CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Unit 3 — Detailed Notes with Theory, Derivations & Examples

Subject EE 206 — Control Systems

Programme [Link]. (EE), 4th Semester

Reference PYQ End-Semester Examination, May 2025

Q6 (AC Servomotor, Synchro, Nyquist)

Coverage Q1 (Armature-Controlled DC Motor)
Q7 (Short notes — components)

Potentiometers, Synchros, DC & AC Servomotors,

Topics Covered Servo Amplifiers, Modulators & Demodulators,
Magnetic Amplifiers, Position & Speed Control

These notes are organised exactly as the syllabus dictates and answer every question that has
historically appeared from this unit. Every derivation is presented step-by-step. Conceptual points and
worked examples are highlighted in coloured boxes for quick revision.

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 0. Roadmap of this Unit & PYQ Map
Unit 3 of the syllabus reads:
“Potentiometers, synchros, principles and applications of dc and ac servomotors, analysis and
transfer function, servo amplifiers, modulators and demodulators, magnetic amplifiers; Position
and speed control systems.”

Mapping the May-2025 paper to this unit:

Q. No. Question Theme Section in these notes
Q1 Transfer function of armature-controlled DC motor §3 (DC Servomotor)
Q6 Short notes — (a) AC Servomotor (b) Synchro (c) Nyquist*
§4, §2 (Nyquist is in stability unit but treated briefly)
Q7 Concepts — components of control system All sections

Order of study (recommended):

• Potentiometer (error detector) — simplest, sets the language.
• Synchros (Tx–Tr pair) — AC error detector for shaft angles.
• DC Servomotor — armature & field controlled, transfer functions (most-asked derivation).
• AC Servomotor — two-phase induction motor, torque-speed, transfer function.
• Servo amplifiers, modulators / demodulators, magnetic amplifiers.
• Position & speed control systems (closed-loop block diagrams).

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 1. Potentiometer as an Error Detector
1.1 Construction & Working Principle
A potentiometer is an electromechanical transducer that converts a linear or angular displacement
into a proportional voltage. In control-system terminology it is the simplest position transducer; a
pair of potentiometers acts as an error detector.
• Construction: a uniformly wound resistance element (wire-wound or conductive plastic) with a
sliding contact (wiper).
• Excitation: a fixed reference voltage E (DC or AC) is applied across the full element.
• Output: voltage between the wiper and one end terminal, Vo, is proportional to the wiper
position.

1.2 Transfer Function (Single Potentiometer)

Let θ be the angular displacement of the shaft and θmax the maximum travel of the wiper (e.g. 320°
for a single-turn pot, n×360° for an n-turn pot). If E is the supply voltage:

Vo(t) = (E / θmax) · θ(t) = Kp · θ(t)

where Kp = E / θmax is the potentiometer sensitivity in volts per radian (V/rad).
Taking the Laplace transform (zero initial conditions):

Vo(s) / θ(s) = Kp
Note: The potentiometer is therefore modelled as a pure gain block with no dynamics, provided
the loading on the wiper is negligible (high-impedance amplifier follows it).

1.3 Pair of Potentiometers — Error Detector

Two identical potentiometers are excited from the same source:
• Reference (input) potentiometer — wiper set to desired angle θR.
• Feedback potentiometer — wiper coupled to the load shaft, angle θC.
The two wiper voltages are subtracted:

e(t) = VR − VC = Kp (θR − θC) = Kp · θe

Hence the pair generates an electrical signal proportional to the position error θe. Typical Kp = 10/π
V/rad ≈ 3.18 V/rad.

1.4 Loading Effect & Linearity

• If the load resistance RL is not ■ Rpot, the output deviates from linearity; the loading error peaks
near the mid-position.
• Wire-wound pots have a finite resolution — the smallest detectable change equals one turn of
wire.
• Conductive-plastic pots offer near-infinite resolution but lower power rating.
Example: If E = 10 V and θmax = 10 turns = 20π rad, then Kp = 10/(20π) = 0.159 V/rad. A 1° error
gives 0.159 × (π/180) = 2.78 mV — small, hence the need for a servo amplifier.

