ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS (CE-2102)
CHAPTER 5: TIMBER
May 2012
 Timber
Wood suitable for building or engineering purposes.

Uses of timber

Cladding

Roof truss Stairs Flooring

 Uses of timber

Panel

Cabinet
Formwork

Pergola
Tree Components

Dead /Outer Bark - Protective outer layer

Living / Inner bark - Carry nutrients from the leaves to the roots
Cambium - Creates new bark cells and wood cells
Sapwood (living wood) - Nutrients are stored and sap
(sugar & starch) is pumped
upward from roots to leaves.
Heartwood - Sapwood dies progressively and becomes
(dead wood) heartwood – contribute strength to tree
Pith - A small zone of weak wood cells from first year
growth / central core of the tree.
 sapwood

Tree Components
Growth rings
In temperate climates, during
early growing season
(spring/early summer), the wood pith Heartwood
has vigorous growth. Cells are
larger with thinner walls; lighter
colour.

 In later growing season

(sunlight or water less plentiful),
wood has slower growth. Cells
are smaller, with thicker walls: Growth ring
darker colour.

Tropical regions, growth ring is

not obvious. knot
 Commercial Classification
Hardwood Softwood
• Broad leafed trees • Coniferous trees (needle- like
• Heavy leaves)
• Dark coloured • Light in weight
• Do not show distinct • Light coloured
annual ring • Show distinct annual ring
• Generally stronger • Weak, liable to split easily
• Beautiful grained • Uninteresting grain
• Thicker cell walls, • Thin cell walls, open cell
close cell structure structure
 Wood Structure

• Wood consists of long, narrow, hollow cells called fibers.

• Fibers are made of cellulose and bound together by
substance called lignin.
• Grain refers to the
direction, size,
arrangement, appearance
or quality of the fiber.
Grain direction is
important to the strength Longitudinal Tangential
of wood. direction direction

Radial
direction

Grain
 Moisture content of wood
• Wood is hygroscopic material i.e., it will absorb water
vapor from the atmosphere or shrink when it is dry.
(Moisture content will change varying on moisture
content of the surrounding area)
• Water content in growing wood
~ 30% to 300% of its oven dry weight of wood.

• Moisture content = weight of water x 100

oven dry weight

• Moisture content affects properties such as weight, shrinkage

and strength.
• Water stored in wood in two main forms:
- As free water in the vessels or cell cavities. vessels
- As cell water (or bound water) in cell wall.

Free water starts to leave

as soon as the tree is cut.
Cell wall

If the bound water is lost, wood

starts to shrink; strength &
stiffness increase.
 Changes in % of shrinkage vs changes in moisture content

15

% shrinkage 10

5
0 Constant volume

10 20 30 40 50 Moisture content (%)

FSP
Fibre saturation point (FSP) – The moisture content of wood
at which the cell walls are saturated with bound water and no
free water is present. Usually around 25-30 %. The addition
or removal of water below FSP has a large effect on the
properties of wood.
 Shrinkage and Swelling

Timber loses or gains moisture to be

in equilibrium with the atmospheric
moisture in its immediate
environment.
Swelling (gain of moisture in the cell
wall) and shrinking (loss of moisture
from cell wall) are dependent on
moisture in the air and temperature.
Shrinkage is the highest in the tangential direction and
least in longitudinal axes.
This dimensional changes causes warping, splitting
and structural performance problem.
 Changes in strength vs changes in moisture content

Strength

Moisture content (%)

FSP
 Lumber production

Lumber
Lumber - timber that has been cut into boards, planks or other
structural members of standard length for use as a building
material.
Lumber production

• Logging & Transporting to sawmill

• Sawing / milling
• Seasoning / Drying
• Surfacing
• Grading
• Preservation (Optional)
 Lumber production

 Logging
- The felling and preparation of timber
for shipment to sawmills.
 Sawing / Milling process
- Convert logs into boards in a manner that
secure maximum product with minimum
waste & labour.
- Log breakdown
(Cutting log to
provide flat surface)
 Methods of sawing /
cutting techniques

- Used for framing

- Very economical,
less wastage, high
shrinkage

Plain sawn (slab-cut)

- Used for
flooring, interior
trim and furniture
Radial sawn
- Less shrinkage - Not common
Quarter sawn
 Seasoning / Drying
The process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture
contained in wall cells in order to produce seasoned timber.
Lumber is considered seasoned when moisture content is
less then 15 - 19%.

