Module 2

Electrical Properties of Metals and Semiconductors

Failures of classical free electron theory, Mechanisms of electron scattering in solids, Matthiessen’s rule,
Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory, Density of States, Fermi Dirac statistics, Fermi Energy,
Variation of Fermi Factor With Temperature and Energy, Expression for carrier concentration, Derivation
of electron concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor, Expression for electron and hole concentration in
extrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level for intrinsic(with derivation) and extrinsic semiconductor (no
derivation), Hall effect, Numerical Problems

Introduction to Electrical conductivity And Review of Classical free electron theory:

Valence electrons inside the atoms are loosely bound to the nucleus compare to other electrons in the
[Link] electrons are free to move throughout the volume of metal and constitute free electron gas.
These free electron gas determine electrical, optical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids.
Review of Classical free electron theory:
 The classical free electron theory was proposed by German physicist Paul Drude in 1900 and later
improved by H.A. Lorentz, to explain electrical conductivity in metals.
 According to this theory metal consists of free or valence electrons move in a random direction
similar to that of a gas molecule in a container.
 The free electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics and the theory as whole came to be known
Drude-Lorentz theory.
The expression for electrical conductivity σ based on this theory is given by,

ne2 τ
σ=
m

where τ is relaxation time of the free electrons

n is number of free electrons per unit volume
e is charge of electron
m is mass of electron

Relaxation Time (τ)

Relaxation time is the time required for the average velocity of free electrons to reduce (1/e) times its
value that existed when the field is just turned off.
m
τ = n𝜌e2

Where e= charge of electron, m=mass of electron

Resistivity and Mobility:
 Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of electrical conductivity. It is the measure of the ability of a
material to oppose the flow of current.
 Metals are good conductors of electricity. Hence, they have low resistivity.
 The insulators like rubber, glass, graphite, plastics, etc. have very high resistivity when compared
to the metallic conductors.
 The third type is the semiconductor which comes in between the conductors and insulators. Their
resistivity decreases with the increase in temperature and is also affected by the presence of
impurities in them.
 Materials having electric field and current density will have the following resistivity formula:

𝐸
ρ=𝐽

ρ is the resistivity of the material in Ω.m

E is the magnitude of the electric field in V.m-1
J is the magnitude of current density in A.m-2
Conductors with a uniform cross-section and uniform flow of electric current will have the following
resistivity formula:

𝑅𝐴
ρ= 𝑙

Where,
ρ is the resistivity of the material in Ω.m
R is the electrical resistance of uniform cross-sectional material in Ω
l is the length of a piece of material in m
A is the cross-sectional area of the material in m2
 Electrical mobility is the ability of charged particles such as electrons or protons to move through
a medium in response to an electric field that is pulling them.
 In other words, the electrical mobility of the particle is defined as the ratio of the drift velocity to
the magnitude of the electric field
 Electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can move through a metal or
semiconductor when pulled by an electric field.
The mobility of an electron can be calculated by:

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 μ = Vd/E

Where,
Vd is the drift velocity of an electron
E is the external electric field
SI unit of electron mobility is m2/(V·s)

Drift velocity is the average velocity attained by charged particles, such as electrons, in a material due to
an electric field.
The mobility of an electron can be calculated by:

−𝑒𝐸τ
Vd = 𝑚

Where, Vd is the drift velocity of an electron

E is the external electric field
τ= Relaxation time
SI unit of drift velocity is m/s

Mechanisms of Electron Scattering in Solids

In solids, electrons do not move freely as in a vacuum. They interact with lattice vibrations,
impurities, structural defects, other electrons, and boundaries of the material
These interactions cause electron scattering, which determines the electrical resistivity, mobility,
and conductivity of the solid.
The scattering mechanisms define the mean free path ℓ and the relaxation time τ of the electrons.

Major Scattering Mechanisms

1. Electron–Phonon (Lattice) Scattering

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  Caused by thermal vibrations of the lattice atoms (phonons).

 As temperature increases, phonon population increases, enhancing scattering.

 Resistivity increases approximately linearly with T at high temperatures.

 Dominant mechanism above the Debye temperature.

2. Electron–Impurity Scattering

 Caused by foreign atoms or dopants, which disturb the periodic lattice potential.