1.5 Applications
• Position-feedback element in DC servo systems.
• Joystick controllers and gun-positioning systems.

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 • Volume controls, tuning controls (low-precision pots).

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 2. Synchros (AC Position Transducer)
A synchro is essentially a small AC machine that converts an angular shaft position into an electrical
signal. A synchro pair (Tx + Tr) acts as an AC error detector — the AC analogue of the potentiometer
pair.

2.1 Construction of a Synchro Transmitter (Tx)

• Stator: three-phase Y-connected winding (S1, S2, S3), 120° apart in space — but it is NOT a
3-phase machine.
• Rotor: single-phase, dumb-bell (salient-pole) winding excited from a single-phase AC source
vr(t) = Vr sin ωct (typically 50 Hz or 400 Hz).
• Slip-rings carry the rotor excitation.

2.2 Principle of Operation — Tx

When the rotor is energised it sets up a sinusoidally varying flux. This flux links each stator coil with a
different mutual inductance that depends on the rotor angular position θ.
Let the rotor be displaced by θ from the reference (S2 axis). The voltages induced (with respect to
neutral) are:

eS1n = K Vr sin ωct · cos(θ + 120°)

eS2n = K Vr sin ωct · cos(θ)
eS3n = K Vr sin ωct · cos(θ − 120°)
The terminal (line) voltages are obtained by subtraction:

eS1S2 = √3 K Vr sin ωct · sin(θ + 240°)

eS2S3 = √3 K Vr sin ωct · sin(θ + 120°)
eS3S1 = √3 K Vr sin ωct · sin(θ)
Note: Important: although the stator has three terminals, only one phase frequency ωc exists —
the three voltages differ only in magnitude. The synchro is therefore a single-phase device with
a 3-wire output (amplitude-modulated by the rotor angle).
Electrical zero is defined as the position where eS3S1 = 0 and eS1S2 = − eS2S3 (the rotor axis aligned
with S2).

2.3 Synchro Control Transformer (Tr)

• Construction is similar to the Tx except the rotor is cylindrical (not salient) so that the air-gap
reluctance is uniform, giving a constant rotor input impedance independent of position.
• Stator terminals of Tr are tied to those of Tx — the three stator voltages of the Tx drive currents
in the Tr stator and recreate the same flux pattern there.
• Rotor of Tr is the output winding — its induced voltage carries the error information.

2.4 Transmitter–Receiver Pair as Error Detector (most-asked!)

Let θ1 be the Tx rotor angle (the command) and θ2 the Tr rotor angle (the load shaft, which is what we
want to control). The flux axis of the Tr stator follows θ1. The voltage induced in the Tr rotor depends
on the angle between the Tr rotor axis and the stator flux:

e(t) = Ks Vr sin ωct · cos(θ1 − θ2)

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 By convention the Tr rotor is mechanically aligned 90° away from the Tx so that for zero shaft error
the cosine becomes a sine of the difference:

e(t) = Ks Vr sin ωct · sin(θ1 − θ2)

For small errors, sin(θe) ≈ θe:

e(t) ≈ Ks Vr sin ωct · θe

The output is therefore a suppressed-carrier amplitude-modulated signal whose envelope is
proportional to the position error θe. Phase reverses when the sign of θe reverses.

E(s) / θe(s) = Ks (synchro sensitivity, V/rad)

Typical Ks = 1 V/° = 57.3 V/rad. The signal must be demodulated before being fed to a DC
servomotor (see §6 — Demodulators).

2.5 Advantages & Limitations

• Advantages: rugged, no slip-rings on Tr rotor (only on Tx, light current), no electrical contact
wear, accurate to ±0.1°, works over long distances on three wires.
• Limitations: output is AC — needs demodulation to drive DC motors; non-linear for large errors
(sin θe); sensitive to harmonics in the supply.

