Quality control

P. Nyambi
Introduction
• The word quality does not mean the quality of manufactured product
only.
• It may refer to the quality of the process (i.e., men, material, and
machines) and even that of management.
• Quality of product as the degree in which it fulfills the requirement of
the customer.
Definition
• Quality begins with the design of a product in accordance with the
customer specification further it involved the established
measurement standards, the use of proper material, selection of
suitable manufacturing process etc.
• Crosby defined as “Quality is conformance to requirement or
specifications”.
Factors affecting Quality
• The nine fundamental factors (9 M’s), which are affecting the quality of products
and services, are: markets, money, management, men, motivation, materials,
machines and mechanization.
• 1. Market: Because of technology advancement, we could see many new
products to satisfy customer wants. At the same time, the customer wants are
also changing dynamically. So, it is the role of companies to identify needs and
then meet it with existing technologies or by developing new technologies.
• 2. Money: The increased global competition necessitates huge outlays for new
equipment and process. This should be rewarded by improved productivity. This
is possible by minimizing quality costs associated with the maintenance and
improvements of quality level.
• 3. Management: Because of the increased complex structure of business
organization, the quality related responsibilities lie with persons at different
levels in the organization.
Factors Cont…
• 4. Men: The rapid growth in technical knowledge leads to development of
human resource with different specialization. This necessitates some
groups like, system engineering group to integrate the idea of full
specialization.
• 5. Motivation: If we fix the responsibility of achieving quality with each
individual in the organization with proper motivation techniques, there will
not be any problem in producing the designed quality products.
• 6. Materials: Selection of proper materials to meet the desired tolerance
limit is also an important consideration. Quality attributes like, surface
finish, strength, diameter etc., can be obtained by proper selection of
material.
• 7. Machines and mechanization: In order to have quality products
which will lead to higher productivity of any organization, we need to
use advanced machines and mechanize various operations.
• 8. Modern information methods: The modern information methods
help in storing and retrieving needed data for manufacturing,
marketing and servicing.
• 9. Mounting product requirements: Product diversification to meet
customers taste leads to intricacy in design, manufacturing and
quality standards. Hence, companies should plan adequate system to
tackle all these requirements.
Control
• The process through which the standards are established and met
with standards is called control.
• The control process involves a universal sequence of steps as follows:
• 1. Choose the control object
• 2. Choose a unit of measure
• 3. Set the standard value
• 4. Choose a sensing device which can measure
• 5. Measure actual performance
• 6. Interpret the difference between actual and standard
• 7. Taking action.
Need for Controlling Quality

• In the absence of quality, the following will result:

• 1. No yardstick for comparing the quality of goods/services.
• 2. Difficulty in maintaining consistency in quality.
• 3. Dissatisfied customers due to increased maintenance and operating costs
of products/services.
• 4. Increased rework cost while manufacturing products/providing services.
• 5. Reduced life time of the products/services.
• 6. Reduced flexibility with respect to usage of standard spare parts.
• 7. Hence, controlling quality is an essential activity.
INSPECTION

• Inspection is an important tool to achieve quality concept.

• The inspection and test unit is responsible for appraising the quality
of incoming raw materials and components as well as the quality of
the manufactured product or service.
• Inspection only measures the degree of conformance to a standard in
the case of variables.
Objectives of Inspection

• 1. To detect and remove the faulty raw materials before it undergoes

production.
• 2. To detect the faulty products in production whenever it is detected.
• 3. To bring facts to the notice of managers before they become serous
to enable them discover weaknesses and over the problem.
• 4. To prevent the substandard reaching the customer and reducing
complaints.
• 5. To promote reputation for quality and reliability of product.
Purpose of Inspection

• 1. To distinguish good lots from bad lots.