 Scattering is elastic.

 Resistivity contribution is nearly temperature independent (residual resistivity).

 Dominant at low temperatures.

3. Electron–Defect / Dislocation Scattering

 Caused by vacancies, interstitials, grain boundaries, and dislocations.

 Defects break lattice periodicity, reducing mobility.

 Important in polycrystalline materials and alloys.

4. Electron Scattering

 Due to Coulomb interactions between conduction electrons.

 In pure metals at low temperature, it contributes significantly.

 Resistivity varies as T2 (Fermi liquid behavior).

5. Surface or Boundary Scattering

 Caused by electron reflections at material surfaces.

 Significant in thin films, nanowires, and 2D materials, where dimensions are comparable to
electron mean free path.

 Reduces electron mobility compared to bulk.

Mattheissen’s Rule:
In most materials (e.g. metals), the current is carried by electrons. The resistivity ρ is then defined by the
scattering of the electrons due to the imperfections and thermal vibrations.
The resistivity of an impure specimen is given by Mattheissen’s rule.

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 ρ= ρo +ρ (T)

Where, ρo It is a constant for the impure material

ρ (T) It is the temperature dependent resistivity of the pure specime

Failures of Classical free electron theory

Classical free electron theory accounts for electrical and thermal conductivity in metals but fails to account
the facts such as specific heat, temperature dependence of conductivity and dependence of electrical
conductivity on electron concentration.
1) Specific heat: The molar specific heat of metal at constant volume is
3
Cv = R
2
But experimentally the contribution to the specific heat capacity by the conduction electrons is found to
be
Cv = 10−4 RT

Thus, the predicted value is much higher than the experimental value. Further the theory indicates no
relationship between the specific heat capacity and temperature. Experimentally however, the specific
heat capacity is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

2) Dependence of electrical conductivity on temperature

It has been observed experimentally that the electrical conductivity of a metal is proportional to the
absolute temperature T.
𝟏
That is 𝛔𝛂 (1)
𝐓

According to the main assumptions of the classical free electron theory

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 𝟏 𝟑
𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒕𝒉 = 𝒌𝑻
𝟐 𝟐

3kT
Vth = √
m

Vth α √T (2)
Since the mean collision time is inversely proportional to the average thermal velocity, we have

1
τα
Vth
Or
1
τα (3)
√T
ne2 τ
But electrical conductivity σ = m

Since n, e and m is constant, σατ (4)

From equations (3) and (4) we get
1
σα
√T

From the above equation, it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not matching
with the experimental results.
3. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration
According to classical free electron theory
ne2 τ
σ= m

σ = n where n is electron concentration

Consider copper and [Link] electrical conductivity are 5.88×107/ Ω.m and 3.65×107/ Ω.m. The
electron concentrations for copper and aluminium are 8.45×103/ m3 and 18.06×1028/ [Link] the
classical free electron theory fails to explain the dependence of electrical conductivity on electron
concentration
Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory
It was proposed by Somerfield with the following important assumptions.

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 1. The energy values of conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are in terms
of a set of energy levels.
2. The distribution of electrons in various allowed energy levels takes place according to Pauli’s
exclusion principle.
3. The free electron travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its
boundary.
4. The attraction between the free electron and the lattice ions, and the repulsion between electrons
themselves are ignored.

Density of state g (E): Number of available energy states per unit energy range is called density of state.
It is a continuous function which varies with energy value denoted as g (E).
The expression for density of states is given by
4𝜋 3⁄
g(E) dE = [ 2m∗e ] 2 (E)1⁄2 dE
ℎ3

g(E)

As per the above equation it is clear that the number of energy levels in an energy interval dE is
proportional to (E)1⁄2 .A plot of g(E) versus E shows the shape of curve is a parabola.

