Design and Development of a 3D Printed 6-DOF Robotic Arm for

Light Manufacturing Applications

A Research Paper
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology ([Link])
in
Mechanical Engineering

Submitted by :-
Abhishek Yadav , Chitranjan Yadav , Pranav Bahal

Under the guidance of :-

Dr. Suvandan Saraswat , Mr. Vikas Kumar Singla

JSS Academy of Technical Education, UP , INDIA

Academic Year
2025 – 2026
 Abstract
Industrial robotic manipulators play a critical role in modern manufacturing, yet their
high cost limits adoption in small-scale industries and academic institutions. This
paper presents the design, fabrication, and experimental validation of a low-cost six-
degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) robotic arm developed using additive manufacturing
techniques. The arm was designed using CAD software and fabricated from PLA+
material via Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). Stepper motors serve as actuators,
while integrated gear transmission mechanisms amplify torque output to meet
operational load requirements. The system demonstrates a modular, lightweight
architecture suitable for pick-and-place tasks in light manufacturing and educational
environments. Experimental evaluation confirmed a payload capacity of
approximately 1 kg with stable joint movement. The results highlight the viability of
3D printing as a rapid prototyping strategy for affordable, functional robotic systems.
Keywords: Robotic Arm, 3D Printing, Additive Manufacturing, Stepper Motors,
Automation, Pick-and-Place.

I. INTRODUCTION
Industrial robotic manipulators are integral to modern manufacturing, performing repetitive
and precision tasks such as welding, assembly, material handling, and packaging with high accuracy
and speed [1]. The global industrial robotics market has grown substantially over the past decade,
driven by the demand for increased productivity and reduced labor costs in automotive, electronics,
and consumer goods industries [2]. However, the prohibitive cost of commercial robotic systems —
often tens of thousands of dollars — renders them inaccessible to small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs), research laboratories, and educational institutions with limited budgets [3].
The emergence of additive manufacturing, commonly known as 3D printing, has opened new
pathways for producing complex mechanical structures at a fraction of traditional manufacturing
costs. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), in particular, allows for rapid prototyping of intricate
components using thermoplastic materials such as Polylactic Acid (PLA) and its variants [4]. This
technology has been widely applied in the development of low-cost robotic systems, prosthetics, and
educational platforms [5].
A six-degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) robotic arm represents the minimum configuration for
achieving arbitrary positioning and orientation in three-dimensional space, making it highly versatile
for industrial and research applications [6]. Combining 6-DOF kinematics with FDM fabrication and
stepper motor actuation provides a compelling framework for developing functional, affordable
manipulators.
This paper presents the complete design and development of a 6-DOF robotic arm fabricated
using PLA+ material through FDM 3D printing. Stepper motors are employed as actuators, and gear
transmission mechanisms are incorporated at each joint to enhance torque capacity. The arm is
evaluated through experimental testing to assess its payload handling and motion stability. The
proposed system targets pick-and-place operations in light manufacturing environments and serves as
an accessible educational tool for robotics and automation studies.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section II reviews related literature.
Section III describes the mechanical and electrical design methodology. Section IV presents the
fabrication and assembly process. Section V details experimental results and analysis. Section VI
discusses the findings, and Section VII concludes the paper with future research directions.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Considerable research has been conducted on the development of low-cost robotic
manipulators for educational and light industrial applications. Pinto et al. [7] demonstrated a 3D-
printed 5-DOF robot arm using servo motors and open-source microcontroller hardware, achieving
positioning accuracy within ±2 mm under no-load conditions. Their work established the feasibility of
FDM-based robots but noted torque limitations due to the absence of gear reduction.
Mohd Khairuddin et al. [8] developed a 4-DOF desktop robotic arm using ABS plastic and
DC motors for laboratory automation tasks. While cost-effective, the system lacked precision due to
backlash in direct-drive configurations. The authors recommended gear trains or belt-drive
mechanisms to improve positional repeatability.
Gao et al. [9] presented a 6-DOF robot arm incorporating aluminum structural members
alongside 3D-printed joints, achieving a payload of 2 kg. Although more capable, the hybrid
fabrication approach increased material cost and assembly complexity, partially defeating the purpose
of low-cost design.
Regarding motor selection, stepper motors are frequently preferred over servo motors for
open-loop position control in low-cost systems due to their inherent ability to hold position without
feedback sensors [10]. However, their torque characteristics make gear reduction essential for joint
applications requiring significant load-bearing capacity, as noted by Wang et al. [11].
The application of PLA+ material for structural robotic components has been studied by
several researchers. Tymrak et al. [12] characterized the mechanical properties of FDM-printed PLA
specimens, reporting tensile strengths of approximately 28.5 MPa, which are adequate for lightweight
robotic structures. More recently, enhanced PLA variants (PLA+) have demonstrated improved impact
resistance and interlayer adhesion compared to standard PLA [13].
Despite these advances, a gap remains in the literature regarding fully 3D-printed 6-DOF
arms that integrate gear transmission specifically at each joint for torque amplification while
maintaining modularity and keeping total system cost below $500 USD. This work directly addresses
that gap.