2.6 Applications
• Remote position-indication (ship's helm, radar antenna, telescope drives).
• Servo error detection in fire-control and radar tracking systems.
• Differential synchros sum or subtract two angles mechanically.

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 3. DC Servomotors
A servomotor is a special motor designed to drive a load through a small angular or linear
displacement, with high acceleration and accurate position control. Compared to ordinary motors,
servomotors have:
• Low rotor inertia (long, slim armature) for high torque-to-inertia ratio.
• Low electrical and mechanical time constants.
• Linear torque-speed characteristic over the operating range.
• Operation in all four quadrants — must reverse direction quickly.
DC servomotors are classified by which winding is used to control the motor:
• Armature-controlled — field is held constant (often by permanent magnets), input voltage
applied to the armature.
• Field-controlled — armature current is held constant, input voltage applied to the field.

3.1 Armature-Controlled DC Servomotor — Transfer Function (PYQ Q1, May

2025)
Symbols and units:
Symbol Quantity Unit
va(t) Armature voltage (input) V
ia(t) Armature current A
Ra Armature resistance Ω
La Armature inductance H
eb(t) Back EMF V
Kb Back-EMF constant V·s/rad
KT Torque constant N·m/A
Tm(t) Motor torque developed N·m
ω(t) = dθ/dt Angular velocity / position rad/s, rad
Moment of inertia of motor + load (referred to motor
J kg·m²
shaft)
B Viscous-friction coefficient N·m·s/rad
If Field current (held constant) A

Step 1 — Field is constant. With If = constant, the air-gap flux φ ∝ If is constant; therefore the
developed torque is proportional only to the armature current:

Tm(t) = KT ia(t)
Step 2 — Back EMF. A rotating armature in a constant field generates a back EMF proportional to its
angular velocity:

eb(t) = Kb · dθ(t)/dt = Kb ω(t)

Note: For an ideal lossless motor, KT (in N·m/A, SI units) is numerically equal to Kb (in V·s/rad).
This is a direct consequence of conservation of energy: Pelec = ebia = Tmω, and substituting the

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 two equations gives KT = Kb.
Step 3 — Armature-circuit (electrical) equation. Applying KVL to the armature loop:

va(t) = Ra ia(t) + La dia(t)/dt + eb(t)

Step 4 — Mechanical (torque) equation. The motor torque drives the inertia and overcomes friction:

Tm(t) = J d²θ(t)/dt² + B dθ(t)/dt

Step 5 — Take Laplace transforms (zero initial conditions):

Va(s) = (Ra + sLa) Ia(s) + Kb s θ(s) …(1)

KT Ia(s) = (J s² + B s) θ(s) …(2)
Step 6 — Eliminate Ia(s). From (2):

Ia(s) = (J s² + B s) θ(s) / KT = s(Js + B) θ(s) / KT

Substituting into (1):

Va(s) = (Ra + sLa) · s(Js + B) θ(s) / KT + Kb s θ(s)

Step 7 — Transfer function θ(s)/Va(s):

θ(s) / Va(s) = KT / { s [ (Ra + sLa)(Js + B) + KTKb ] }

Step 8 — Simplification (La ≈ 0). In most servomotors the armature time-constant La/Ra is much
smaller than the mechanical time constant; setting La = 0:

θ(s) / Va(s) = KT / { s [ Ra(Js + B) + KTKb ] }

Dividing numerator and denominator by (Ra B + KT Kb):

θ(s) / Va(s) = Km / [ s ( 1 + s τm ) ]
where the motor gain constant and motor time constant are:

Km = KT / (RaB + KTKb) τm = RaJ / (RaB + KTKb)

Note: The armature-controlled DC motor therefore behaves like a type-1, second-order system
(one pole at the origin, one pole at −1/τm). The KTKb term is an inherent internal feedback arising
from the back EMF — it improves damping.