Fermi-Dirac statistics

Statistical physics can be applied to a collection of particles in an effort to relate microscopic properties
to macroscopic properties. In the case of electrons, it is necessary to use quantum statistics, with the
requirement that each state of the system can be occupied by only one electron. Each state is specified
by a set of quantum numbers. The electrons are found to be distributed in various energy states in a
proper way. This is because they acquire energy obeying a statistical rule.
Fermi–Dirac statistics can be applied to the assembly of particles which obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.
The particles must be identical, indistinguishable and have spin ½. As electrons satisfy the above

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conditions they obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. Fermi-Dirac statistics permits the evaluation of probability
of finding electrons occupying energy levels in a certain range. The probability that a particular state
having specific energy is occupied by one of the electrons in a solid is given by
1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
⁄
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

Where f(E) is called Fermi-Dirac distribution function or Fermi factor and 𝑬𝑭 is called the Fermi energy
Fermi energy

The Energy corresponding to the highest occupied level at zero-degree absolute is called the Fermi energy, and the
energy level is referred to as the fermi level. The fermi energy is denoted by EF.
Thus, at T=0°K all the energy levels lying above the Fermi’s level are empty, and those lying below are completely
filled. Fermi energy plays an important role in application of Fermi-Dirac statistics.

Fermi factor
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal equilibrium.
The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied at a steady temperature T is
given by,
1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
⁄
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

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Variation of fermi factor with temperature and energy

Dependence of Fermi factor f(E) on temperature and Effect on occupancy of Energy levels
Case (i): probability of occupation for E< 𝑬𝑭 at T = 0.
When T = 0 and E< 𝑬𝑭, we have for the probability,
1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
⁄
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1
1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = = = 1/0+1
𝑒 −∞ + 1

𝑓 (𝐸 ) = 1

f(E) = 1, for E< 𝑬𝑭

Here f(E) = 1 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E< 𝐸𝐹 applies to all the energylevels
below 𝐸𝐹. Therefore, at T = 0, all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied

Case (ii): probability of occupation for E > 𝐸𝑭 at T = 0.

When T = 0 and E> 𝐸𝑭, we have for the probability,
1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
⁄
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1
1 1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = ∞ =∞
𝑒 +1

𝑓 (𝐸 ) = 0

f(E) = 0, for E>𝑬𝑭

Therefore at T = 0, all the energy levels above Fermi level are unoccupied. f(E) for different energy
values, becomes a step function in the above Fig (2)
Case (iii): probability of occupation at ordinary temperature
At ordinary temperature, though the value of probability remains 1 for E<< 𝐸𝐹 it starts decreasing from
1 as the values of E become closer to 𝐸𝐹, thus the value of f(E) becomes ½ at
E =𝐸𝐹, this is because E =𝐸𝐹
𝐸−𝐸𝑓⁄
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑒0
1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = 𝐸−𝐸𝑓⁄ = 1/1+1 = ½
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 + 1

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1.0
T=
T =0
000

0.5 𝑓 TT>0
>
(

E 𝑬𝑭

Fermi temperature (𝑻𝑭 )

Fermi temperature (𝑻𝑭 ) is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electron in
a solid becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 00 K.
𝐸𝐹
Mathematically it can be written as 𝑻𝑭 = ,
𝑘

Where, 𝑇𝐹 is the Fermi temperature.

𝐸𝐹 is the Fermi energy and k is the Boltzmann constant.

Expression for carrier concentration

The number of charge carriers/unit volume of material is called carrier concentration.
Carrier Concentration in Metals
Number of available energy states per unit energy range is called density of state. However, all available
energy states are not filled in a metal. A particular energy E is occupied or not, is determined by the
probability f(E) that a charge carrier can have the energy E. Hence, the number of carriers per unit
volume within energy range depends both on number of available states lying in that range and on the
probability that carriers acquire sufficient energy to occupy the states.
Let N(E) the number of electrons whose energy lies in the energy interval E and E+ dE in the conduction
band. Then
N(E) dE = g(E) dE × f(E) (1)

Where g(E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and f(E) probability that a state of
energy is occupied by an electron

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At thermal equilibrium, probability that an electron occupies an energy level E is

1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) (2)
⁄
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

Where EF is known as Fermi level.

