Chapter 2

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

When a function y = f (x) is differentiated with respect to x, the differential coef-

dy
ficient is written as dx or f ′ (x). Recall from differentiation by first principle that if
dy
y = axn , where a and n are constants, then dx = anxn−1 . By using this rule, it is
easy to check that the derivative of any constant is zero. In order to differentiate
polynomials we recall that the derivative of a sum or difference of functions is the
sum or difference of their derivatives. Thus, if f (x) = p(x) + q(x) − r(x), where p, q
and r are functions, then f ′ (x) = p′ (x) + q ′ (x) − r′ (x).

Example 2.0.1.
Find the first derivative of each of the following functions:

1. f (x) = 45 x4 − 10
3
√ 
2 2 3
2. f (x) = 2 − 4x +4
x
+3
x2

dy
If y = f (x) is differentiable and the expression dx or f ′ (x) is differentiated again,
d2 y ′′
then the second differential coefficient is written as dx 2 or f (x) and is sometimes

called the second-order derivative. Similarly, the nth −order derivative, if it exists, is
dn y (n)
written as dx n or f (x).

2.1 Methods of Differentiation

In order to differentiate products, quotients and composite functions, we will require

the following rules:

1
 1. When y = uv, where u and v are both functions of x, then
dy dv du
=u +v .
dx dx dx
This is known as the product rule.
Example 2.1.1.
√
Find y ′′ if y = (x4 − 1) (x−2 + x)

2. When y = uv , where u and v are both functions of x, then

dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx .
dx v
This is known as the quotient rule.
Example 2.1.2.
Find the second derivative of the function
x+3
f (x) = 2 .
x −1
3. If y = f (g(x)), where g is a function of x, then letting u = g(x) gives y = f (u)
so that
dy dy du
= × .
dx du dx
This is known as the chain rule. The chain rule can also be used if y = (f (x))n ,
where n ∈ Q, by letting u = f (x) so that y = un .
Example 2.1.3.
9
1. Find the third derivative of g(x) = (x2 + 1) .
1
2. Find the nth derivative of y = 2−x
.

2.2 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

dy
By using the first principle, it can be shown that if y = sin x, then dx = cos x, and if
dy
y = cos x, then dx = − sin x. We use these two differential coefficients to differentiate
other trigonometric functions such as sec x and tan x among others.
Example 2.2.1.
Find the indicated derivative in each of the following:

1. f (x) = cos(2x), f ′′ (x)

2. f (x) = tan x1 , f ′ (x).

2
2.3 Differentiation of Exponential and Logarith-
mic Functions

Recall that that if y = ax for some constant a > 0, then y ′ = ax ln a,. It can be
shown by using chain rule that, in general, if y = af (x) , then y ′ = f ′ (x)af (x) ln a. It
follows then that if y = ef (x) , then y ′ = f ′ (x)ef (x) .
Recall also that if y = logb x, then y ′ = x ln 1
b
, and in general, if y = logb (f (x)), then
′ ′ (x)
y = (f (x)) ln b . It follows that if y = ln(f (x)), then y ′ = (ff (x))
′ f (x)
.

Example 2.3.1.
Find y ′ in each of the following:

1. y = e−x sin 2x 2. y = ln(x2 + 2x − 9) 3. y = log3 (x3 + 1)

2.4 Implicit Functions

When an equation can written in the form y = f (x), it is said to be an explicit

3ex
function of x. For example, y = 2x3 − 3x + 4, y = 2x ln x and y = cos x
are explicit
functions. In these examples y may be differentiated ”directly” with respect to x
(wrt x).
Sometimes, it is impossible to make y the subject of the formula. Such equations are
called implicit functions and some examples are
• y 3 + 2x2 = y 2 − x
• y 2 = x2 + 2 sin(xy).
In such cases, we consider y as a function of x and differentiate using the usual rules
of differentiation.
Note that if we are differentiating f (y) wrt x, then, by using chain rule, we have that

d d dy
(f (y)) = (f (y)) × .
dx dy dx
Example 2.4.1.
d2 y
Find dx2
if
y 3 + 2x2 = y 2 − x.

3
2.5 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions

2.5.1 Introduction

The hyperbolic functions have similar names to the trigonometric functions, but they
are defined in terms of the exponential function. By definition:

ex −e−x
1. Hyperbolic sine of x, sinh x = 2
, pronounced as ”shine x”.

ex +e−x
2. Hyperbolic cosine of x, cosh x = 2
, pronounced as ”kosh x”.