Purpose of seasoning
• Improved strength, reduce shrinkage
• Greater resistance to decay
• Reduced weight; easily handled & transported
• Paints applied will last longer
 Methods of seasoning

Air dry (traditional method)

Lumber is stacked. Air circulate
through & around the stacks.
Takes months to reach moisture
content 20 %.
Dried in kiln
The lumber is stacked as in air dry &
placed in a special chamber. Takes
days to one week. Most commonly
used.
Surfacing
The surface of lumber is machined to give smooth
surface and a more precise dimension, easier to
work with & less damaging to hands.

Grading
All sawn timber are graded based on quality e.g.
appearance and structural strength.
 Characteristics of a good timber
• Strength
- Tensile, compressive, shear, bending (depends on
species and grade)
• Hardness
– i.e wood should not be bruised by an ordinary impact
• Free from defects - e.g. knots
• Heavy weight
• Durable
– able to resist atmospheric effects, attacks of worms
or fungi
• Workable – easily planed
 Testing of timber

• Tensile strength in (a) is 2 – 4 times larger than compressive

strength in (c)
 Factors affecting timber strength
• Moisture content

• Density – depends on cell size, cell wall thickness,

number & types of cells. Strength and stiffness
increases with density.

• Defects – e.g Knots (disturb continuity of grain), decay,

splits & checks

• Grain types - straight grain has higher strength.

• Seasoning / Drying

• Preservation / Treatment
 Lumber defects
Any form of imperfection in or on surface of wood that
lowers the strength, durability and economy of wood.

Types of defects
• Growth / Natural Defects – wind, abnormal growth
• Production defects - felling, sawing or drying process

• Growth Defects
- Knots
Portions of branch over which the
tree has grown. Reduce wood
strength, desirable for appearance.
- Decay
Fungus (microscopic plant like organism)
which feeds on wood fiber.
Cause softening, loss of strength, weight
and change of texture and color.
- Damage
Due to insects such as beetle, termite & marine organisms
 Production Defects
Cracks occur in various parts of trees
• Checks - radial cracks on surface of
wood as a result of rapid drying. Effect
on appearance and strength.

• Splits – deep crack that penetrate the

entire depth of wood due to drying
stresses or inappropriate handling.
Effect on appearance & reduce shear
strength.

• Shake - Defects that are caused due to

stresses during growth (heavy wind),
relief of stresses when tree is felled or
impact on soil during felling.
Knots – growth defects

Checks - production defects

Shake – growth & production defects

Splits - production defects

 Production Defects
Warping – distortion of wood from the desired plane.
Results from differential drying and relief of internal
stresses.
• Cup – Deformation of the cross
section – edges move upward
• Bow – Deformation over the
length of a board in the minor axis
direction
• Spring – Deformation over the
length of a board in the major axis
direction
• Twist – lifting one corner of the
plane
 Timber Treatment /
Preservation

Treating wood with solutions (preservatives) to increase its

durability e. g. make it poisonous to fungi and insects attacks
and to prevent it from absorbing more moisture.
Types of preservatives
• Paints
• Oil type preservatives (petroleum based) e.g
- Creosote – brownish black oil made by distilling coal tar.
- Pentachlorophenol (PCP), copper naphthenate –
(Application – railroad ties, utility poles)
• Waterborne oxides (salts) preservatives – e.g. chromated
copper arsenate (CCA), ammoniacal copper arsenate
(ACA).
 Methods of preservation

• Brushing & spraying – Surface of timber is sprayed with

preservatives.

• Cold steeping (soaking) – Timber is soaked in a tank of

preservative. Limited penetration of preservatives.

• Hot & cold open tank treatment – Timber placed in a tank of

preservative. Heated & allowed to cool. Preservatives
penetrate during cooling.

• Pressure absorption – Timber is placed in vacuum

cylinder. Air bubbles are removed from wood. Preservative
is forced into the entire structure of wood.
 Pressure absorption method

Logs loaded in a pressure chamber for

impregnation with preservative.
 Fire proofing of timber

The rate of burning can be retarded or to make timber fire

resistance to some extent.