• 2. To distinguish good pieces from bad pieces.
• 3. To determine if the process is changing.
• 4. To determine if the process is approaching the specification limits.
• 5. To rate quality of product.
• 6. To rate accuracy of inspectors.
• 7. To measure the precision of the measuring instrument.
• 8. To secure products-design information.
• 9. To measure process capability.
Types of Inspection

• 1. Floor inspection 2. Centralized inspection

• 3. Combined inspection 4. Functional inspection
• 5. First piece inspection 6. Pilot piece inspection
• 7. Final inspection
FLOOR INSPECTION

• In this system, the inspection is performed at the place of production. It

suggests the checking of materials in process at the machine or in the
production time by patrolling inspectors. These inspectors move from
machine to machine and from one to the other work centers.
• Advantages
• 1. Detection of errors of the source reduces scrap and rework.
• 2. Correction is done before it affects further production, resulting in saving cost of
unnecessary work on defective parts.
• 3. Material handling time is reduced.
• 4. Job satisfaction to worker as he can’t be held responsible for bad work at a later
date.
• 5. Greater number of pieces can be checked than a sample size.
• 6. Does not delay in production.
Floor inspection cont…
• Disadvantages
• 1. Delicate instruments can be employed.
• 2. Measuring or inspection equipment have to be recalibrated often as they are
subjected to wear or dust.
• 3. High cost of inspection because of numerous sets of inspections and skilled
inspectors.
• 4. Supervision of inspectors is difficult due to vibration.
• 5. Pressure on inspector.
• 6. Possibility of biased inspection because of worker.
• Suitability
• 1. Heavy products are produced.
• 2. Different work centers are integrated in continuous line layout.
CENTRALISED INSPECTION

• Inspection is carried in a central place with all testing equipment,

sensitive equipment is housed in air-conditioned area.
• Advantages
• 1. Greater degree of inspection due to sensitive equipment.
• 2. Less number of inspectors and tools.
• 3. Equipment needs less frequency of recalibration.
• 4. Cost of inspection is reduced.
• 5. Unbiased inspection.
• 6. Supervision of inspectors made possible.
• 7. No distraction to the inspector.
Centralised Inspection cont…
• Disadvantages
• 1. Defects of job are not revealed quickly for prevention.
• 2. Greater material handling.
• 3. High cost as products are subjected to production before they are
prevented.
• 4. Greater delay in production.
• 5. Inspection of heavy work not possible.
• 6. Production control work is more complicated.
• 7. Greater scrap.
COMBINED INSPECTION

• Combination of two methods whatever may be the method of

inspection, whether floor or central. The main objective is to locate
and prevent defect which may not repeat itself in subsequent
operation to see whether any corrective measure is required and
finally to maintain quality economically.
FUNCTIONAL INSPECTION
• This system only checks for the main function, the product is
expected to perform. Thus an electrical motor can be checked for the
specified speed and load characteristics.
FIRST PIECE OR FIRST-OFF INSPECTIONS
• First piece of the shift or lot is inspected. This is particularly used
where automatic machines are employed.
PILOT PIECE INSPECTION
• This is done immediately after new design or product is developed.
Manufacturer of product is done either on regular shop floor if
production is not disturbed.
. FINAL INSPECTION
• This is also similar to functional or assembly inspection. This
inspection is done only after completion of work.
Methods of Inspection

• There are two methods of inspection. They are: 100% inspection and
sampling inspection.
• 1. 100% INSPECTION
• This type will involve careful inspection in detail of quality at each strategic
point or stage of manufacture where the test is involved is non-destructive
and every piece is separately inspected.
• 2. SAMPLING INSPECTION
• In this method randomly selected samples are inspected. Samples taken from
different patches of products are representatives. If the sample proves
defective, the entire concerned is to be rejected or recovered. Sampling
inspection is cheaper and quicker.
Drawbacks of Inspection

• Following are the disadvantages of inspection:

• 1. Inspection adds to the cost of the product but not for its value.
• 2. It is partially subjective, often the inspector has to judge whether a
products passes or not.
• 3. Fatigue and Monotony may affect any inspection judgment.
• 4. Inspection merely separates good and bad items. It is no way to prevent
the production of bad items.
QUALITY CONTROL

• Quality Control (QC) may be defined as a system that is used to

maintain a desired level of quality in a product or service.
• QC is a broad term, it involves inspection at particular stage but mere
inspection does not mean QC. As opposed to inspection, in quality
control activity emphasis is placed on the quality future production.
Quality control aims at prevention of defects at the source, relies on
effective feedback system and corrective action procedure. Quality
control uses inspection as a valuable tool.
• According to Juran “Quality control is the regulatory process through
which we measure actual quality performance, compare it with
standards, and act on the difference”.
Types of Quality Control

• 1. Off-line quality control, 2. Statistical process control, and 3.

