials.

Ferromagnetic materials
They arematerials exhibiting strong magnetic effects.
Example :iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, steel, alnico, dysprosium,..

Paramagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials are substances that are weakly attracted by a strong
magnet.
Example: Aluminium, platinum, chromium, magnesium, tungsten, calcium,
…

Diamagnetic materials
These materials are repelled from the region of greater magnetic field
towards a region of lesser field. Their effects are much smaller than those of
paramagnetism or ferromagnetism.
Example: Bismuth, lead, mercury, copper, diamond, gold, silver, silicon, …
67
11.5. Magnetization and demagnetization of substances

A. Magnetization
Magnetization is a process of making a magnet (temporarily or
permanently).
Methods of magnetization
The methods used to magnetize a substance are:

-Single touch method

-Double touch method
-Electrical method
1. Single touch method of magnetization
-Place a soft iron piece to be magnetized on a table.

-Take one magnet and place one of its pole on a soft iron piece

68
 -Stroke the soft iron piece with the bar magnet

-When the magnet reaches B, lift it and place it back to the position A.
-Repeat the process several times.
-The upper side of soft iron getsmagnetized.

69
-Turn the soft iron and magnetize the lower side in the same manner.

-The point will retain the same pole as the pole touching it, i.e. north pole N.

-When the nails are put near the soft iron, they are attracted.
This shows that the soft iron is magnetized.

2. Double touch method of magnetization

-Place a steel bar to be magnetized on two bar magnets.

70
-Place two opposite poles of bar magnets

-Move the magnets towards the ends a steel bar.

-Repeat the procedures several times

-The polarities are developed at the ends of steel and opposing to the poles
used for magnetization.

-When the iron nails are put near the steel bar alone, they are attracted.
This shows that the soft iron is magnetized.

71
 3. Magnetization by electrical method

-Place a soft iron bar to be magnetized inside an insulated copper wire.

-When the circuit is closed the current produced by the battery passes
through the copper wire and the bar becomes a magnet. The polarities of a
soft iron bar depend upon the direction of electric current.

If the current passes in clockwise direction, the end A becomes a south pole
B the North Pole.
If the current passes in anticlockwise direction, the end A becomes a North
Pole and B a south pole.

72
When the current is passing through the coil, the magnet created can attract
the iron nails.
But when the current stops flowing in the coil, the magnet created fails to
attract the iron nails.
B. Demagnetization
Demagnetization is a process of destroying partially or totally the magnetic
properties of the magnet.

Methods of demagnetization
-Hammering, dropping and rough handling the magnet can demagnetize the
magnet.
-A magnet loses its magnetism when it is heatedabove a certain temperature
called its Curie point.
-By induction:When two magnets are placed side by side with similar poles
together ech induces the opposite polarity in the other, as a result, the
magnet loses its magnetism.

By passing electricity:

When the alternating current changes a direction continuously in a circuit

containing the magnet, it loses its magnetism.

11.6. Magnetic Keepers

When two magnets are placed side by side with similar poles together ech
induces the opposite polarity in the other,this weakens the strength of the
magnet. To prevent it, magnetic keepers can be used.
Magnetic keepers are soft iron pieces that are placed across the poles so
that there is no mutual force of repulsion or attraction.

73
11.7. Magnetic shielding

How Do Magnetic Shields Work?

Magnetic shielding is a process that limits the coupling of a magnetic
field between two locations.
Magnetic shielding materials redirect a magnetic field so it lessens the field's
influence on the item being shielded. Shielding does not eliminate or destroy
magnetic fields, nothing does.

This can be done with a number of materials, including sheet metal, metal
mesh, ionized gas, or plasma. The purpose is most often to
prevent magnetic fields from interfering with electrical devices.

ACTIVITIES

a) Describe what is meant by the term magnetic field.

b) Use words and pictures to explain why permanent magnets have
a magnetic field around them. Refer to domains in your
explanation.
c) What happens to the poles of a magnet if it is cut into pieces?
d) What happens when like magnetic poles are brought close
together?
e) Explain how a compass indicates the direction of a magnetic
field.
f) Give examples of phenomena that are affected by Earth’s
magnetic field.
g) Draw a diagram showing the magnetic field around the Earth.

