Research Methods.

Meaning, Objective and Significance.

Introduction:

Research is an activity that helps us to discover new facts, information about a specific topic through scientific
and systematic way. Research methods are the techniques and strategies which are used in the collection of data
and evidence in order to uncover new information for the better understanding of a topic.

Meaning:

In simple words, Research means to look again.

Definition:

‘Research is a careful and systematized effort of gaining new knowledge’.

Objectives of Research:

Objectives of research maybe,

 General Objectives.
 Specific Objectives.

General Objectives:

General Objectives are also known as secondary objectives. They provide a detailed view of the aim of the study.
In simple words, it is a general overview of what a person wants to achieve by the end of their studies.

Specific Objectives:

Specific objectives define the primary aim of the study. Typically, general objectives provide the foundation for
specific objectives. In simple words, when general objectives are broken down into smaller objectives, they are
known as specific objectives.

Other Objectives:

Following are some other objectives of the research,

1. Discovery of New Facts:

The objective of research is to discover new facts. It helps to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet.

2. Understanding of Phenomenon:

The objective of the research is to understand a phenomenon of a topic.

1
3. Portrayal of Characteristics:

The purpose of research is to portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, station or a group.

4. Cause and Effect Relationship:

The purpose of research is to identify the cause and effect relationship.

5. Causal Relationship:

The objective of research is to test the casual relationship between two or more facts or situations.

Significance of Research:

The significance of research is as follows,

1. Awareness:

Research is a way to understand the primary issues and increase public awareness.

2. Facilitation of Masses:

It is an effective method to gather knowledge and facilitate learning among the masses.

3. Disclosure of Facts:

Research helps to disclose the myths and lies and uncover the truth.

4. Problem Solving:

Research helps in solving various planning and operational problems.

5. Dependency of Governments:

Most of the government regulations and policies are based on and are result of intensive research.

Research Paradigm

Definition:

It is the framework on which the research is based on.

Questions in Research Paradigms:

Once the researcher finalizes the research topic, there are three questions that the he needs to answer before
starting the actual research,

 Ontological Questions.
 Epistemological Questions.
 Methodological Questions.

2
Ontology:

Ontology is the branch of philosophy. It answers the questions what is reality? Does a single reality exist within
research?

Epistemology:

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It answers the questions how it is possible to know the reality. It
combines the validity, parameters and method of acquiring knowledge.

Methodology:

Methodological questions describes what are the methods and procedures that will make the research possible.
It includes the process of data collection and analysis.

Importance:

Research paradigms are important because they form the philosophical bases of a research project. Once the
research philosophy has been determined, an appropriate methodology can be chosen.

Types of Research Paradigm:

Following are the types of research paradigms,

 Positivist Paradigm.
 Interpretivist Paradigm.
 Realist Paradigm.

A. Positivist Paradigm:

History:

The term positivism is first coined by August Comte. He is also known as Father of Positivism. Positivism
developed in mid 20th century.

Definition:

It is the study of society that is based on scientific evidence to reveal the true nature of how society operates.
scientific evidence includes experiments and statistics.

Basis:

The positivist paradigm is based in the assumption that a single definite exists which one can understand,
identify and measure.

Object:

The object of research is to uncover the laws that govern the human behavior, just as scientists have discovered
the laws that govern the physical word.

3
Explanation:

Positivists believes that there is a single reality that is possible to measure and understand. They use quantitative
method.

Advantages:

Following are the advantages of Positivist Paradigm,

1. Quantitative Approach:

Positivism depends on quantitative data than qualitative research. Quantitative research is more scientific in its
methods than qualitative research and thus more trustworthy.

2. Structure:

Positivism follows a well-defined structure during studies and discussions. Positivists believe that since there are
set laws and rules, there will be minimum room for error.

3. Control:

As the nature of study will be purely quantitative and is limited to data collection, the researcher will have a
good control.

Disadvantages:

Following are the disadvantages of Positivist Paradigm,

1. Human Behavior:

Positivism believes that the desired conclusions can be gained as long as the person doing the observation
neglects his emotions. However, human behavior naturally comes with emotional responses.

2. Inflexibility:

Some scholars believe that since positivists believe everything can be measured and calculated therefore, they
tend to be inflexible. In case of any unexplained phenomena, they will simply neglect it.

B. Interpretivist Paradigm:

The interpretivist believes that reality is multilayered and complex and a single phenomenon can have multiple
interpretations.

Other Names:

Interpretivist paradigm is also known as Anti-Positivism, Constructive Paradigm or Naturalistic Inquiry.

