STS PHYSICS NOTES

Junior Science Teacher (BPS-14) — Graduation Level

School Education & Literacy Department, Government of Sindh

TEST DATE: 10 APRIL 2026 | MCQs: 12%

1. MECHANICS
1.1 Vectors
A vector has both magnitude and direction. A scalar has only magnitude.
Types:
• Position Vector: Describes location of a point from origin
• Unit Vector: Magnitude = 1, gives direction only (e.g., i, j, k)
• Null/Zero Vector: Magnitude = 0
• Equal Vectors: Same magnitude and direction
Vector Addition:
• Graphical: Head-to-tail rule / Parallelogram law
• Resultant (2D): R = sqrt(Ax+Bx)^2 + (Ay+By)^2
• Dot Product: A·B = AB cosθ (gives scalar)
• Cross Product: A×B = AB sinθ (gives vector)
🔑 KEY POINTS: Vectors
✔ Vector quantities: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum
✔ Scalar quantities: speed, distance, mass, time, temperature, energy
✔ i·i = j·j = k·k = 1 and i×j = k, j×k = i, k×i = j
✔ If dot product = 0, vectors are perpendicular

1.2 Kinematics
Kinematics is the study of motion without considering its cause (force).
Key Equations of Motion (Uniform Acceleration):
• 1st: v = v₀ + at
• 2nd: s = v₀t + ½at²
• 3rd: v² = v₀² + 2as
• Average velocity: v_avg = (v + v₀)/2
Projectile Motion:
• Horizontal (no acceleration): x = v₀cosθ × t
• Vertical (gravity acts): y = v₀sinθ × t - ½gt²
• Range: R = v₀² sin2θ / g
• Max height: H = v₀² sin²θ / 2g
• Time of flight: T = 2v₀sinθ / g
🔑 KEY POINTS: Kinematics
✔ Maximum range when θ = 45°
✔ At maximum height, vertical velocity = 0
✔ Horizontal velocity remains constant throughout projectile motion
✔ g = 9.8 m/s² ≈ 10 m/s² (approx)
 ✔ Free fall: object falls with acceleration g under gravity alone

1.3 Dynamics — Newton's Laws

Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia):
A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force. Inertia is resistance
to change in motion.
Newton's Second Law:
• Force: F = ma
• Impulse: J = F × t = change in momentum
Newton's Third Law:
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Forces act on different bodies.
🔑 KEY POINTS: Dynamics
✔ Mass is measure of inertia
✔ Weight W = mg (force due to gravity)
✔ Friction force f = μN (μ = coefficient of friction, N = normal force)
✔ Static friction > Kinetic friction
✔ On frictionless surface: F_net = ma

1.4 Forces, Torque & Equilibrium

• Torque: τ = r × F = rF sinθ (also called moment of force)
• Equilibrium (1st): ΣF = 0 (translational equilibrium)
• Equilibrium (2nd): Στ = 0 (rotational equilibrium)
Centre of gravity: Point where total weight of body acts.
🔑 KEY POINTS: Torque
✔ Torque causes rotation; larger lever arm → more torque
✔ Couple: two equal, opposite, non-collinear forces that produce rotation
✔ Stable equilibrium: body returns to original position when disturbed

1.5 Momentum & Impulse

• Momentum: p = mv (vector quantity, SI unit: kg·m/s)
• Impulse: J = Δp = F·Δt
• Conservation of Momentum: p_initial = p_final (no external force)
Types of Collision:
• Elastic: Both momentum AND kinetic energy conserved
• Inelastic: Only momentum conserved, KE not conserved
• Perfectly Inelastic: Bodies stick together after collision
🔑 KEY POINTS: Momentum
✔ Momentum is conserved in all types of collisions
 ✔ Rocket works on principle of conservation of momentum
✔ Large time → small force (airbag reduces impact force)

1.6 Gravitation
• Newton's Law of Gravitation: F = G m₁m₂/r² (G = 6.67×10⁻¹¹ N·m²/kg²)
• Gravitational field: g = GM/r²
• Orbital velocity: v = sqrt(GM/r)
• Escape velocity: v_e = sqrt(2GM/r) = sqrt(2gR) ≈ 11.2 km/s
🔑 KEY POINTS: Gravitation
✔ g decreases with altitude and depth
✔ g is maximum at poles and minimum at equator
✔ Geostationary orbit: T = 24 hours, height ≈ 36,000 km
✔ Satellites in orbit have centripetal force = gravitational force