74
Unit 12: Electrostatics
12.1. Some definitions
Electrostatics: It is a branch of electricity that deals with the study of
electric charges at rest.

Electric Charge
The structure of atoms can be described in terms of three particles: the
negatively charged electron, the positively charged proton, and the
uncharged neutron. The protons and neutrons in an atom make are located
−19
in the nucleus. The charge of electron is e=−1 . 6×10 C that of proton is
e =+ 1 .6×10−19 C .

Properties of electric charges

Unlike charges attract; like charges repel.
Alternatively,charges of the same sign repel one another and charges with
opposite signs attract one another.
Charge is conserved; the total charge in an isolated system is constant.

The electric charge q is said to be quantized, when q=Ne, where N is some

integer.

When the total number of protons in a macroscopic body equals the total
number of electrons, the total charge or net charge is zero and the body is
electrically neutral.

Coulomb’s law
Coulomb’s experiments deal with the attraction or repulsion forces between
two electric charges.

It states that the electric force F between two stationary charged particles q1
and q2 is proportional to the product of the charges q1 and q2 and is inversely
proportional to the square of the separation r between the particles and
directed along the line joining them.

75
 q1 q1
F =k
r2
1
k= ≈9×109 Nm 2 C−2
4 πε 0 isCoulomb constant.
ε 0=8. 85×10−12 C 2 /Nm 2 =permittivity of free space.

EXAMPLE

The electron and proton for hydrogen atom have equal magnitude of charge
−19
of 1 .6×10 C and are separated (on the average) by a distance of
−11
approximately5 .3×10 m . Find the magnitudes of the electric force.

Solution
Electrostatic force
( 1. 6×10−19 )( 1. 6×10−19 )
q 1 q1
F e=k 2 =9×10 9
2
=8 . 2×10−8 N
r ( 5 . 3×10−11 )
12.2. Electric field

Definition of electric field

An electric field is a region of space in which an electric charge experiences
a force.
The strength or intensity of the field E, at the location of q is defined as the
magnitude of the electric force divided by the charge.
F
E=
q (1)
Unit in SI is Newton per coulomb( N /C ). The electric field is a vector quantity.
The force acting on a charge in an electric field is given by

76
F=qE
The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction that a positive test
charge wouldmove if placed at that point.

Above charge Q produces an electric field which acts on a small charge q.

Qq
F=
As F=qE and 4 πε 0 r 2 it follows that
Q
E=
4 πε 0 r 2(2)
Note:
1. The charge is on the surface of the conductor.
2. Inside the conductor there is no charge, so no electric field.

Direction of electric field for two charges

(a)Positive charges

E is in the same direction as F.

(b)Opposite charges

Example

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point P which
is 30cm to the right of a point chargeQ=−3.0× 10−6 C .

Solution

77
The magnitude of the electric field is:

Q ( 9 . 0×10 N⋅m /C ) ( 3 . 0×10 C )

29 −6
2
E=k 2 = 2
=3 .0×105 N /C .
r ( 0. 30 m )
The direction of the electric field is toward the chargeQ .

Electric field patterns of lines of force

The number of field lines is proportional to the electric field

strength.
By convention, electric field lines are drawn so that the electric field vector, E
is tangent to the lines at each point.

The rules for drawing electric field lines

1. Electric field lines therefore point away from positive charges and towards
negative charges.
2. Arrows on the field lines indicate the direction of the field, i.e. the direction
a positive test charge would move.
3. Field lines are drawn closer together where the field is stronger.
4. Field lines never cross.

Representation of electric field lines

(1) Isolated charges

Fig (a) positive charge Fig (b) negative charge

78
 (2) Unlike charges

(3) Like charges

Electric field lines point in opposite direction.

12.3. Electric potential

The electric potential V (at a point P) is defined as the work done (W) in
moving the positive test charge q from a large distance (infinity) to that
point.
79
 W
V=
Thus q

Potential difference
The potential difference between two points A and B in an electric field is
defined as the work done to move a unit positive test charge from the point
of lower potential to that of higher potential.
It is a work done in moving a unit positive charge from B to A.

Potential difference V AB=work per coulomb ∈moving charge ¿ B¿ A

W BA
V BA =V B−V A =
q
S.I unit: J.C−1or V (the volt)
From the above formula we can define the volt.
One volt is the potential difference between two points in an electric field if
one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of charge from the one
point to the other.