The density of states in the conduction band is given by

8√2𝜋 3
g(E) dE = [𝑚] ⁄2 (E)1⁄2 (3)
ℎ3

By substituting Eq (2) & (3) in 1

8√2𝜋 3⁄ (E)1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
n= [m] 2 (𝐸−𝐸 ) (4)
ℎ3 𝑓⁄
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

For metals at T=0K, the upper most occupied level is E F, f(E)=1 and taking the limits 0 to EF
1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) =1
⁄
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

Substituting in Eq (4)
8√2𝜋 3⁄ 𝐸𝐹
n= [m] 2∫ (E)1⁄2 𝑑𝐸 × 1
ℎ3 0

3 𝐸𝐹
8√2𝜋 3 𝐸2
n= [ m ] ⁄2 [ 3 ]
ℎ3
2 0
16√2𝜋 3⁄
n= [ m𝐸𝐹 ] 2
3ℎ 3

Expression for Electrical conductivity in terms of QFET

According to the quantum theory, the current is carried out only by few electrons which are close to the Fermi
Surface having Fermi Velocity V F.
According to the CFET, The expression for electrical conductivity σ based on this theory is given by

ne2 τ
σ= m

where τ is relaxation time of the free electrons

n is number of free electrons per unit volume
e is charge of electron

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 m is mass of electron

According to the QFET, The expression for electrical conductivity σ based on this theory is given by
𝜆
𝜆𝐹 = 𝑉𝐹 τ, τ = 𝑉
𝐹

Substituting τ we get
ne2 𝜆
σ = 𝑚∗𝑉 𝐹
𝐹

Where n is density of free electrons

𝜆𝐹 =Mean free path
𝑉𝐹 =Fermi Velocity
𝑚∗ = Effective mass of electron in a given metal and varies from solid to solid

Merits of Quantum free electron theory:

Quantum free electron theory has successfully explained following observed experimental facts where as the
classical free electron theory failed.

i) Specific heat at constant volume (CV)

Based on CFET

3
(CV)CFET = 2 R Which is Temperature independent

On the other hand experimentally,

(CV) expt = constant R. T Which is temperature dependent.

Whereas from quantum free electron theory

2𝑘
𝐸𝐹 ˟ RT
-4
(CV)QFET= = 10 RT

Which agrees with the experimental result. Thus the QFET is successful in explaining the experimental behaviour
of Specific heat at constant volume with respect to the temperature.

ii)Temperature depends on electrical conductivity:

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 Experimentally electrical conductivity is

expt α 1/T

According to quantum free electron theory electrical conductivity is given by


ne2 𝜆
OQFT= 𝑚∗ 𝑉 𝐹 (1)
𝐹

Where m* is called effective mass of an electron.

According to quantum free electron theory EF and VF are independent of temperature. The dependence
of λ & T is as follows

Conduction electrons are scattered by the vibrating ions of the lattice. As the temperature increases the
vibrational cross sectional areas (πr2) increases and hence mean free path decreases.

The mean free path of the electrons is given by

1
𝜆=
𝜋𝑟 2
Considering the facts the energy of vibrating body is proportional to the square of amplitude and the energy
of ions is due to the thermal energy.

The thermal energy is proportional to the temperature ‘T’.

We can write r2 α T
Therefore 𝜆 α 1 substituting for 𝜆 in equation (1)
𝑇

Hence QFT α 1/T

Thus QFT α 1/𝑇 is correctly explained by quantum free electron theory.

iii) Electrical conductivity and electron concentration:

Aluminum and gallium which have three free electrons per atom have lower electrical conductivity than that
of copper and silver, which have only one free electron per atom.

As per quantum free electron the electrical conductivity is

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 ne2 𝜆
OQFT= 𝑚∗𝑉 𝐹
𝐹

i.e.  α (n) and  α ( 𝜆𝐹 )

𝑉𝐹

𝜆
The value of (n) for aluminium is 2.13 times higher than that of copper. But the value of ( 𝑉𝐹 )for copper is
𝐹

about 3.73 times higher than that of aluminium. Thus the conductivity of copper exceeds that of aluminium.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic semiconductor
By adding very small amount of impurities such as one part in million to a pure semiconductor in a controlled
manner a large increase in conductivity can be achieved. This process is called Doping. The impurity added is called
Dopant. Doped semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor
containing very small intentionally added impurity the virtue of which it possesses higher electrical conductivity.
There are two types of Extrinsic semiconductor
a) n type semiconductor
b) p type semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor whose conductivity is due to thermal excitation.