4
 Other hyperbolic functions can be defined by using the hyperbolic sine and
cosine. For example,
sinh x e2x −1
3. Hyperbolic tangent of x, tanh x = cosh x
= e2x +1
, pronounced as ”than x”.

1 2ex
4. Hyperbolic cosecant of x, cosech x = sinh x
= e2x −1
, pronounced as ”koshek x ”
.
1 2ex
5. Hyperbolic secant of x, sech x = cosh x
= e2x +1
, pronounced as ”shek x ” .
cosh x e2x +1
6. Hyperbolic cotangent of x, coth x = sinh x
= e2x −1
, pronounced as ”koth x ” .

Hyperbolic functions have identities which are similar to, but not the same as, the
identities for trigonometric functions. Using Osborn’s rule, we can convert all trigono-
metric identities into hyperbolic identities. Osborn’s rule states that replace every
occurrence of sine or cosine with the corresponding hyperbolic sine or cosine and
whenever there is a product of two sines ,the product of hyperbolic sines must be
negated. Some of the basic identities for hyperbolic functions are:

Trigonometric Identity Hyperbolic Identity

cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
sec2 x − tan2 x = 1 sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1
csc2 x − cot2 x = 1 coth2 x − cosech2 x = 1
cos2x = cos2 x − sin2 x cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
2 tan x 2 tanh x
tan 2x = 1−tan 2x tanh 2x = 1+tanh 2
x
..
.

5
In order to differentiate functions involving hyperbolic functions, it is easy to show
x −x dy x −x
that if y = sinh x = e −e 2
, then dx = cosh x, and if y = cosh x = e +e 2
, then
dy
dx
= sinh x.
Thus, using the rules of differentiation, we can easily find the derivatives of other
hyperbolic functions.
dy
Example 2.5.1. Find dx
if

1. y = 4 sinh 2x − 37 cosh 3x

2. y = 4 sinh 3x cosh 4x.

3. y = 34 ln(tanh( x2 )).

2.6 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric and

Hyperbolic Functions

Inverse trigonometric functions are denoted by prefixing the function with ’arc’ or,
more commonly, by using the −1 notation. For the purpose of this course, we will
use −1 . Thus if y = sin x, then x = sin−1 y and if y = tan x, then x = tan−1 y.
Similarly, inverse hyperbolic functions are denoted by prefixing the function with
’ar’ or, more commonly, by using the −1 notation. Again for the purpose of this
course, we will use −1 . Thus if y = sinh x, then x = sinh−1 y and if y = tanh x, then
x = tanh−1 y.

2.6.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If y = sin−1 x, then x = sin y. Differentiating both sides with respect to x gives

dy
1 = cos y .
dx
Consequently,
dy 1 dy 1
=p , so that =√ , |x| < 1.
dx 1 − sin2 y dx 1 − x2

Similarly, it can be shown that

6
 dy √ −1 ,
• if y = cos−1 x, then dx
= 1−x2
|x| < 1.

dy
• if y = tan−1 x, then dx
= 1
1+x2
for all x

dy
• if y = sec−1 x, then dx
= √1
|x| x2 −1
, x < −1 or x > 1

dy √−1
• if y = csc−1 x, then dx
= |x| x2 −1
, x < −1 or x > 1

dy −1
• if y = cot−1 x, then dx
= 1+x2
for all x.

Example 2.6.1.
Find the second derivative of the function f (x) = cot−1 (x2 ).

2.6.2 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

We can express inverse hyperbolic functions in terms of logarithmic function and

obtain
√
• sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 , for all x

√
• cosh−1 x = ln x +


x2 − 1 , for x ≥ 1

• tanh−1 x = 21 ln 1+x


1−x
, for |x| < 1

 √ 
−1 1 1+x2
• cosech x = ln x
+ |x|
, for x ̸= 0

 √ 
−1 1+ 1−x2
• sech x = ln x
, for 0 < x < 1

• coth−1 x = 12 ln x+1


x−1
, for |x| > 1

Example 2.6.2.
Verify that  
−1 1 1+x
tanh x = ln .
2 1−x

We can find derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions by using the same argument

7
as for inverse trigonometric functions or using their equivalent logarithmic form. It
follows that

1. if y = sinh−1 x, then
dy 1
=√
dx x2 + 1

2. if y = cosh−1 x, then
dy 1
=√ , x>1
dx x2 − 1

3. if y = tanh−1 x, then
dy 1
= , |x| < 1
dx 1 − x2
4. if y = cosech−1 x, then
dy −1
= √ , |x| ̸= 0
dx |x| 1 + x2

5. if y = sech−1 x, then
dy −1
= √ , 0<x<1
dx x 1 − x2

6. if y = coth−1 x, then
dy 1
= , |x| > 1
dx 1 − x2

Example 2.6.3.
dy
Find dx
if
√
1. y = cosh−1 ( x2 + 1)

2. y = sinh−1 (2x − 1).