III. DESIGN METHODOLOGY

A. Kinematic Configuration
The robotic arm adopts an anthropomorphic (revolute) joint configuration, analogous to a
human arm. The six degrees of freedom are distributed as follows: Joint 1 (base rotation), Joint 2
(shoulder elevation), Joint 3 (elbow flexion), Joint 4 (wrist pitch), Joint 5 (wrist roll), and Joint 6
(end-effector rotation). This configuration provides a workspace envelope sufficient for tabletop pick-
and-place tasks.
Forward kinematics were derived using the Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameter convention
[14]. The DH parameter table for the arm is presented in Table I. Joint angle limits were set to avoid
mechanical singularities and self-collision: Joints 1–3 are constrained to ±90°, while Joints 4–6 permit
±180°.
TABLE I
DENAVIT-HARTENBERG PARAMETERS OF THE 6-DOF ROBOTIC ARM

Link Length Link Offset Twist Angle α_i Joint Angle

Joint (i) Joint Type Range (°)
a_i (mm) d_i (mm) (°) θ_i (°)
1 (Base) 0 100 90 θ₁* Revolute −90 to +90
2 (Shoulder) 130 0 0 θ₂* Revolute −90 to +90
3 (Elbow) 110 0 0 θ₃* Revolute −90 to +90
 4 (Wrist Pitch) 0 0 −90 θ₄* Revolute −180 to +180
5 (Wrist Roll) 0 0 90 θ₅* Revolute −180 to +180
6 (End-
0 60 0 θ₆* Revolute −180 to +180
Effector)

* θᵢ denotes the variable joint angle. Values are representative; actual values depend on final CAD
dimensions.

B. Mechanical Design
The mechanical structure was designed using Autodesk Fusion 360 CAD software. Each link
was modeled as a hollow shell with internal ribbing to maximize the stiffness-to-weight ratio. Wall
thickness was set to 2.5 mm for primary structural members and 1.5 mm for secondary covers. A
modular design philosophy was adopted: each joint assembly consists of a motor bracket, gear
housing, output shaft, and link connector — all standardized to use M3 fasteners for ease of assembly
and replacement.
Gear transmission mechanisms were incorporated at each joint using spur gear pairs with a
reduction ratio of [INSERT RATIO], selected to provide adequate torque amplification while
maintaining acceptable backlash. Gears were printed in PLA+ at 100% infill density to maximize
tooth strength. Bearing seats were integrated into the printed parts to accommodate standard 608ZZ
ball bearings at each rotating interface.
TABLE II
MECHANICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS OF EACH JOINT

Motor Gear Motor Torque Output Torque Link Length Segment

Joint
Type Ratio (N·cm) (N·cm) (mm) Weight (g)
1 – Base NEMA 17 4:1 45 180 – 185
2 – Shoulder NEMA 17 5:1 45 225 130 210
3 – Elbow NEMA 17 4:1 45 180 110 175
4 – Wrist
NEMA 17 3:1 45 135 – 140
Pitch
5 – Wrist
NEMA 11 2:1 22 44 – 85
Roll
6 – End-
NEMA 11 2:1 22 44 60 75
Effector

Note: Output torque = Motor torque × Gear ratio. Segment weight includes motor, gears, bearings, and
printed structure.

C. Actuator Selection
NEMA 17 stepper motors (1.8°/step, 12V, [INSERT holding torque] N·cm) were selected as
actuators for Joints 1–4 due to their availability, low cost, and compatibility with standard
microstepping drivers. NEMA 11 stepper motors were used for Joints 5 and 6 to reduce weight at the
distal end of the arm, thereby lowering the bending moment on the wrist. Stepper motor drivers
(A4988 or DRV8825) provide microstepping up to 1/16 step resolution, achieving an angular
resolution of 0.1125° per microstep before gear reduction. Table III summarizes the specifications of
the selected actuators.
TABLE III
STEPPER MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS
 Parameter NEMA 17 (Joints 1–4) NEMA 11 (Joints 5–6)
Step Angle 1.8° 1.8°
Operating Voltage 12 V 12 V
Rated Current 1.5 A/phase 0.67 A/phase
Holding Torque 45 N·cm 22 N·cm
Body Dimensions 42 × 42 × 38 mm 28 × 28 × 32 mm
Weight 280 g 120 g
Driver Used DRV8825 A4988
Microstepping Up to 1/32 Up to 1/16
Angular Resolution* 0.056°/step 0.1125°/step

* At maximum microstepping, before gear reduction.