Electro-volt
An electron-volt( eV ) is the kinetic energy gained by an electron which has
been accelerated through a potential difference of 1volt.
−19
1 eV =1.6 × 10 J
Example
An electron in Tammie’s TV is accelerated toward the screen across a
potential difference of 22 000 V. How much kinetic energy does the electron
lose when it strikes the TV screen?
Solution

Activity
James recharges his dead 12.0V car battery by sending 28 000 C of charge
through the terminals. How much electrical potential energy must James
store in the car battery to make it fully charged?

Potential difference due to the charged sphere

(a)Potential at the spherical surface

Q
V=
This potential (V) is given by 4 πε 0 r
Where Q= single charge

80
r=distance from Q to a given point.
(b)Potential outside the sphere surface
Q
V P=
4 πε 0 (r +d )
d =distance outside the surface at a point P.

(c)Potential inside the sphere surface

V P =0 , since there is no electric field
All points inside the sphere are at the same potential. These points are
calledequipotential points.

12.4. Relation between electric potential and electric field

The change in potentials between two plates is given by

V Va  Vb Ed

d=distance between two plates

Example1

Amir shuffles his feet across the living room rug, building up a charge on his
body. A spark will jump when there is a potential difference of 9000 V
between the door and the palm of Amir’s hand. This happens when his hand
is 0.3 cm from the door. At this point, what is the electric field between
Amir’s hand and the door?

Solution

81
Example2

System given below is composed of the charges, 10q, 8q and -5q. Fin the
total electric potential energy of the system.

82
Example3Find the potential difference between points A and B, V AB in terms of
kq/r?

Example4

Four point charges are located at the corners of a square that is 8.0 cm on a
side. The charges, going in rotation around the square, are q, 2q, -3q and 2q,
where q = 4.8 μC as shown in figure below. Find the electric potential at
thecentre of the square.

83
 Ans.: 1.53 x 106V

12.5 Electric Flux, EΦ

The electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by
the area of the surface projected in a plane perpendicular to the field.
The electric flux is proportional to the number of field lines passing
through the area.
If the area is perpendicular to the electric field (fig. below)
φ E = EA
whereφ E =electric flux
E =electric field

The S.I unit of electric flux is NC-1m2

12.6Gauss's Law

84
Gauss’s law states that the total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is
equal to the charge (
Q ) enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space (
ε0
).

12.7 Common solid conductor shapes and charge distribution

(a)The electric field on a conducting sphere

The electric field of a point charge Q can be obtained by a straightforward

application of Gauss' law. Considering a Gaussian surface in the form of a
sphere at radius r, the electric field has the same magnitude at every point
of the sphere and is directed outward.

The electric flux is then just the electric field times the area of the sphere.

85
(b)Distribution of Potential and Charge over the Surface of a sharp point

Why do charges tend to go to the sharp point on conducting body?

Charges tend to accumulate at sharp points on conducting bodies these

results in a higher surface charge density (charge per unit area), which in
turn increases the electric field around the point.

(c)Distribution of Potential and Charge over the Surface of a cylindrical

conductor

A cylindrical Gaussian surface is used when finding the electric field or the
flux produced by any of the following:

 an infinitely long line of uniform charge

 an infinite plane of uniform charge
 an infinitely long cylinder of uniform charge
As example "field near infinite line charge"is given below;

86
12.8. Applications of electrostatics

(a)Point discharge (lightning)

Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge during an electrical storm

between electrically charged regions of a cloud (called intracloud
lightning), between that cloud and another cloud, or between a cloud and
the ground.

Lightning creates light in the form ofplasma (one of the four fundamental
states of matter), and sound in the form of thunder. Lightning may be seen
and not heard when it occurs at a distance too great for the sound to carry
as far as the light from the strike or flash.

87
(b)Lightening arrester
A lightening arrester is a device used on electrical power systems
and telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of
the system from the damaging effects of lightning.

It consists of a long thick copper rod passing through the building to ground.
The lower end of the rod is connected to a copper plate buried deeply into
the ground.
A metal plate with number of spikes is connected to the top end of the
copper rod and kept at the top of the building.
When a negatively charged cloud passes over the building, positive charge
will be induced on the pointed conductor. The positively charged sharp
points will ionize the air in the vicinity. This will partly neutralize the negative
charge of the cloud, thereby lowering the potential of the cloud.
The negative charges that are attracted to the conductor, travels down to
the earth. Thereby preventing the lightning stroke from the damage of the
building.