Speed transfer function:

Ω(s) / Va(s) = sθ(s)/Va(s) = Km / (1 + sτm)
Equivalent block diagram (described): Va → [1/(Ra+sLa)] → Ia → [KT] → Tm → [1/(Js+B)] → ω → [1/s]
→ θ, with a back-EMF feedback [Kb] from ω to the input summing junction.

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 3.2 Field-Controlled DC Servomotor — Transfer Function
Now the armature current ia is held constant (by a current source) and the input is the field voltage
vf(t). The back EMF — although present — does not appear in the input loop, so the analysis is
simpler.
Field-circuit equation:

vf(t) = Rf if(t) + Lf dif(t)/dt

Torque equation (flux ∝ if, ia = const):

Tm(t) = KTf if(t)

Mechanical equation:

Tm(t) = J d²θ/dt² + B dθ/dt

Taking Laplace transforms and eliminating If(s):

θ(s) / Vf(s) = KTf / { s (Rf + sLf)(Js + B) }

In standard form:

θ(s) / Vf(s) = Km / [ s (1 + sτf)(1 + sτm) ]

Km = KTf /(RfB) τf = Lf/Rf τm = J/B
Note: Field-controlled motors have no electrical-mechanical coupling term (no KTKb) —
hence no internal feedback. They are open-loop unstable in damping sense, slower (larger τf),
and therefore used only in low-power applications. Armature control is preferred for fast servos.

3.3 Comparison: Armature vs. Field Control

Feature Armature-controlled Field-controlled
Input Armature voltage va Field voltage vf
Other quantity held
Field current If Armature current Ia
constant
Order of TF 2 (one integrator + one lag) 3 (one integrator + two lags)
Internal feedback (KTKb) Present — improves damping Absent
Time constant Small (fast) Large (slow)
Power required at input Large (full motor power) Small (only field winding)
Efficiency Higher Lower
Used for High-power, fast servos Low-power instrument servos

Example: A small DC servomotor has KT = 0.05 N·m/A, Kb = 0.05 V·s/rad, Ra = 2 Ω, La ≈ 0, J =

5×10■■ kg·m², B = 1×10■■ N·m·s/rad. Then KTKb = 2.5×10■³ ■ RaB = 2×10■■. Km =
0.05/2.7×10■³ = 18.5 rad/(V·s) and τm = (2 × 5×10■■)/2.7×10■³ = 0.037 s — a very fast motor.

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 4. AC Servomotor (PYQ Q6 (a), May 2025)
4.1 Construction
An AC servomotor is essentially a two-phase induction motor with the following modifications that
make it suitable as a control device:
• Stator carries two distributed windings 90° apart in space — a reference (or main) winding
excited from a fixed AC supply vr(t) = Vr sin ωct, and a control winding excited from the servo
amplifier output vc(t) = Vc sin(ωct ± 90°).
• Rotor: drag-cup or squirrel-cage type with high resistance/inertia ratio (X2/R2 small), giving a
linear, negative-slope torque–speed characteristic.
• Drag-cup rotor (a thin aluminium / copper cup running in the air-gap) has very low inertia, hence
very fast response.

4.2 Principle of Operation

When the two stator windings are excited by sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency but in
time-quadrature, they produce a rotating magnetic field. This rotating field induces currents in the
rotor that produce torque, exactly as in a 2-phase induction motor.
The direction of rotation is governed by the phase of the control voltage:
• vc leads vr by 90° → rotor turns in one direction.
• vc lags vr by 90° → rotor turns in the opposite direction.
• vc = 0 → no rotating field → no torque (zero error).
The magnitude of the developed torque is proportional to Vc; the AC servomotor is therefore a
torque-actuator whose torque is controlled by the amplitude of the control voltage.