8
2.7 Applications of Differentiation

In this section, we present some applications of differentiation.

2.7.1 Rates of change

If a quantity y depends on and varies with a quantity x, then the rate of change of
dy
y with respect to x is dx . For example, the rate of change of pressure P with height
h is dP
dh
. If the rate of change is with respect to time, we usually call it ‘the rate of
change’, the ‘with respect to time’, being assumed. Therefore, a rate of change of
di
current, i, is dt and the rate of change of temperature, θ, is dθ
dt
, and so on.

Example 2.7.1.
A conical tank, with vertex down, has a height of 10 metres and a top radius of 4
metres. If water is leaking at 0.3 m3 /min, how fast is the water level dropping when
the depth is 5 metres?

2.7.2 Extreme Values

Consider some function y = f (x) defined in some given interval. Recall that
• if f ′ (x) > 0 for all x in the interval, then the function f is strictly increasing
• if f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in the interval, then the function f is strictly decreasing.

Definition 2.7.1.
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. A point whose x value is such that
f ′ (x) = 0 is called a stationary point of f .

dy
Note that to find a stationary point(s), solve for x in the equation dx = f ′ (x) = 0
and substitute the value(s) of x found into the original equation y = f (x), to get the
corresponding y value(s).

Definition 2.7.2.
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function.

1. The point where x = c, is a maximum point of the function f if and only

if f (c) ≥ f (x), for all x in the domain of f . The value f (c) is called the
maximum value of the function.

9
 2. The point where x = c, is a minimum point of the function f if and only
if f (c) ≤ f (x), for all x in the domain of f . The value f (c) is called the
minimum value of the function.

Definition 2.7.3.
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function.

1. The point where x = c, is a local (relative) maximum point of the function

f if if there exists an interval (a1 , b1 ) with c ∈ (a1 , b1 ) such that f (c) ≥ f (x),
for all x ∈ (a1 , b1 ).

2. The point where x = c, is a local (relative) minimum point of the function

f if there exists an interval (a1 , b1 ) with c ∈ (a1 , b1 ) such that f (c) ≤ f (x), for
all x ∈ (a1 , b1 ).

Local maxima and minima are often referred to as turning points.

Note that maxima or minima values of a function are collectively known as extreme
values of a function.

Definition 2.7.4.
A stationary point that is not an extreme point is known as a point of inflexion.

To determine the nature of stationary point(s), we use either the first derivative test
or the second derivative test.

Theorem 2.7.1. (First Derivative Test)

Let f be a differentiable function. Suppose that f has a stationary point at x = c,
that is, f ′ (c) = 0. If there exists δ > 0 such that

1. f ′ (x) > 0, for all x ∈ (c − δ, c), and f ′ (x) < 0, for all x ∈ (c, c + δ), then
(c, f (c)) is a local maximum point.

10
 2. f ′ (x) < 0, for all x ∈ (c − δ, c), and f ′ (x) > 0, for all x ∈ (c, c + δ), then
(c, f (c)) is a local minimum point.

3. f ′ (x) > 0 in both (c − δ, c) and (c, c + δ) or f ′ (x) < 0 in both (c − δ, c) and

(c, c + δ), then (c, f (c)) is a point of inflexion.
Theorem 2.7.2. (Second Derivative Test)
Suppose that f is twice differentiable at a stationary point where x = c.

1. If f ′′ (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum point at x = c.

2. If f ′′ (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum point at x = c.

Example 2.7.2.
Find and determine the nature of the stationary point(s) of the curve
f (x) = 3x4 + 16x3 + 24x2 + 3.
.

1. Optimisation Problems

To optimise something means to maximise or minimise some aspect of it. Thus,

in optimisation problems, we look for the largest or smallest values that a function
can take. Recall that the only domain points where a function can assume extreme
values are stationary points and endpoints.
Example 2.7.3.

1. An electrical voltage E, is given by

E = (15 sin(50πt) + 40 cos(50πt)) volts,
where t is the time in seconds. Determine the maximum value of voltage.

2. The strength of a rectangular beam is directly proportional to the product of its

width and the square of its height.