1.7 Energy — Potential & Kinetic

• Kinetic Energy: KE = ½mv²
• Gravitational PE: PE = mgh
• Work: W = F·d·cosθ
• Power: P = W/t = F·v
• Work-Energy Theorem: W_net = ΔKE
• Conservation of Mech. Energy: KE + PE = constant
🔑 KEY POINTS: Energy
✔ 1 Joule = 1 N·m = 1 kg·m²/s²
✔ 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J
✔ Efficiency = (useful output / total input) × 100%
✔ At maximum height of projectile: all KE converts to PE
✔ Conservative forces conserve mechanical energy (e.g., gravity, spring)
2. THERMAL PHYSICS
2.1 Temperature & Its Scales
Temperature Scales:
• Celsius to Kelvin: K = °C + 273
• Celsius to Fahrenheit: °F = (9/5)°C + 32
• Fahrenheit to Celsius: °C = (5/9)(°F - 32)
Absolute zero = 0 K = -273°C: theoretically lowest possible temperature.
🔑 KEY POINTS: Temperature Scales
✔ Kelvin scale is absolute scale (no negative values)
✔ Water freezes at 0°C = 32°F = 273 K
✔ Water boils at 100°C = 212°F = 373 K
✔ Normal body temp: 37°C = 98.6°F = 310 K

2.2 Boyle's Law

• Boyle's Law: P ∝ 1/V or PV = constant (at constant T)
• Combined: P₁V₁ = P₂V₂
At constant temperature, pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional.
🔑 KEY POINTS: Boyle's Law
✔ Temperature must be constant
✔ Applies to ideal gases
✔ P-V graph is a hyperbola; P vs 1/V graph is straight line

2.3 Charles' Law

• Charles' Law: V ∝ T or V/T = constant (at constant P)
• Combined: V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂
At constant pressure, volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
🔑 KEY POINTS: Charles' Law
✔ Temperature must be in Kelvin
✔ V-T graph is a straight line passing through origin (in Kelvin)
✔ Gas expands on heating, contracts on cooling

2.4 Avogadro's Law & Ideal Gas Law

• Avogadro's Law: V ∝ n (at constant T and P)
• Avogadro's Number: Nₐ = 6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹
• Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT (R = 8.314 J/mol·K)
 • Molar mass: M = mass / moles
🔑 KEY POINTS: Avogadro / Ideal Gas
✔ 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles
✔ At STP: 1 mole of any gas = 22.4 L
✔ Ideal gas assumptions: no intermolecular forces, perfectly elastic collisions

2.5 Thermodynamics
Laws of Thermodynamics:
• Zeroth Law: If A=B and B=C in thermal equilibrium, then A=C (basis of thermometry)
• First Law: ΔU = Q - W (energy conservation: heat added = increase in internal energy + work
done by gas)
• Second Law: Heat flows naturally from hot to cold. Entropy of universe always increases.
• Third Law: Entropy of perfect crystal at 0K is zero.
Processes:
• Isothermal: T = constant → PV = constant
• Adiabatic: Q = 0 → no heat exchange
• Isobaric: P = constant → V ∝ T
• Isochoric: V = constant → P ∝ T
🔑 KEY POINTS: Thermodynamics
✔ Specific heat capacity: heat needed per unit mass per degree rise in temp
✔ Latent heat: heat for change of state (no temperature change)
✔ Conduction, Convection, Radiation are modes of heat transfer
✔ Radiation is the only mode that works in vacuum
3. WAVES
3.1 General Wave Properties
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy without transferring matter.
Types:
• Transverse Wave: Vibration perpendicular to wave direction (e.g., light, water)
• Longitudinal Wave: Vibration parallel to wave direction (e.g., sound)
Wave Equation:
• Speed: v = fλ
• Period: T = 1/f
• Frequency: f = 1/T
🔑 KEY POINTS: General Waves
✔ Wavelength (λ): distance between two consecutive crests/troughs
✔ Amplitude: maximum displacement from equilibrium
✔ Frequency: number of oscillations per second (Hz)
✔ All EM waves travel at c = 3×10⁸ m/s in vacuum