4.3 Why High Rotor Resistance?

A normal induction motor has its maximum torque at slip s ≈ R2/X2. If R2 is small, peak torque occurs
at small slip and the slope of T–N curve at running speed is positive for low speeds — leading to
single-phase oscillation (unstable). Increasing R2 shifts the peak torque to slip > 1, so over the entire
0–Ns range the slope is negative → the motor is statically stable and has a near-linear T–N curve
which simplifies the transfer-function model.

4.4 Torque–Speed Characteristics

For different control voltages Vc, a family of approximately linear, parallel torque–speed curves is
obtained:

Tm(N, Vc) ≈ K1 Vc − K2 N
where K1 is the slope of the T–Vc line at zero speed (N·m/V) and K2 is the negative slope of T–N at
fixed Vc (N·m·s/rad). Both are evaluated graphically from the manufacturer’s curves near the
operating point.

Graphical interpretation:
• X-axis: speed N (rad/s) from 0 to Ns.
• Y-axis: developed torque Tm (N·m).
• For each value of Vc the curve is a straight line; greater Vc shifts the line vertically upward
without changing its slope.
• Intercept on Y-axis = stall (starting) torque; intercept on X-axis = no-load speed.

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 4.5 Transfer Function Derivation
Step 1 — torque equation (linearised around operating point):

Tm(t) = K1 vc(t) − K2 dθ/dt

Step 2 — mechanical equation:

Tm(t) = J d²θ/dt² + B0 dθ/dt

where B0 is the load viscous friction (often very small).
Step 3 — equate and Laplace-transform:

K1 Vc(s) − K2 sθ(s) = (Js² + B0s) θ(s)

K1 Vc(s) = [ Js² + (B0 + K2) s ] θ(s)
Step 4 — transfer function:

θ(s) / Vc(s) = K1 / { s [ Js + (B0 + K2) ] }

Defining the equivalent friction B = B0 + K2, Km = K1/B, τm = J/B:

θ(s) / Vc(s) = Km / [ s(1 + sτm) ]

Note: Functionally identical to the armature-controlled DC motor — a type-1, second-order
transfer function — but with no commutator/brushes, less maintenance, and an AC error signal
that needs no demodulation.

4.6 Advantages, Disadvantages, Applications

Advantages Disadvantages

No brushes / commutator → low Low efficiency (≈ 5–20%) because of high

maintenance, no radio-frequency noise. rotor resistance — heat dissipation problem
at high power.

Rugged, reliable, light-weight (drag-cup Output power limited to about 100 W

rotor). (fractional HP).

Smooth, stepless control of torque from very Non-linearity at large control voltages.
small values.

AC error signal directly usable from synchros. Characteristics are temperature-sensitive

(rotor resistance varies).

Typical applications: instrument servos (potentiometric & synchro-driven), remote-position indicators,

computers, autopilots, gun-positioning, robotic arms (small power), tape recorders.

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 5. Servo Amplifiers
The signal coming out of the error detector (potentiometer pair, synchro pair, or any sensor) is too
weak to drive a motor directly. A servo amplifier is the power-handling stage between the error
detector and the motor.

5.1 Requirements of a Servo Amplifier

• Sufficient power gain to drive the motor (a few watts to several kW).
• Low output impedance — to act as a voltage source for the motor winding.
• Linear input–output relation up to saturation, so that the loop transfer function is well-defined.
• Wide bandwidth — must pass the signal frequencies (DC for DC servos, carrier ωc ± modulation
for AC servos).
• Bidirectional output (push–pull, four-quadrant) so that the motor can reverse.
• Phase reversal capability (for AC) or polarity reversal (for DC).