(c)Spray painting
88
Spray painting is a painting technique where a device sprays a coating
(paint, ink, varnish, etc.) through the air onto a surface. The most common
types employ compressed gas usually air to atomize and direct the paint
particles.

(d) Photocopy machines/xerography

A photocopier (also known as a copier or copy machine) is

a machine that makes paper copies of documents and other visual images
quickly and cheaply.

Most current photocopiers use a technology called xerography

( photocopying technique), a dry process that uses electrostatic charges
on a light-sensitive plate to first attract and then transfer toner particles (a
powder) onto paper in the form of an image.
(e) Laser Printers
Laser printing is an electrostatic digital printing process. It produces high-
quality text and graphics (and moderate-quality photographs) by repeatedly
passing a laser beam back and forth over a negatively charged cylinder
called a "drum" to define a differentially charged image.

(f)Van de Graff Generator

A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator that is capable of

producing very high static electric potentials.

(g) Electrostatic precipitators

(dust particle collection and separation)

The electrostatic precipitator is the device used to remove dust particles

from gases in burning power stations.
These gases can be produced by burning fossil fuels (e.g. Smoke) and oil.
which can damage buildings and cause breathing difficulties.

89
In the example above:
1. Smoke particles pick up a negative charge
2. Smoke particles are attracted to the collecting plates, which are earthed
or positively charged
3. Collecting plates are knocked to remove the smoke particles, which then
fall into a collector.

Exercises
1. Draw the electric field pattern lines between:
A. two equal positive point charges.
B .two equal negative point charges.

2. Two insulated metal spheres carrying charges of +6nC and −10nC are
separated by a distance of 20 mm.
A. What is the electrostatic force between the spheres?
B. The two spheres are touched and then separated by a distance of 60mm.
What are the new charges on the spheres?
What is new electrostatic force between the spheres at this distance?
3. The electrostatic force between two charged spheres of +3nC and +4nC
respectively is 0.04N. What is the distance between the spheres?
[Link] particles having charges of 0.70nC and 12nC are separated by a
distance of 2m. At what point along the line connecting the two charges is
the net electric field due to the two charges equal to zero?
5. Calculate the potential difference between two parallel plates if it takes
5000J of energy to move 25C of charge between the plates?
6. Calculate the electric field between the plates of a capacitor if the plates
are 20mm apart and the potential difference between the plates is 300V.
7. Calculate the electrical potential energy of a 6nC charge that is 20cm from
a 10nC charge.
90
8.

Unit13: Arrangement of resistors in electric circuit

[Link]: Direct-current circuits
An electric circuit is any series of wires, resistors, meters and other
components connected so that a current can pass through the circuit.
In a wire the current is a flow of electrons. If I is the current, and Q is the
charge passing any point in time t, then
Q=It .
The S.I unit of Q is Coulomb (C) and that of I is Ampere (A).
Electrical current can be measured by using an instrument called ammeter
or galvanometer for small current.
Conventional current and electron flow
The current flows from positive terminal to negative terminal of the battery,
whereas electrons flow in the opposite direction.

91
Activity
A steady current of 2.5A flows through a wire for [Link] the
total amount of charge that has flowed.

13.1. Resistance
Resistance is a measure of its opposition to the flow of charges through it.
Ohm (Ω).
Its S.I unit is

Resistance of the material is measured by an instrument called a rheostat.

Resistors are the materials that produce the resistance.

Ohm’s law
It states that the potential difference (or voltage) across the conductor V is
equal to the product of resistance R and the current I passing through the
conductor.
That isV =RI
The S.I unit of potential difference is volt (V).
Potential difference or voltage can be measured by using an instrument
called avoltmeter.

Activity
A steady current of 3A flows through a wire of resistance 4Ω.Calculate the
potential difference across the wire.

(a)Resistors in series
When two or more resistors are connected end to end as in Active Figure
below, they are said to be in series.