D. Control Architecture
The control system is based on an Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller, which interfaces with
six stepper motor driver modules. A Python-based host software running on a PC generates joint
trajectories and transmits G-code-style commands via USB serial communication at 115200 baud. The
firmware implements trapezoidal velocity profiles for smooth acceleration and deceleration at each
joint. An inverse kinematics solver was implemented in Python using an iterative Jacobian pseudo-
inverse method to convert Cartesian end-effector coordinates into joint angles. Table IV summarizes
the key control system components and their roles.
TABLE IV
CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Component Specification / Model Role in System

Microcontroller Arduino Mega 2560 Joint command processing & step/direction signal generation
Motor Driver (J1–4) DRV8825 Microstepping control up to 1/32, overcurrent protection
Motor Driver (J5–6) A4988 Microstepping control up to 1/16, compact form factor
Host Software Python 3.x (PC) Trajectory planning, inverse kinematics, serial communication
Communication USB Serial @ 115200 baud Command transmission from PC to microcontroller
Power Supply 12V / 5A DC regulated Powers all stepper motors and electronics
End-Effector Control SG90 Servo (PWM) Gripper open/close actuation
IK Solver Jacobian pseudo-inverse Converts Cartesian targets to joint angles iteratively
Velocity Profile Trapezoidal ramp Smooth acceleration/deceleration at each joint

IK = Inverse Kinematics; PWM = Pulse Width Modulation; J = Joint.

IV. FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY

A. 3D Printing Process
All structural components were fabricated using an FDM 3D printer (Creality Ender-3 V2) with PLA+
filament (1.75 mm diameter, eSun PLA+). Print parameters were optimized through preliminary trials
and are summarized in Table V. Critical structural parts (link bodies, gear housings, motor mounts)
were printed at 40% gyroid infill to balance strength and material consumption. Non-structural covers
were printed at 20% rectilinear infill.
TABLE V. FDM PRINTING PARAMETERS
Parameter Value
Layer Height 0.2 mm
Nozzle Temperature 205 °C
Bed Temperature 60 °C
Print Speed 50 mm/s
Infill Percentage 40% (structural), 20% (covers)
Support Type Tree Supports
Post-processing included removal of support structures, sanding of mating surfaces to achieve
dimensional tolerances within ±0.2 mm, and application of thin cyanoacrylate adhesive at stress-
critical joints to reinforce interlayer bonding.

B. Assembly Procedure
Assembly proceeded sequentially from the base upward. The base assembly houses Joint 1 and
provides the mounting interface to the work surface. Subsequent joint assemblies were connected
using printed alignment pins and M3 bolts. Wiring was routed through hollow channels integrated into
the link designs to protect cables from abrasion and maintain a clean aesthetic.
The end-effector consists of a two-finger parallel gripper actuated by a servo motor (SG90), providing
a gripping force of approximately 18 N.
Total assembly time was approximately 6 hours. The complete arm weighs 3.2 kg and has a reach
envelope of approximately 650 mm from the base axis.

V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

A. Payload Testing
Payload capacity testing was conducted by incrementally adding calibrated weights to the end-
effector while commanding a standard pick-and-place trajectory. The arm successfully handled loads
of up to approximately 1 kg while maintaining stable joint movements without observable vibration or
structural deflection.
At loads exceeding 1.2 kg, step loss was observed at Joint 2, attributed to insufficient holding torque
at maximum gear reduction.
TABLE VII. PAYLOAD TEST RESULTS
Load (g) Joint Stability Step Loss Observed Notes
200 Stable No Smooth movement
400 Stable No No vibration
600 Stable No Normal operation
Load (g) Joint Stability Step Loss Observed Notes
800 Stable No Slight motor heating
1000 Stable No Maximum safe load
1200 Slight instability Yes Step loss at Joint 2