Expression for electron concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor
Let N(E) dE be the number of electrons whose energy lies in the energy interval E and E+ dE in the
conduction band. Then
N(E) dE = g(E) dE × f(E) (1)
Where g(E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and f(E) probability that a state of energy
is occupied by an electron.
The electron density in the conduction band is given by integrating the equation between the limits EC
and ∞. EC is the energy corresponding to the bottom edge of the conduction band
and ∞ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 corresponding to the top edge of the conduction band. As the probability of electrons
occupying upper levels of conduction band f(E) readily approaches zero for higher energies, the upper
limit, namely the top of conduction band is taken as ∞.
Thus,
∞
n= ∫EC g(E) f(E) dE (2)

The density of states in the conduction band is given by

4𝜋 3⁄
g(E) dE = [ 2m∗e ] 2 (E)1⁄2 dE for E >EC (3)
ℎ3

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The bottom edge of the conduction band E c corresponds to the potential energy of an electron at rest. Therefore E-
Ec will be the kinetic energy of the conduction electron at higher energy levels (3) is to be modified as follows.
4𝜋 3⁄
g(E) dE = [ 2m∗e ] 2 (E − 𝐸𝐶 )1⁄2 dE (4)
ℎ3

The probability of an electron occupying an energy level is given by

1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
⁄
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
⁄
Since under practical considerations, 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ≫ 1,
We have,
−(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
⁄
𝑓(𝐸 )=𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (5)
Using Eq.(4) and Eq(5) in Eq(2)
4𝜋 3⁄ ∞
n= ℎ3
[ 2m∗e ] 2 ∫𝐸𝐶 (E − 𝐸𝐶 )1⁄2 e−(E−EF )⁄KT dE (6)
∞
e(EF− EC)⁄KT ∫𝐸𝐶 (E − 𝐸𝐶 )1⁄2 e−(E−EC )⁄KT dE
4𝜋 3⁄
n= [ 2m∗e ] 2 (7)
ℎ3

The Eq (7) is of the standard form which has a solution of the following form.

∞ 1⁄ √𝜋
∫0 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 dE =2𝑎
√𝑎
1
Where a= 𝑘𝑇 and x= (E - 𝐸𝐶 )
3
√𝜋
e(EF− EC)⁄KT [
4𝜋 ∗ ] 3⁄
n= [
3 2me
2 (𝑘𝑇)2 ] (8)
ℎ 2

Rearranging the term, we get

3⁄
2πme∗ kT 2
n=2 [ h2
] e−(EC−EF)⁄KT (9)

Eq (9) is the expression for the electron concentration in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor.
3⁄
2πm∗h kT 2
p =2 [ h2
] e−(EF− EV)⁄KT (10)
Eq(10) is the expression for hole concentration in valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor.
Expression for electron concentration n & p are as follows:

𝑛 = 𝑵𝑪 e−(EC− EF )⁄kT
p = 𝑵𝒗 e−(EF− EV )⁄kT
3⁄
2πme∗ kT 2
Where 𝑵𝑪 = 2 [ ]
h2

∗ 3⁄
2πmh kT 2
𝑵𝒗 = 2 [ h2
]

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Expression for electron and hole concentration in extrinsic semiconductor
Expression for electron concentration (𝑵𝒆 )
3⁄
2πm∗e kT 4 ED − E C
Ne = (2ND )1⁄2 [ ] [exp ( )]
h2 2KT
Expression for hole concentration (𝑵𝒉 )
3⁄
2πm∗h kT 4 EV − E A
Nh = (2NA )1⁄2 [ ] [exp ( )]
h2 2KT

Where ND =Donor atom density

NA= Acceptor atom density

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor:

For a semiconductor the energy gap is much lesser than that for insulators. The energy
gap is the energy difference between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the
Valence band. By convention, the energy at the top of the valence band is taken as zero for reference. At T=
0K, all the energy levels in the valence band are completely filled, and all the energy levels in the conduction
band are completely empty. But at room temperature, some of the electrons at the top of the valence band are
able to jump the energy gap due to the thermal excitation, and occupy some energy levels at the bottom part of