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V =IR 1 + IR 2
IR eq=IR 1 +IR 2
Req =R1 + R2
An extension of the preceding analysis shows that the equivalent resistance
R =R + R +R +. ..
of three or more resistors connected in series is eq 1 2 3
(b) Resistors in parallel
Now consider two resistors connected in parallel, as in Active Figure below.
In this case, the potential differences across the resistors are the
same because each isconnected directly across the battery
terminals. The currents are generally not the same.

V =I 1 R1 =I 2 R 2

The main current I =I 1 + I 2

V V V
= +
R
Or eq
R1 R 2

93
 1 1 1
= +
R eq R1 R 2
An extension of this analysis to three or more resistors in parallel produces
the
following general expression for the equivalent resistance:
1 1 1 1
= + + + .. .
R eq R1 R 2 R 3

Activity
Find the total resistance and the current in for each of the following circuits:

Experiment 1
Construct simple electric circuit with resistors in series and parallel, ammeter
and voltmeter.
Experiment2
Investigating Ohm’s law

[Link] energy and power

Whenever a current is flowing through a resistor, electrical energy is

converted into heat energy or work done. The electrical energy E is given by
E=VIt =I 2 Rt
V2
E= t
R
Or
V =potential difference
I =current
t =time

94
The S.I unit is Joule.

Power P is the rate at which work is done.

Thus, P=VI
The S.I unit for power is Watt (W).
Activity 1
What is the current in a 100W bulb when it is operated at 240V.
Activity2
Calculate (a)the current flowing (b)the power dissipated, and (c)the amount
of heat produced in 2.0minutes, in the10.0Ω resistor in the following circuit.

Activity 3

A 1000W, 240V electric heater is connected to a 120V line. Calculate the

resistance of the heater.

13.3. Effect of electric current

Some effects of electric current are the following:

Heat effect, Magnetic effects, Chemical effect, etc.

(a)Heating effect: This occurs when the conductor becomes heated when

the current passes through it. The effect is also known as Joule‘s effect.

Example: Heating effect inelectrical cattle, flat iron, etc.

95
(b)Magnetic effect: When the current passes through the conductor it

generates a magnetic field around that conductor. The effect is called

magnetic effect of current.

(c)Chemical effect: Electrolysis phenomenon.

This is a decomposition of chemical substances (electrolyte) into ions.

13.4. Electric bell, electromagnet

Electric bell

If a piece of iron is placed inside a solenoid, the magnetic field is increased

greatly because the iron-core magnet becomes a [Link] resulting
magnetic field is due to the current passing through the wire. Such an iron-
core solenoid is called an electromagnet.

Exercises

1. (a) Find the equivalent resistance between points a and b in Figure below.
(b) A potential difference of 34.0 V isapplied between points a andb.
Calculate the current in each resistor.

96
2. Calculate the power delivered to each resistor in the circuit s

hown in Figure
below

5. Draw a circuit diagram which consists of the following components:

 2 batteries in parallel
 An open switch
 2 resistors in parallel
 An ammeter measuring total current
 A voltmeter measuring potential difference across one of the parallel
resistors

97
Unit 14: Reflection of light in curved mirrors
14.1. Reflection of light at plane mirror

Mirror is a smooth reflecting surface usually made of polished metal or glass

that has been coated with a metallic substance.

When a ray of light after being incident on a boundary (for example: plane
mirror) separating two media comes back into the same media, then this
phenomenon, is called reflection of light.

Laws of reflection of light

1. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected are in the same plane.
2. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. That is, i=r .

Real and virtual images

If light rays, after reflection, actually meet at a point then real image is
formed
and if they appear to meet virtual image is formed.

98
A virtual image is on the opposite side of the mirror as the object, and light
does not actually reach it.

Properties of image formed by a plane mirror

Image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect ( or upright) and it has the
same size as the object.

image height
magnification=
object height
h'
m=
h
14.2. Spherical or curved mirrors

A spherical mirror is a mirror that has the reflecting surface which is

curved.

There are two types

Concave Mirrors: The reflecting surface is curvedinwards.
99
Convex Mirrors: The reflecting surface is curvedoutwards.