Find the dimensions of the strongest beam that can be cut from a cylindrical
log of diameter 30 centimetres.

11
2.7.3 Tangents and Normals
dy
Given any curve in the plane, the derivative dx , gives the gradient of the curve at
any point (x0 , y0 ) on the curve. It follows that a tangent line at this point has the
same gradient as the curve at the point (x0 , y0 ). Thus, the equation of the tangent
to the curve at the point (x0 , y0 ) is given by:

(y − y0 ) = m1 (x − x0 ),
dy
where m1 = dx
is gradient of the tangent line.
The normal line to the curve at the same point (x0 , y0 ) is perpendicular to the tangent
line. If m2 is the gradient of the normal line, then

m1 m2 = −1

and it follows that

(y − y0 ) = m2 (x − x0 ),
where m2 = − m11 , is the equation of the normal at the point (x0 , y0 ).
Example 2.7.4.
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the ellipse 9x2 + 16y 2 = 52 at the
point (2, −1).

2.7.4 Linearisation

We can approximate a seemingly complicated function by using an approximating

function referred to as the Linearisation which is based on the tangent line.
Definition 2.7.5.
If f is differentiable at x = a, then the approximating function

L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

is the linearisation of f at a. The approximation f (x) ≈ L(x) of f by L is the standard

linear approximation of f at a. The point x = a is the center of the approximation.

Note that the linearisation must be very close to the graph of the function f for the
approximation to be accurate. If the value of x used in L is far away from the centre,
the approximation will be inaccurate.
Example 2.7.5.
√
3
Use linearisation to approximate the value of 9.

12
2.7.5 Rolle’s Theorem

Theorem 2.7.3.
Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval
(a, b). If f (a) = f (b), then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.

Example 2.7.6.
Verify that the hypotheses of the Rolle’s theorem are satisfied for the function
6x 2
h πi
f (x) = − 4 sin x, x ∈ 0, .
π 6
Hence find a number c that satisfies the conclusion of the theorem.

2.7.6 The Mean Value Theorem

Theorem 2.7.4.
If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval
(a, b), then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a
Example 2.7.7.
The function
4
f (x) = 5 − ,
x
satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem in the interval [1, 4]. Find all
the values of c that satisfy the conclusion of the theorem.

2.8 Limits

The limit of a function f (x) as x tends to a number, say a, is defined as the value
L of f (x) as x approaches closer and closer to a without actually reaching it, and is
denoted by
lim f (x) = L.
x→a

13
Some points to note:

1. We do not evaluate the limit by actually substituting x = a in f (x) in general,

although in some simple cases it is possible. For example,

lim 3x2 + x − 5 = 9
x→2

and
x2 − 2x + 7
lim =2
x→1 x+2
by direct substitution.

2. The value of the limit can depend on which side it is approached, from the
left or right, i.e through the values of x less than a or through the values of x
greater than a, respectively. The two possible values may not be the same, in
which case the limit does not exist.

Sometimes, evaluating a limit by direct substitution gives an indeterminate form,

that is, an expression of the form a/0, 0/0, ∞/∞ or 0 × ∞, 00 , 0∞ , ∞0 , 1∞ . Some
examples are
 2   
x −1 0 ln x ∞
lim = , lim+ 1 = or lim+ (−x ln x) = 0 × ∞.
x→1 x−1 0 x→0 −x ∞ x→0

Even though the function does not exist at such points, its limit at the point may
exist. For example,
 2 
x −1 sin x
lim = 2 and lim = 1.
x→1 x−1 x→0 x

Theorem 2.8.1. (L’Hopital’s Rule)

Let f (x) and g(x) be functions so that
f (x)
lim (2.8.1)
x→a g(x)

0 ∞
produces the indeterminate form 0
or ∞
. Then,

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ (2.8.2)
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

whenever the limit on the right can be found. In the case where f ′ and g ′ satisfy the
same conditions as f and g given above, the process can be repeated.

14
Note:

1. The result (2.8.2) can also be applied if (2.8.1) produces any one of the inde-
terminate forms ±(∞/∞).

2. The result (2.8.2) can also be applied to cases where only one-sided limit, such
as x → a− or x → a+ are involved.

Example 2.8.1.
Evaluate each of the following limits:

2x2 +1
1. lim 2
x→∞ 1−x
 
1 2
2. lim + ln(cos x)
x→0 x2 x4
3. lim+ (x ln x)
x→0

1
4. lim (x + ex ) x
x→∞

15