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the conduction band. They return soon to the energy levels which they had left vacant in the valence band. This
process of excitation and deexcitation continues and the electrons involved become conduction electrons. Based
upon this picture, one can say that, conduction electrons are distributed between the energy levels in the bottom
part of the conduction band, and the top portion of the valence band. Due to this, the average energy of the
conduction electrons will be almost equal to (1/2) E g. Thus the Fermi level lies in the mid-part of the forbidden
gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes/unit volume in valence band is equal to number of
electrons/unit volume in conduction band.

n  p

Expression for electron concentration n & p are as follows:

𝑛 = 𝑵𝑪 e−(EC− EF )⁄kT

p = 𝑵𝒗 e−(EF− EV )⁄kT
By equating the above two equations we have,
n=p

𝑵𝑪 e−(EC− EF )⁄kT =𝑵𝒗 e−(EF− EV )⁄kT

Taking logarithm on both sides,
(−𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 ) 𝑁 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )
=ln 𝑁𝑉 -
𝑘𝑇 𝐶 𝑘𝑇

𝑁
−(𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐹 )= kT ln 𝑁𝑉 –EF + Ev
𝐶

𝑁
2 𝐸 F = (𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 ) + kT ln 𝑁𝑉
𝐶

(𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉 ) 1 𝑁
𝐸F = + 2kT ln 𝑁𝑉 (1)
2 𝐶

3⁄ ∗ 3⁄
2πme∗ kT 2 2πmh kT 2
𝑁𝐶 = 2 [ ] and 𝑁𝑣 = 2 [ ]
h2 h2
3/ 2
𝑁𝑉  mh* 
  
𝑁𝐶  * 
 me 
𝑁𝑉 3  mh* 
ln  ln  
𝑁𝐶 2  me* 

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 (𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉 ) 3 m*
EF = + kT ln h* (2)
2 4 me
We can also write the above equation as
(𝐸𝐶+𝐸𝑉 ) 3 m*
EF =
2
− kT ln e* (3)
4 mh

Under practical considerations, me*  mh*

me*
ln =0
mh*
(𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉 )
EF =
2
(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝑉 )
EF = +𝐸𝑉
2

1
EF = E g +EV
2
If we denote the top of the valence band EV as zero level, EV=0
1
 EF  Eg
2

Thus, the Fermi level is in the middle of the band gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.

Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor

In extrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in
the valence band are not equal. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels in conduction band
and valence band are not equal. Therefore, the Fermi level for the extrinsic semiconductor lies close to
the conduction or valence band.

Fermi level in n-type semiconductor

In n-type semiconductor pentavalent impurity is added. Each pentavalent impurity donates a free
electron. The addition of pentavalent impurity creates large number of free electrons in the conduction
band.

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At room temperature, the number of electrons in the conduction band is greater than the number of holes
in the valence band. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels by the electrons in the
conduction band is greater than the probability of occupation of energy levels by the holes in the valence
band. This probability of occupation of energy levels is represented in terms of Fermi level. Therefore,
the Fermi level in the n-type semiconductor lies close to the conduction band.

The Fermi level for n-type semiconductor is given as

𝑵𝑪
EF= EC ─ kBT log
𝑵𝑫

Where EF is the Fermi level.

EC is the conduction band.
kB is the Boltzmann constant.
T is the absolute temperature.
NC is the effective density of states in the conduction band.
ND is the concentration of donor atoms.
Fermi level in p-type semiconductor
In p-type semiconductor trivalent impurity is added. Each trivalent impurity creates a hole in the valence
band and ready to accept an electron. The addition of trivalent impurity creates large number of holes in
the valence band.

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At room temperature, the number of holes in the valence band is greater than the number of electrons in
the conduction band. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels by the holes in the valence
band is greater than the probability of occupation of energy levels by the electrons in the conduction
band. This probability of occupation of energy levels is represented in terms of Fermi level. Therefore,
the Fermi level in the p-type semiconductor lies close to the valence band.

The Fermi level for p-type semiconductor is given as

𝑵𝑽
EF= EV + kBT log
𝑵𝑨

Where NV is the effective density of states in the valence band.

NA is the concentration of acceptor atoms.

Hall-Effect:
When a material carrying current is subjected to a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to
direction of current, an electric field is developed across the material in a direction perpendicular to
both the direction of magnetic field and current direction.
This phenomenon is called “Hall-effect”.