3.2 Standing Waves

Formed by superposition of two waves of same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite
directions.
• Nodes: Points of zero displacement
• Antinodes: Points of maximum displacement
• Fundamental frequency (string): f₁ = v/2L
• Harmonics: fn = nf₁ (n = 1, 2, 3...)
🔑 KEY POINTS: Standing Waves
✔ No energy is transferred in standing waves
✔ Distance between adjacent nodes = λ/2
✔ Used in musical instruments (strings, pipes)

3.3 Sound Waves

Sound is a mechanical longitudinal wave. It requires a medium to travel.
• Speed of sound in air: ≈ 343 m/s at 20°C
• Doppler Effect: f' = f(v ± v_o)/(v ∓ v_s)
Properties:
• Echo: reflection of sound
• Resonance: when natural frequency = driving frequency
• Beats: alternating loud and soft sound when two slightly different frequencies superpose
• Beat frequency: f_beat = |f₁ - f₂|
🔑 KEY POINTS: Sound
✔ Ultrasound > 20,000 Hz; Infrasound < 20 Hz
✔ Human hearing range: 20 Hz – 20,000 Hz
✔ Sound travels faster in solids > liquids > gases
✔ Intensity measured in decibels (dB)
4. ELECTROMAGNETISM
4.1 Electrostatics — Coulomb's Law
• Coulomb's Law: F = kq₁q₂/r² (k = 9×10⁹ N·m²/C²)
• Electric Field: E = F/q = kQ/r² (N/C or V/m)
• Gauss's Law: ΦE = Q_enclosed / ε₀ (ε₀ = 8.85×10⁻¹² C²/N·m²)
🔑 KEY POINTS: Electrostatics
✔ Like charges repel; unlike charges attract
✔ Electric field lines go from +ve to -ve charge
✔ Electric field inside a conductor = 0
✔ Charge is quantized: q = ne (e = 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ C)

4.2 Electric Potential

• Electric Potential: V = kQ/r (Volts)
• Potential Difference: V = W/q
• Relation E and V: E = -dV/dr
🔑 KEY POINTS: Electric Potential
✔ Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to field lines
✔ No work done moving charge along equipotential surface
✔ Potential increases toward positive charge

4.3 Capacitors & Combinations

• Capacitance: C = Q/V (Farads, F)
• Parallel plate: C = ε₀A/d
• Energy stored: U = ½CV²
• Capacitors in Series: 1/C_total = 1/C₁ + 1/C₂ + ...
• Capacitors in Parallel: C_total = C₁ + C₂ + ...
🔑 KEY POINTS: Capacitors
✔ Adding dielectric increases capacitance
✔ In series: same charge, voltage divides
✔ In parallel: same voltage, charge divides
✔ Capacitors store electric energy

4.4 Current & Electricity — Ohm's Law

• Ohm's Law: V = IR
• Current: I = Q/t (Amperes)
 • Resistance: R = ρL/A (ρ = resistivity)
• Power: P = VI = I²R = V²/R (Watts)
🔑 KEY POINTS: Current & Ohm's Law
✔ Conventional current flows from + to - (opposite to electron flow)
✔ Resistance increases with temperature in metals
✔ Superconductors: zero resistance at very low temperatures
✔ Ohm's law applies to ohmic conductors only

4.5 Magnetism
• Magnetic force on charge: F = qvB sinθ
• Magnetic force on wire: F = BIL sinθ
• Magnetic field (straight wire): B = μ₀I/2πr
• Magnetic field (solenoid): B = μ₀nI
🔑 KEY POINTS: Magnetism
✔ Magnetic field lines form closed loops (no monopoles)
✔ Right-hand rule: for current direction, thumb = I, fingers = B direction
✔ Earth's magnetic field: geographic north = magnetic south
✔ Ferromagnetic materials: iron, nickel, cobalt