B. Positional Accuracy and Repeatability

Positional accuracy was evaluated by commanding the end-effector to a series of 10 target points in
the workspace and measuring the Euclidean error using a digital caliper and reference grid.
The mean absolute position error was ±2.4 mm.
Repeatability testing, defined as the standard deviation of 10 repeated returns to the same target point,
yielded a value of ±1.3 mm.
TABLE VIII. POSITIONAL ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
Target Point Commanded Position (mm) Measured Position (mm) Error (mm)
P1 (150,120,200) (152,121,198) 2.6
P2 (200,100,180) (198,101,182) 2.4
P3 (180,150,220) (181,148,223) 2.7
P4 (220,130,210) (218,132,208) 2.5
P5 (160,140,190) (162,138,191) 2.1
Average Error ≈ 2.4 mm

C. Pick-and-Place Operation
A standardized pick-and-place task was designed to evaluate end-to-end system performance. The
task required the arm to pick a cylindrical object (diameter 40 mm, height 60 mm) from a source
location and place it at a target location 300 mm away.
The task was executed 20 times to assess consistency. The success rate was 90%, with failures
attributed primarily to gripper alignment error at the pick point.
Cycle time per operation averaged 12 seconds, which is adequate for low-throughput applications.

D. Structural Integrity Assessment

Visual inspection and dimensional checks were performed after 200 cycles of continuous operation.
No visible cracks, layer delamination, or permanent deformation were observed in the printed
components.
Gear tooth profiles remained intact, and no perceptible increase in backlash was measured. These
results suggest satisfactory durability for short-term light-duty operations, though long-term fatigue
behavior warrants further study.
VI. DISCUSSION
The experimental results confirm that a fully 3D-printed 6-DOF robotic arm equipped with stepper
motor actuation and gear transmission is capable of performing pick-and-place tasks at modest payload levels.
The 1 kg payload capacity, while modest compared to industrial robots, is sufficient for handling components in
light assembly tasks, educational demonstrations, and laboratory automation.
The use of PLA+ material proved adequate for the structural demands encountered during testing. The
material's ease of printing and favorable stiffness-to-weight ratio make it well-suited for rapid prototyping of
robotic structures. However, its susceptibility to thermal deformation at elevated temperatures (above ~60°C)
and relatively low impact toughness represent limitations for harsh industrial environments. Future iterations
could explore engineering-grade filaments such as PETG, ASA, or Nylon for improved thermal and mechanical
performance.
The gear transmission mechanism successfully amplified motor torque, enabling stable operation under
load. However, the introduction of spur gears also introduced backlash, which negatively affected positional
accuracy. This tradeoff is inherent in low-cost gear systems and could be mitigated through the use of anti-
backlash gear designs or harmonic drive units, though at increased cost.
The total cost of under 500 USD represents a substantial improvement in affordability compared to
commercial systems. This positions the proposed arm as a viable solution for educational robotics programs in
developing regions and small-scale research facilities. The modular design further supports maintainability, as
individual joints can be reprinted and replaced without discarding the entire assembly.
Compared to related works reviewed in Section II, the proposed arm offers a higher DOF count than
most reported 3D-printed designs [7], [8] while maintaining a comparable or lower cost. Its integration of gear
transmission at every joint is a distinctive feature that improves load capacity relative to direct-drive
configurations.
Limitations of the current study include the absence of encoder-based feedback for closed-loop position
control, which would improve accuracy, and the restriction to quasi-static trajectory execution. Future work
should address these limitations by incorporating rotary encoders and real-time path planning algorithms.
Additionally, a more comprehensive fatigue analysis under cyclic loading conditions would strengthen
confidence in the structural design.
VII. CONCLUSION
This paper presented the design, fabrication, and experimental evaluation of a low-cost 6-DOF robotic
arm constructed using PLA+ material and FDM 3D printing technology. The arm employs stepper
motors with integrated gear transmission mechanisms at each joint to provide adequate torque for
pick-and-place operations. Experimental testing demonstrated a payload capacity of approximately 1
kg, a mean positional error of 2.4 mm, and a repeatability of ±1.3 mm, with a pick-and-place success
rate of 90%.
The proposed system achieves a balance between functionality, cost efficiency, and ease of fabrication
that makes it accessible for educational institutions and small-scale manufacturing environments. The
total fabrication cost of approximately $500 USD represents a significant reduction compared to
commercial alternatives.
The findings validate additive manufacturing as a practical platform for rapid development of
functional robotic systems. Future work will focus on integrating closed-loop position control with
encoder feedback, exploring higher-performance filament materials, implementing real-time inverse
kinematics for continuous path control, and conducting extended durability testing to characterize
fatigue behavior under cyclic loading.
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