• Lumber is placed in a pressure vessel.

• Impregnated with chemical salts e.g. ammonium sulfate,
borax.
• Use fire retarding paint e.g. sodium silicate.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
timber as a construction material
Advantages of wood
• High strength / weight ratio
• Easy to cut
• Good finishes and appearance
• Low heat and electrical conductivity
• High durability if properly treated

Disadvantages of wood
• Easy to catch fire (Combustibility)
• Susceptibility to attack by fungi and insects
• Shrinkage & swelling
Advantages and disadvantages of timber structures

Advantages Disadvantages

• Quick erection time • Additional design and

• Reduced site labour engineering time
• Reduced construction waste • Susceptible to decay
• Easily converted to any shape • Very likely to warp and crack
• Economical and cheap • Not fire resistant
• High strength to weight ratio • Requires regular
• Light weight structural maintenance
members • Lack of experience of
• Easy alteration and repairs following trades
• Energy efficient in its
production
• Non conductor of heat and
sound

33
 Engineered Wood Products
• Engineered products are
manufactured by bonding (glued
together with resin or adhesive)
together wood veneers, strands,
lumber, wood particles / chips or
fibers to produce large and integral
units.
•These products have
specific and consistent
engineering properties.
 Classification of Engineered Wood Products

Wood Stock Class Product

Structural Panel / Sheets Structural shapes
(sheathing, flooring) (Beams, columns)
Veneer (thin Plywood (grains of veneer Laminated veneer lumber
sheet of wood) are alternated at 90 0) (grains are arranged parallel)
Strands (length Waferboard – random
up to 150 mm, orientation of strands. Laminated strand lumber
width < 25 mm) Oriented Strand Board -
strands are oriented.

Composite Two parallel face veneers -

bonded to core of wood
fiber.
Dried lumber - Glue laminated lumber
(Glulam)
  Structural panel

 Plywood
A glued wood panel made up of thin
layers of veneer (thin layer of wood 1 to
6 mm thick) with the grain of adjacent
layers at right angles.

Major uses: wall paneling / partition

and concrete formwork.
Advantages: High strength, stiff, large
sizes, resistance to splitting and warping.
 Veneer & Plywood Production

Logs are
soaked in
hot water
to soften
wood.

Logs are debarked.

Veneer being
peeled from
log

Log mounted on lathe and being turned.

 Veneer & Plywood Production

Dried and cut to required size

Applying glue and arranging
veneer for pressing.

Finished product
  Structural shapes

• Laminated veneer lumber

(LVL)
A structural lumber product
manufactured from laminated
veneers. The grain of all veneers
run parallel to the axis of a
member. Thickness ~ 38 mm - 89
mm (1.5 - 3.5 inches).

Uses: scaffold planks.

  Structural panel

- Wafer board Normally 3 to 5 layers of

plies made of randomly
A board made of wood arranged wood strands
strands randomly
arranged and bonded
together under heat
and pressure using a
binder.
Panels are made of
- Oriented Strand plies with alternating
board (OSB) orientation of strands

Strands are oriented in

one direction.
  Structural shapes
- Laminated strand lumber
(LSL)
Extensions of the technology used
to produce OSB. Wood strands
glued together with the grain of
each strand oriented parallel to the
length of the finished product.
The manufacturing process is the
same as OSB. Differences being
in the length of strands used
(longer in LSL) and the density &
strength are higher.
 Laminated wood / Glu-lam
(glue laminated wood)
Horizontally
• Small strips of wood laminated beam
(25 mm - 50 mm) are
glued together to
create larger section.
The grain of all layers
Vertically
are laid parallel. laminated beam

• Used in dry
condition.
• Uses: Beam,
column, roof truss.
 Advantages
• Size - large section
sizes, long lengths &
various width
• Shape - straight,
curved, tapered
• Quality - increased
strength & stiffness,
easier to dry
• Less checking &
other seasoning Finger joint used in the
manufacture of glulam
defects
 Composite structural members

Sheet products and

structural shapes product
can be combined to
produce composite
structural members.

e.g. beams made of a

combination of wood
product : - beam, box
beam , T- sections.