Terms used in curved mirrors

(i) Pole (P) :Mid point of the mirror
(ii) Centre of curvature (C) : Centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a
part.
(iii) Radius of curvature (R) : Distance between pole and centre of
curvature.
(iv) Principle axis : A line passing through P and C.
(v) Focus (F) : An image point on principle axis
(vi) Focal length (f) : Distance between P and F.
(vii) Power: The converging or diverging ability of mirror
(viii)Aperture: is the surface of the mirror

Rules of image formation and sign convention

Rules for ray diagrams

Rule 1 :Ray that is drawn parallel to the principal axis it is reflected back
through the focal point F.
Rule 2 :Ray that is drawn through the focal point it is reflected parallel to
the principal axis.
Rule 3: Ray that is drawn through the center of curvature, C, it is reflected
back on itself.

100
Sign conventions

(i) All distances are measured from the pole.

(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive
while in the direction opposite of incident rays are taken negative.
(iii) Distances above the principle axis are taken as positive and below the
principle axis are taken as negative.

Image formed by spherical mirrors

A. concave mirror
(a) Object O is beyond C

101
Properties of image

Image is:real, inverted, smaller than object and it is between C and F.

(b) Object O is between F and the pole

Poperties of image I
Image is:virtual, erect, bigger than object and it is behind the mirror.
102
Activity: Construct the image formed by a concave mirror when an object is
placed (i) at the centre of curvature C, (ii) at the focus F, (iii) at 2F.

B. convex mirror

Poperties of image
Image is:virtual, erect, smaller than object

Activity: Construct the image formed by a convex mirror when an object is

placed at any other position.

Mirror formulae
Let us consider the concave mirror that can produce an image I of an object
O which is real.

103
Magnification

Let u =object distance

v =image distance
f =focal length
R =radius of the curvature
The magnification
h' v
M= =
h u
Magnification has no unit.
1 1 1
= +
The distance v can be found from the expression f u v
R
f=
Since R=2 f , we also have 2
Note: In calculation, f and v are taken as positive for concave mirror
whereas for convex mirror they are taken as negative.
Applications of spherical/curved mirrors

(i) Concave mirror: Used as a shaving mirror, In search light, in cinema

projector, in telescope, by E.N.T. specialists etc.
(ii) Convex mirror: In road lamps, side mirror in vehicles etc.
Note: Field of view of convex mirror is more than that of concave mirror.

Other types of curved mirrors: Home work

Worked examples

104
Example 1

An object is placed 8cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 5cm.

(a)Find the image distance and magnification in each case.

(b)If the object is 12cm in height find the image height

Solution

(a)We have:u=8 cm (real object), f =5 cm

Substitute in

1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
5 8 v and v=13 .3 cm

v 13 . 3
m= = =1 . 7
The magnification: u 8

h'
=m
(b)We have h

h'
=1. 7
12

andh '=20 . 4 cm

Example2. An object is placed 10cm in front of a convex mirror of focal

length 20cm. Find the image distance and magnification in each case.

We have: u=10 cm (real object), f =−20 cm (for convex mirror f is negative)

1 1 1
Substitute in = +
f u v

1 1 1
= +
−20 10 v

−20× 10 −200
v= = =−6.7 cm
20+10 30

the image is virtual since v is negative.

105
 6.7 13.3
The magnification: m= = =0.67
10 8

Example 3
An object is placed 10cm in front of a curved mirror has a virtual image
formed 12.5cm from the mirror. Find the type of mirror used.
Solution
We have: u=10 cm (real object), v=−12.5 cm (for virtual image)

1 1 1
Substitute in = +
f u v

1 1 1
= + f =50 cm
f 10 −12.5

Since f is positive the mirror is concave

Exercises

1. List 5 properties of a virtual image created by reflection from a plane

mirror.
2. What angle does the principal axis make with a plane mirror?
3. Is the principal axis a normal to the surface of the plane mirror?
4. Do the reflected rays that contribute to forming the image from a
plane mirrorobey the law of reflection?
5. If a candle is placed 50 cm in front of a plane mirror, how far behind
the planemirror will the image be? Draw a ray diagram to show how
the image is formed
6. Explain why ambulances have the word ‘ambulance’ reversed on the
front bonnet of the car?
7. If a stool 0.5 m high is placed 2 m in front of a plane mirror, how far
behindthe plane mirror will the image be and how high will the image
be?
8. If Susan stands 3 m in front of a plane mirror, how far from Susan will
her image be located?
9. An object 2 cm high is placed 4 cm from a convex mirror. If the focal
length of the mirror is 4 cm, find the position and size of the image by
means of a ray diagram. Is the image real or virtual? Calculate the
magnification.
10. An object 1 cm high is placed 4 cm from a concave mirror. If the
focal length of the mirror is 2 cm, find the position and size of the

106
 image by means of a ray diagram. Is the image real or virtual?
Calculate the magnification.