4.6 DC Circuits — Series & Parallel

Series Circuit:
• Total resistance: R_total = R₁ + R₂ + R₃
• Same current through all resistors
• Voltage divides across resistors
Parallel Circuit:
• Total resistance: 1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃
• Same voltage across all resistors
• Current divides through resistors
Kirchhoff's Laws:
• KCL: Sum of currents at a node = 0
• KVL: Sum of voltages in a loop = 0
🔑 KEY POINTS: DC Circuits
✔ Adding resistors in series increases total resistance
✔ Adding resistors in parallel decreases total resistance
✔ Wheatstone bridge used to measure unknown resistance
✔ EMF = terminal voltage + internal voltage drop
5. ATOMIC PHYSICS
5.1 Atomic Models
Thomson's Model (Plum Pudding):
Atom is a sphere of positive charge with electrons embedded in it.
Rutherford's Model:
• Gold foil experiment — most alpha particles passed through
• Nucleus is small, dense, positively charged
• Electrons revolve in orbits (like planets)
• Problem: accelerating electrons should radiate energy and spiral into nucleus
Bohr's Model:
• Electrons revolve in fixed orbits (shells) without radiating energy
• Energy is emitted/absorbed when electrons jump between orbits
• Energy of orbit: En = -13.6/n² eV (for hydrogen)
• Radius of orbit: rn = n² × 0.53 Å (Bohr radius for H)
🔑 KEY POINTS: Atomic Models
✔ Atomic number (Z) = number of protons
✔ Mass number (A) = protons + neutrons
✔ Isotopes: same Z, different A (different number of neutrons)
✔ Ground state: n=1, lowest energy state of atom

5.2 Light — Reflection & Refraction

Laws of Reflection:
• Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
• Incident ray, normal, reflected ray are in same plane
Refraction — Snell's Law:
• Snell's Law: n₁ sinθ₁ = n₂ sinθ₂
• Refractive index: n = c/v = speed of light in vacuum / speed in medium
• Total Internal Reflection: Occurs when θ > critical angle, θc = sin⁻¹(n₂/n₁)
🔑 KEY POINTS: Light
✔ Denser medium: higher n, slower speed, ray bends toward normal
✔ Total internal reflection used in optical fibres
✔ Dispersion: splitting of white light by prism (violet bends most, red least)
✔ Speed of light in vacuum c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s

5.3 Lens Equation & Defects of Vision

• Mirror/Lens Equation: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u (also written: 1/v - 1/u = 1/f for sign convention)
• Magnification: m = -v/u = image height/object height
Types of Lenses:
• Convex (Converging): Focal length positive, used for hypermetropia
• Concave (Diverging): Focal length negative, used for myopia
Defects of Vision:
• Myopia (short-sightedness): Image forms in front of retina → corrected by concave lens
• Hypermetropia (long-sightedness): Image forms behind retina → corrected by convex lens
• Astigmatism: Unequal curvature → corrected by cylindrical lens
• Presbyopia: Loss of elasticity in old age → reading glasses
🔑 KEY POINTS: Lens & Vision
✔ Power of lens P = 1/f (in Diopters, f in meters)
✔ Convex mirror: always virtual, erect, diminished image
✔ Concave mirror: can form real or virtual image depending on object position
✔ Normal eye far point = infinity, near point = 25 cm

5.4 Microscope & Telescope

Compound Microscope:
• Two convex lenses: objective (short focal length) + eyepiece (longer focal length)
• Used to see tiny objects
• Magnification: M = Mo × Me = (L/fo) × (D/fe)
Astronomical Telescope:
• Objective has long focal length; eyepiece has short focal length
• Used to see distant objects
• Magnification: M = fo/fe
🔑 KEY POINTS: Optical Instruments
✔ Resolving power: ability to see two close objects as separate
✔ In microscope, object is placed just outside focus of objective
✔ Final image in telescope is virtual and inverted
6. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
6.1 Natural Radioactivity
Types of Radiation:
Type Nature Penetration Ionization
Alpha (α) He nucleus (2p+2n) Low (paper stops it) High
Beta (β) Electron or positron Medium (Al stops it) Medium
Gamma (γ) EM radiation High (lead stops it) Low

🔑 KEY POINTS: Radioactivity

✔ α decay: Z decreases by 2, A decreases by 4
✔ β⁻ decay: Z increases by 1, A unchanged (neutron → proton + electron + antineutrino)
✔ γ emission: no change in Z or A, only energy released
✔ Radioactivity is spontaneous and cannot be controlled by external conditions

6.2 Half Life

• Half Life (T½): T½ = 0.693/λ (λ = decay constant)
• Remaining amount: N = N₀ × (1/2)^(t/T½)
• Activity: A = λN
Half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei to decay.
🔑 KEY POINTS: Half Life
✔ After n half-lives: N = N₀/2ⁿ
✔ Half-life is constant and independent of initial amount
✔ Short T½ = highly radioactive; Long T½ = less active
✔ Carbon-14 (T½ = 5730 yr) used in radiocarbon dating
✔ Uranium-238 (T½ = 4.5 × 10⁹ yr) used in geological dating