Acceptance sampling plans.
• [Link]-line quality control: Its procedure deal with measures to select
and choose controllable product and process parameters in such a
way that the deviation between the product or process output and
the standard will be minimized.
Types cont….
• [Link] process control: SPC involves comparing the output of a
process or a service with a standard and taking remedial actions in
case of a discrepancy between the two.
• [Link] sampling plans: A plan that determines the number of
items to sample and the acceptance criteria of the lot, based on
meeting certain stipulated conditions (such as the risk of rejecting a
good lot or accepting a bad lot) is known as an acceptance sampling
plan.
Steps in Quality Control

• Following are the steps in quality control process:

• 1. Formulate quality policy.
• 2. Set the standards or specifications on the basis of customer’s preference, cost
and profit.
• 3. Select inspection plan and set up procedure for checking.
• 4. Detect deviations from set standards of specifications.
• 5. Take corrective actions or necessary changes to achieve standards.
• 6. Decide on salvage method i.e., to decide how the defective parts are disposed
of, entire scrap or rework.
• 7. Coordination of quality problems.
• 8. Developing quality consciousness both within and outside the organization.
• 9. Developing procedures for good vendor-vendee relations.
objectives of quality control:

• 1. To improve the companies income by making the production more

acceptable to the customers, i.e., by providing long life, greater usefulness,
maintainability etc.
• 2. To reduce companies cost through reduction of losses due to defects.
• 3. To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large scale production.
• 4. To produce optimal quality at reduced price.
• 5. To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or services or high
quality level, to build customer goodwill, confidence and reputation of
manufacturer.
• 6. To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.
• 7. To check the variation during manufacturing.
Benefits of Quality Control

• Improving the quality of products and services.

• Increasing the productivity of manufacturing processes, commercial
business, corporations.
• Reducing manufacturing and corporate costs.
• Determining and improving the marketability of products and
services.
• Reducing consumer prices of products and services.
• Improving and/or assuring on time deliveries and availability.
• Assisting in the management of an enterprise.
Seven Tools for Quality Control

• To make rational decisions using data obtained on the product, or

process, or from the consumer, organizations use certain graphical
tools. The seven quality control tools are:
• 1. Pareto charts 2. Check sheets 3. Cause and effect
diagram
• 4. Scatter diagrams 5. Histogram 6. Graphs or flow
charts
• 7. Control charts
PARETO CHARTS
• Pareto charts help prioritize by arranging them in decreasing order of
importance. In an environment of limited resources these diagrams help
companies to decide on the order in which they should address problems.
• The Pareto analysis can be used to identify the problem in a number of
forms.
• (a) Analysis of losses by material (number or past number).
• (b) Analysis of losses by process i.e., classification of defects or lot rejections in terms
of the process.
• (c) Analysis of losses by product family.
• (d) Analysis by supplier across the entire spectrum of purchases.
• (e) Analysis by cost of the parts.
• (f) Analysis by failure mode.
CHECK SHEETS

• Check sheets facilitate systematic record keeping or data collection

observations are recorded as they happen which reveals patterns or
trends. Data collection through the use of a checklist is often the first
step in analysis of quality problem.
CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM
• It is sometimes called as Fish-bone diagram. It is first developed by
Kaorv Ishikawa in 1943 and is sometimes called as Ishikawa diagram.
• The main quality problem is referred to Fish-head; the major
categories of potential cause structural bones and the likely specific
causes to ribs.
• This diagram helps identify possible reasons for a process to go out of
control as well as possible effects on the process.
SCATTER DIAGRAM (SCATTERPLOTS)
• It often indicates the relationship between two variables. They are
often used as follow-ups to cause and effect analysis to determine
whether a stated cause truly does impact the quality characteristics.
HISTOGRAM (OR) BARCHARTS
• It displays the large amounts of data that are difficult to interpret in
their raw form. A histogram summarizes data measured on a
continuous scale showing the frequency distribution of some quality
characteristics (in statistical terms the central tendency and the
dispersion of the data).
FLOW CHARTS (OR) GRAPHS
• It shows the sequence of events in a process. They are used for
manufacturing and service operations. Flow charts are often used to
diagram operational procedures to simplify the system.
CONTROL CHARTS