5.2 DC Servo Amplifiers

• Class-B push–pull transistor amplifier: commonest scheme; two complementary transistors
share the load and conduct on alternate half-cycles.
• SCR / thyristor converters: phase-controlled rectifier feeding the armature — used for
high-power DC drives.
• PWM (chopper) amplifiers: a transistor switch is rapidly ON/OFF; the average voltage applied
to the motor is varied by duty cycle. High efficiency (> 90%), small heat-sink. Today's standard.
• H-bridge: four switches arranged in an H configuration, allowing four-quadrant operation
(forward, reverse, motoring, braking).

5.3 AC Servo Amplifiers

• Drive the control winding of an AC servomotor with a voltage at the carrier frequency ωc, in
phase quadrature with the reference.
• Must be tuned to the carrier and bandwidth wide enough to pass the modulation envelope.
• Phase-sensitive: the same amplitude of error must produce 0° or 180° output depending on the
sign of the error so that the motor reverses.
• Common implementations: transformer-coupled push-pull stage, or chopper-modulator + linear
stage.

5.4 Key Performance Numbers

• Voltage gain: 10–104.
• Power gain: 30–60 dB.
• Bandwidth: at least 5–10 × the closed-loop bandwidth of the servo system.
• Slew rate: limits how fast the output can change → affects large-signal response.

6. Modulators and Demodulators

Servo systems often have to mix DC and AC signals: a synchro produces an AC signal, but a DC
tachometer produces a DC signal, and the motor (DC or AC) demands a particular type. Modulators
and demodulators convert between the two.

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 6.1 Modulator (DC → AC)
A modulator converts a slowly-varying DC signal into an AC signal whose amplitude is proportional
to the input and whose phase reverses with the polarity of the input — i.e. it produces a
suppressed-carrier DSB signal.

vo(t) = Km · vi(t) · sin ωct

Common circuits:
• Chopper modulator — a vibrating reed or MOSFET switch alternately connects the input to the
output at the carrier rate, producing a square-wave whose envelope is vi(t).
• Ring modulator (diode bridge) — four diodes driven by the carrier; the input is multiplied by a
square-wave carrier.
• Magnetic modulator — saturable reactor whose inductance is modulated by the DC input
current.
Use: feeding a DC tacho signal into an AC servo loop; combining DC stabilising signals with AC error
signals.

6.2 Demodulator (AC → DC)

A demodulator extracts the modulating envelope (the slow, information-bearing part) from a
suppressed-carrier AC signal. In a servo it must be phase-sensitive so that the output has the
correct sign.

Common circuits:
• Phase-sensitive demodulator (synchronous detector) — multiplies the modulated signal by
the carrier sin ωct and low-pass filters the product:
vi(t) sin² ωct = ½ vi(t) [1 − cos 2ωct] → LPF → ½ vi(t)
• Diode-bridge phase-sensitive demodulator — diode bridge driven by the carrier; the bridge’s
rectification polarity flips with the phase of the input → DC output is positive or negative according
to whether the input is in-phase or 180° out of phase with the carrier.
• Half-wave / full-wave envelope detectors — only suitable when the sign of the modulator is
not required (rare in servos).
Note: In a synchro-driven servo, the synchro error signal K Vr sin ωct · sin θe is multiplied in the
phase-sensitive demodulator by sin ωct, giving (after LPF) a DC voltage proportional to sin θe ≈
θe. This DC voltage drives the DC servo amplifier.

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 7. Magnetic Amplifier (Mag-Amp)
A magnetic amplifier is a static device that uses the nonlinearity of ferromagnetic core saturation
to control a large AC load current with a small DC control current. Before transistors became reliable
at high power, mag-amps were the workhorses of industrial servo and control systems (welders,
voltage regulators, generator field controllers). They are still used in radiation-hardened and
high-reliability military applications.