6.3 Radiation Hazards

Biological Effects:
• Ionizing radiation damages DNA, causes cancer and genetic mutations
• High doses cause radiation sickness
• Alpha particles most damaging inside body; gamma most penetrating externally
Protection:
• Distance: radiation intensity decreases with distance (inverse square law)
• Shielding: lead, concrete for gamma; paper for alpha
• Time: minimize exposure time
🔑 KEY POINTS: Radiation Safety
✔ Radiation dose measured in Sieverts (Sv) or rem
✔ Background radiation comes from rocks, cosmic rays, medical X-rays
✔ Radiation has beneficial uses: cancer treatment, sterilization, food preservation

6.4 Fission Reaction

Nuclear fission: a heavy nucleus splits into smaller nuclei releasing enormous energy.
• Einstein's Mass-Energy: E = mc² (c = 3×10⁸ m/s)
• Fission example: ²³⁵U + n → ¹⁴¹Ba + ⁹²Kr + 3n + energy
• Chain reaction: neutrons produced cause more fissions
• Critical mass: minimum mass needed to sustain chain reaction
• Controlled fission: nuclear reactor (generates electricity)
• Uncontrolled fission: atomic bomb
Nuclear Fusion (bonus):
Two light nuclei combine to form heavier nucleus releasing energy. Requires very high temperature
(sun's source of energy).
🔑 KEY POINTS: Nuclear Fission
✔ Mass defect: difference in mass before and after → converted to energy
✔ Binding energy: energy needed to break nucleus into nucleons
✔ Higher binding energy per nucleon = more stable nucleus
✔ Iron-56 has highest binding energy per nucleon (most stable)
7. ELECTRONICS
7.1 Binary Number System
Binary uses only digits 0 and 1 (Base-2 system). Computers use binary for all operations.
Conversion:
• Binary to Decimal: multiply each bit by 2^(position) and sum
• Example: 1011₂ = 1×8 + 0×4 + 1×2 + 1×1 = 11₁₀
• Decimal to Binary: repeatedly divide by 2 and record remainders
Binary Operations:
• Addition: 0+0=0, 0+1=1, 1+0=1, 1+1=10 (carry 1)
🔑 KEY POINTS: Binary System
✔ Bit: single binary digit (0 or 1)
✔ Byte = 8 bits; Nibble = 4 bits; Word = 16 bits
✔ Hexadecimal (base-16) is shorthand for binary groups of 4
✔ 1s complement: flip all bits; 2s complement: flip + add 1

7.2 Logic Gates

Logic gates are fundamental building blocks of digital circuits.
Gate Symbol/Expression Output Rule Truth Table Key
AND Y = A·B Output 1 only if ALL 0,0→0; 0,1→0; 1,0→0; 1,1→1
inputs are 1
OR Y = A+B Output 1 if ANY 0,0→0; 0,1→1; 1,0→1; 1,1→1
input is 1
NOT Y = A' Output is opposite 0→1; 1→0
of input
NAND Y = (A·B)' Opposite of AND 0,0→1; 0,1→1; 1,0→1; 1,1→0
NOR Y = (A+B)' Opposite of OR 0,0→1; 0,1→0; 1,0→0; 1,1→0
XOR Y = A⊕B Output 1 if inputs 0,0→0; 0,1→1; 1,0→1; 1,1→0
are DIFFERENT

🔑 KEY POINTS: Logic Gates

✔ NAND and NOR are universal gates (can make any other gate from them)
✔ Boolean algebra simplifies logic circuits
✔ De Morgan's Law: (A·B)' = A'+B' and (A+B)' = A'·B'
✔ XOR gate: used in half adders and full adders
QUICK REVISION — IMPORTANT CONSTANTS &
FORMULAS
Constant Value
Speed of light (c) 3 × 10⁸ m/s
Gravitational const (G) 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N·m²/kg²
Planck's constant (h) 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s
Electron charge (e) 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
Electron mass (mₑ) 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg
Proton mass (mp) 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg
Avogadro's number (Nₐ) 6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹
Boltzmann constant (k) 1.38 × 10⁻²³ J/K
Gas constant (R) 8.314 J/mol·K
Coulomb's constant (k) 9 × 10⁹ N·m²/C²
Standard g 9.8 m/s²
ε₀ (permittivity) 8.85 × 10⁻¹² C²/N·m²

BEST OF LUCK FOR YOUR STS TEST ON APRIL 10, 2026! 🎯

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