Explanation:

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Consider a semi-conductor, and current passes along the X-axis and a magnetic field Bz is applied
along the Z-direction, a field Ey is called the Hall field which is developed in the Y-direction. In P-type
semi-conductor, holes move with the velocity “V” in the “+”ve X-direction. As they move across the
semiconductor the holes experience a transverse force ‘Bev’ due to the magnetic field. This force drives
the holes down to the lower face. As a result, the lower face becomes +vely charged and –ve charge
on the upper surface creating the hall field in the Y-direction. The Hall field exerts an upward force on
holes equal to Ee. In the steady sate, two forces just balance and as a result, no further increase of + ve
charge occurs on Face1. In N type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are electrons
experiences a force in the downward direction and lower face gets – vely charged. As a result, Hall
field will be in the Y – direction.

Demonstration:
Consider a rectangular slab of n-type semiconductor carrying current in the + ve X- direction. If
magnetic field “B’ is acting in the Z-direction as shown then under the influence of magnetic field,
electrons experience a force given by 𝐹𝐿 = -Bev. As a result of force 𝐹𝐻 acting on the electrons in the
Y – direction as a consequence the lower face of the specimen gets – vely charged and upper surface
is + vely charged. Hence a potential 𝑉𝐻 called the Hall Voltage present between the top and bottom
faces of the specimen.
The Hall field𝐹𝐻, exerts an upward force on the electrons given by F= -e𝐸𝐻
The two opposing forces and 𝐹𝐻 establish an equilibrium under which
|𝐹𝐿 | = |𝐹𝐻 |

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i.e -Bev = -e𝐸𝐻

EH = BV
If‘d’ is the thickness of the specimen, then

VH = E𝐻d = Bvd ----------------(1)

If ‘W’ is the thickness of the material in Z- direction
𝐼
Then current density, J = 𝑊𝑑

We know that, J = nev = ρv --------------- (2)

Where, n is charge carrier concentration
R, charge density
𝐼
Therefore, ρv = 𝑊𝑑
𝐼
Or v = 𝜌𝑊𝑑 ---------------- (3)

Substituting for v from equation (1) to equation (3)

𝐵𝐼
VH = 𝑊𝜌
𝐵𝐼
Or ρ=𝑉
𝐻𝑊

Thus, by measuring VH, I and W and by knowing the charge density ρ can be determined.

`Hall Coefficient:
Hall field 𝐸𝐻, for a given material depends on the current density J and the applied magnetic field B.
i.e. 𝐸𝐻 α JB
𝐸𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 JB
RH is called Hall coefficient
𝐸𝐻
Therefore, 𝑅𝐻 =
𝐽𝐵
𝐵𝑣 𝐼
Substituting for EH, J we get 𝑅𝐻 = 𝜌𝑣𝐵 or 𝑅𝐻 = 𝜌
𝐵𝐼 1 𝐵𝐼
Therefore 𝑉𝐻 =𝜌𝑤 = 𝜌 ( 𝑤 )
𝐼
Since, 𝑅𝐻 = 𝜌
𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 =𝑅𝐻 𝑤

Application of Hall Effect

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 Hall Effect is a very useful phenomenon and helps to
1. Determine the Type of Semiconductor
By knowing the direction of the Hall Voltage, one can determine that the given sample is whether n-
type semiconductor or p-type semiconductor. This is because Hall coefficient is negative for n-type
semiconductor while the same is positive in the case of p-type semiconductor.
2. Calculate the Carrier Concentration
The expressions for the carrier concentrations of electrons (n) and holes (p) in terms of Hall
coefficient are given by

3. Determine the Mobility (Hall Mobility)

Mobility expression for the electrons (μn) and the holes (μp), expressed in terms of Hall coefficient is
given by,

Where, σn and σp represent the conductivity due to the electrons and the holes, respectively.
4. Measure Magnetic Flux Density
This equation can be readily deduced from the equation of Hall voltage and is given by

Further, there are many commercially available types of equipment based on the principle of Hall
effect including Hall-effect sensors and Hall-effect probes.
5. Hall Effect sensor
A Hall-effect sensor, also known as a Hall sensor, monitors magnetic fields with high accuracy,
consistency and reliability.

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