7.1 Principle
Consider a saturable reactor — a winding on a ferromagnetic core. Its inductance, and hence its
impedance to AC current, depends on the core's magnetic state:
• Unsaturated core → high µ → high inductance → high impedance → small load current.
• Saturated core → µ ≈ µ0 → low inductance → low impedance → large load current.
Saturation is brought about by a separate DC control winding on the same core. Increasing the DC
control MMF pushes the operating point towards saturation, allowing the AC half-cycle to flow through
the load with little obstruction. The mag-amp therefore behaves as a current-controlled inductor and,
with a rectifier in the load circuit, as a controllable AC-to-DC source.

7.2 Self-Saturating (Self-Excited) Mag-Amp

A diode in series with each load winding lets current flow only on one half-cycle. During the
conducting half-cycle, the load current itself contributes to saturation (positive feedback), giving very
high power gain. Two such cores are connected in push–pull to handle both half-cycles.

7.3 Transfer Function (small-signal, linearised)

To first order the mag-amp can be modelled as a single-pole low-pass element:

Vload(s) / Icontrol(s) = KA / (1 + s τA)

where KA is the static gain (V/A) and τA is the time constant set by the L/R of the control winding.
Typical τA = 1/2fsupply – several supply cycles, i.e. 10–50 ms.

7.4 Advantages and Limitations

• Advantages: rugged, no moving parts, no semiconductor wear-out, very long life, can handle
large overloads, immune to radiation.
• Limitations: bulky, heavy (iron core), slow (response time of several supply periods), efficiency
70–80% — lower than modern PWM amplifiers.

8. Position and Speed Control Systems

Now we put all the components together to form practical closed-loop systems. Two canonical
examples are the position servo (controls θ) and the speed regulator (controls ω).

8.1 DC Position Control System

Block-diagram description (signal flow):
• Reference shaft angle θR set by a potentiometer pot1 → VR.
• Load shaft angle θC picked off by potentiometer pot2 → VC.
• Error e = VR − VC = Kp(θR − θC).
• Servo amplifier of gain KA drives the armature of a DC servomotor.

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 • Motor (gain Km, time constant τm) drives the load through a gear-box of ratio n.
Forward-path transfer function:

G(s) = Kp · KA · Km · n / [ s(1 + sτm) ]

With unity feedback, the closed-loop transfer function is:

θC(s)/θR(s) = K / [ s(1+sτm) + K ] where K = KpKAKmn

This is a standard second-order system:

θC/θR = ωn² / (s² + 2ζωns + ωn²)

ωn = √(K/τm) ζ = 1/(2√(Kτm))
Note: Increasing the loop gain K reduces ζ — the system becomes faster but more oscillatory.
Adding a tachogenerator feedback (rate feedback) or error-rate compensation introduces
extra damping without sacrificing accuracy. This is the principle behind PYQ Q5(b) of May 2025.

8.2 AC Position Control System (Synchro–AC Servomotor)

• Synchro pair generates AC error signal ≈ Ksθe sin ωct.
• AC servo amplifier raises the level and feeds the control winding of a 2-φ AC servomotor.
• Reference winding is permanently energised from the same supply.
• Motor drives the load and the receiver synchro rotor (closing the loop).
The forward-path transfer function (envelope analysis) has the same form as the DC system, with Ks
replacing Kp and the AC servo motor's Km/τm replacing the DC motor parameters.
Key advantage: no commutator brushes anywhere in the loop — clean, reliable, low-noise.
Disadvantage: low motor power, demodulator/modulator needed if any DC compensation is used.

8.3 Speed (Velocity) Control System

Block-diagram description:
• Reference voltage VR set by a pot proportional to desired speed ωR.
• Speed feedback obtained from a tacho-generator (a small DC generator coupled to the load):
Vtach = KtωC.
• Error Ve = VR − Vtach drives a servo amplifier and motor.
Forward path (motor speed transfer function):

Ω(s)/Ve(s) = KAKm / (1 + sτm)

Closed-loop:

ΩC(s)/ΩR(s) = (KAKm/Kt) · 1 / { 1 + sτm/(1 + KAKmKt) }

Note: Closed-loop time constant τm/(1 + KAKmKt) is much smaller than the open-loop τm.
Steady-state error in speed due to load torque disturbance is reduced by the loop gain. This is
exactly why a tacho-feedback DC drive is so common in industry.
Example: If KAKm = 50 rad/(V·s), Kt = 0.05 V·s/rad and τm = 0.04 s open-loop, the closed-loop
time constant becomes 0.04/(1 + 50×0.05) = 0.04/3.5 ≈ 11.4 ms — a 3.5× speed-up.