Unit 15: Basic electronic components

15.1. Definition of electronics
Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow of
electrons, semiconductors, with the use of electronic devices.

Semiconductor is a material whose electric properties lie between those of

insulators and good conductors. Example: Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si) ,etc.

An electronic component is any basic discrete device or physical entity

in an electronic system used to affect electrons or their associated fields.

15.2. Illustration of Standard symbols of some electronic

components

Name symbols function

Inductor

Resistor

Capacitors

Ordinary
Diodes

Transistor

or

15.3. Example of electronic components

1. Diode
107
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component of semiconductor that
conducts current in only one direction.

N-type semiconductors are negative charge carriers where the number of

electrons is greater than that of protons.

P-type semiconductors are positive charge carriers where the number of

protons is greater than that of electrons.

Special diodes

(a)Zener diode

A Zener diode allows current to flow in the reverse direction when the
voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage.

Symbol:

Zener diodes are used:

-As switches when they are reverse-biased

-As a voltage clamp, where they control the amount of input voltage to a
circuit that would otherwise become unstable or self-destruct.

-As voltage regulator

108
Basic half wave rectifier circuit

(a)Half wave rectifier

The half wave rectifier circuit can be used in a number of different

applications. The half wave rectifier circuit normally utilizes a single diode.

This passes one half of the cycle, and blocks the other. In this way only half
of the cycle is used, but current is only allowed to flow in one direction.

(b)The Full Wave Rectifier

In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of
the cycle. A multiple winding transformeris used whose secondary winding is
split equally into two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C).

109
(c)The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes
connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired
output.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

110
The four diodes labeled D1 to D4are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half
cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and
D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown
below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased.
The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We can therefore increase the average DC output level even higher by

connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge
circuit as shown below.

Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

111
The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier
into a smooth DC output voltage.

2. Transistors

Definition

A transistor is a three-terminal semiconducting device that can be used to

amplify inputsignals.

There are two basic types

(1)Bipolar or junction transistor(usually called transistor)

It consists of two P-N junctions.

(2)Unipolar or field effect transistor (called FET)

It consists of one P-N junction.

We will consider only the first (bipolar transistor).

112
A bipolar transistor consists of a semiconducting material in which a very
narrow N region is sandwiched between two P regions. This configuration is
called a PNP transistor. Another configuration is the NPN transistor,
which consists of a P region sandwiched between two P regions.

The structure of the NPN and PNP transistor, together with its circuit symbol,
is shown in Figure below:

Emitter: its main function is to supply majority charge carriers (either

electrons or holes) to the base.
Base: it forms the middle section of the transistor.
Collector: its main function is to collect majority charge carriers through the
base.

In an NPN transistor the current flows from the base to the emitter region.
In a PNP transistor the current flows from the emitter to the base region.

3. Transistor currents
The three primary currents which flow in a transistor are: I E , I B and
IC
Where I E = current of the emitter junction
I B = current of the base junction
I C =current of the collector junction
113
By normal convention the currents flowing into a transistor are taken as
positive whereas those flowing out of it are taken as negative. Hence I E is
I
positive whereas I B and C are negative.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law we get
I E +(−I B )+(−I C )=0
I E =I B + I C
This statement is true regardless of transistor type or transistor
configuration.
[Link] of electronic devices

114
Activity1: Discuss about mobile phone, computers, watches
Activity2: What are the constituent of a motherboard of a computer?

Computer
A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out arbitrary
sequences of arithmetic or logicaloperations automatically. The ability of
computers to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs, enables
them to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.
Question (Team work)
1. (a)Define the term electronics (2marks)
(b)What are the functions of the following electronic components?
(i)Inductor (2marks)
(ii) Resistor, (2marks)
(iii)Capacitors, (2marks)
(iv)Ordinary Diode, (2marks)
(v) Zener diode, (2marks)
(vi)Transistor) ?(2marks)
2. Give some electronic components that you can see on a motherboard
of a computer and their functioning. (10marks)

115