• It distinguish special causes of variations from common causes of

variation.
• They are used to monitor and control process on an ongoing basis. A
typical control chart plots a selected quality characteristic found from
sub-group of observations as a function of sample number.
• Characteristics such as sample average, sample range and sample
proportion of non-conforming units are plotted.
• The center line on a control chart represents the average value of
characteristics being plotted. Two limits known as the upper control
limit (UCL) and lower control limit (LCL) are also shown on control
charts.
Causes of Variation in Quality

• The variation in the quality of product in any manufacturing process is broadly

classified as:
• (a) Chance causes
• (b) Assignable causes.
• (A) CHANCE CAUSES
• The chance causes are those causes which are inherit in manufacturing process
by virtue of operational and constructional features of the equipment involved in
a manufacturing process.
• This is because of—
• 1. Machine vibrations
• 2. Voltage variations
• 3. Composition variation of material, etc.
Variation in Quality cont…
• (B) ASSIGNABLE CAUSES
• These are the causes which creates ordinary variation in the production
quality.
• Assignable cause’s variation can always be traced to a specific quality. They
occur due to—
• 1. Lack of skill in operation
• 2. Wrong maintenance practice
• 3. New vendors
• 4. Error in setting jigs and fixtures
• 5. Raw material defects
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

• Statistical process control (SPC) is the application of statistical

techniques to determine whether the output of a process conforms
to the product or service design.
• It aims at achieving good quality during manufacture or service
through prevention rather than detection.
Control Charts

• SPC is implemented through control charts that are used to monitor

the output of the process and indicate the presence of problems
requiring further action.
• Control charts can be used to monitor processes where output is
measured as either variables or attributes.
• There are two types of control charts: Variable control chart and
attribute control chart.
Implementing statistical process control cont..
• 1. Variable control charts: It is one by which it is possible to measures
the quality characteristics of a product. The variable control charts are
X-BAR chart, R-BAR chart, SIGMA chart.
• 2. Attribute control chart: It is one in which it is not possible to
measures the quality characteristics of a product, i.e., it is based on
visual inspection only like good or bad, success or failure, accepted or
rejected. The attribute control charts are p-charts, np-charts, c-charts,
u-charts. It requires only a count of observations on characteristics
e.g., the number of nonconforming items in a sample.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL CHARTS

• A control chart is a time-ordered diagram to monitor a quality

characteristic, consisting of:
• 1. A nominal value, or center line, the average of several past samples.
• 2. Two control limits used to judge whether action is required, an upper
control limit (UCL) and a lower control limit (LCL).
• 3. Data points, each consisting of the average measurement calculated
from a sample taken from the process, ordered overtime. By the Central
Limit Theorem, regardless of the distribution of the underlying individual
measurements, the distribution of the sample means will follow a normal
distribution. The control limits are set based on the sampling distribution
of the quality measurement.
BENEFITS OF USING CONTROL CHARTS

• Following are the benefits of control charts:

• 1. A control chart indicates when something may be wrong, so that
corrective action can be taken.
• 2. The patterns of the plot on a control chart diagnosis possible cause
and hence indicate possible remedial actions.
• 3. It can estimate the process capability of process.
• 4. It provides useful information regarding actions to take for quality
improvement.
OBJECTIVES OF CONTROL CHARTS

• Following are the objectives of control charts:

• 1. To secure information to be used in establishing or changing
specifications or in determining whether the process can meet
specifications or not.
• 2. To secure information to be used on establishing or changing
production procedures.
• 3. To secure information to be used on establishing or changing
inspection procedures or acceptance procedures or both.
• 4. To provide a basis for current decision during production.