8.4 Tachogenerator (Velocity Sensor)

• DC tacho: small DC generator with permanent magnet excitation; output voltage et = Ktω; ripple
from commutation, brushes wear out.

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 • AC tacho: a 2-φ machine (similar to AC servomotor but used as generator); reference winding
excited at ωc, output is an AC voltage of amplitude proportional to ω; phase reverses with
direction.
• Tacho transfer function (idealised): Et(s)/Ω(s) = Kt (constant).

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 9. Quick-Revision Cheat-Sheet
Component Function Transfer Function
Potentiometer Position → Voltage Kp
Synchro (Tx + Tr) Shaft-angle error → AC voltage Ks (envelope)
DC servomotor
Voltage → Position Km/[s(1+sτm)]
(armature)
DC servomotor (field) Voltage → Position Km/[s(1+sτf)(1+sτm)]
AC servomotor (2-φ) Control voltage → Position Km/[s(1+sτm)]
Servo amplifier Power amplification KA (≈ constant in band)
DC → AC
Modulator Kmod
(amplitude-modulated)
Demodulator (PSD) AC envelope → DC Kdem
Power amplification (AC,
Magnetic amplifier KA/(1+sτA)
sat-reactor)
Tacho-generator Speed → Voltage Kt

10. Frequently-Asked Exam Questions (with model-answer

cues)
1. Q. Derive the transfer function of an armature-controlled DC servomotor.
Follow §3.1 — give symbol table, four basic equations, take Laplace, eliminate Ia(s), arrive at
θ(s)/Va(s). State assumptions: linear magnetic circuit, constant flux, ideal back-EMF, La small.

2. Q. Derive the transfer function of a field-controlled DC servomotor and compare

with armature control.
§3.2 + §3.3. Stress: third-order, no internal feedback, slower, lower power, used only for instrument
servos.

3. Q. Explain the principle, construction, T–N characteristics and transfer function of

an AC servomotor.
§4 in full. Sketch two-phase stator, drag-cup rotor, family of T–N curves. End with the second-order
TF identical in form to armature DC.

4. Q. With a neat diagram, explain the operation of a synchro transmitter–control

transformer pair as an error detector.
§2 with the three induced-EMF equations. Mention quadrature offset between Tx and Tr rotors so that
for θe = 0 the output is zero, and for small θe the output is a suppressed-carrier AC signal of
amplitude ∝ θe.

5. Q. What is a magnetic amplifier? Discuss its principle and one application.

§7. Saturable reactor, control of inductance by DC bias, push-pull self-saturating type, transfer
function KA/(1+sτA); application: control-field of large DC generators (Ward–Leonard system).

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 6. Q. Explain modulator and demodulator and their need in a servo system.
§6. Modulator: DC → AC; demodulator: AC envelope → DC, must be phase-sensitive. Need: synchro
outputs are AC, but DC tacho/PI compensation produces DC; conversion is needed at the interface.

7. Q. Explain the working of a closed-loop position-control system using a synchro +

AC servomotor (or pot + DC servomotor).
§8.1 / §8.2 with block diagram, derivation of θC/θR, identification of ωn and ζ.

8. Q. With the help of a block diagram, explain a closed-loop speed-control system

using a tachogenerator.
§8.3. Show that the feedback reduces τm by a factor (1 + KAKmKt) and reduces sensitivity to load
disturbances.

End of Notes — Unit 3, Control System Components

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