Basis:

They believe that there is no single reality but there is multiple reality. According to them, truth and reality are

4
created not discovered. They use qualitative research method such as interviews or case studies. They aim to
provide to answer Why.

Object:

Their object is not to discover universal, context and value the truth but the object of interpretivist paradigm is
to understand and interpret the meanings in human behavior.

Advantages of Interpretivist Paradigm:

Following are the advantages of Interpretivist Paradigm,

1. Qualitative Approach:

It is used for exploring reasons behind complex, interrelated or complicated social processes due to qualitative
approach whereas quantitative approach may be inaccurate.

2. Validity:

One of the major advantage of using interpretivist methods of research is that the responses are valid and close
to the truth.

3. Study of Unique Events:

This method is also appropriate for studying context-specific, unique or particular events or processes.

4. Focus:

Interpretivist methods of research focus on the individual rather than the responses collectively which allows
the respondent to provide answers with meaning and complete details.

Disadvantages of Interpretivist Paradigm:

Following are the disadvantages of the Interpretivist paradigm,

1. Unreliable:

One disadvantage of using interpretivist methods of research is that they are unreliable. Usually, interpretivist
research methods depend on relationships established between the respondent and the researcher. Therefore,
it is difficult for other researchers to repeat the research and get similar results.

2. Interpretations:

Interpretivist methods of research can be overly influenced by researcher’s interpretations.

3. Unscientific:

Interpretivist methods of research can be seen as unscientific particularly by the scientific community.

5
C. Realist Paradigm.

Basis:

Realism research philosophy is based on the idea of independence of reality from human mind. This philosophy
is based on the assumption of a scientific approach of the development of knowledge.

Groups of Realist Paradigm:

Realism can be divided into two groups,

 Direct Realism.
 Critical Realism.

1. Direct Realism:

It is also known as naïve realism. It can be described as, ‘what you see is what you get’. In other words, direct
realism portrays the world through personal human senses.

2. Critical Realism:

According to Critical realism, sensations and images of the real world can be misleading and they usually do not
portray the real world.

Advantages of Realist Paradigm:

1. Importance to Knowledge:

Realism gives importance to practical knowledge and functional knowledge.

2. Importance to Objectivity:

Realism gives importance on objectivity.

3. Importance to Science:

Realism gives due importance to science and technology in its curriculum.

Disadvantages of Realist Paradigm:

1. Materialistic Approach:

According to realism, all the knowledge is derived from observation and experimentation. It does not accept the
claims of spirituality and meditation as a source of getting knowledge.

2. Ignorance to Non-Material Subjects:

Realism gives too much importance to science and technology and altogether ignores the importance of the
non-material such as subjects like art, culture, religion and morality.

6
3. No Eternal Values:

Realism has no faith in eternal values and highest ideals of life. It has faith only in harsh reality of daily life.

Types of Research.

Introduction:

Various methods and techniques are used in the research to explain the ideas. However, the selection of the
method depends on the researcher.

Types of Research:

Following are the basis on which research methods are classified. These are,

 General Category.
 Purpose of Study.

General Category:

On the basis of general category, research methods are classified as,

 Quantitative Research.
 Qualitative Research.

1. Quantitative Research:

Quantitative research depends on numerical data such as statistics and measurements. It uses a systematic way
of investigating events or data.

2. Qualitative Research:

Qualitative research involves non-numerical data such as opinions and literatures. Examples of qualitative data
may include,

 Focus groups.
 Surveys.
 Participant comments.
 Observations.
 Interviews.

Businesses often use qualitative research to determine consumer opinions and reactions. Such businesses
collects nonnumerical data to make decisions.

Purpose of Study:

On the basis of purposes of study, research methods are classified as,

 Applied Research.
 Fundamental Research.

7
  Empirical Research.

1. Applied Research:

Applied research is a type of research which is used to answer a specific question. Applied research is a
methodology used to solve a specific, practical problem of an individual or group. The study and research is
used in business, medicine and education in order to find solutions what may cure diseases, solve scientific
problems or develop technology.

2. Fundamental Research:

Fundamental or basic research contributes to the development of knowledge or theory. It is mainly concerned
with generalization and formulation of a theory. Fundamental research tries to expand the already existing
knowledge. Fundamental research is purely theoretical. The primary concern of fundamental research is to
develop scientific knowledge and predictions.

Object:

Fundamental research mainly answers the questions of what, why and how.

3. Empirical Research:

Empirical research is defined as the collection and analysis of primary data to answer a research question. It is
also a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience.

Object:

Empirical research method focus on observation and experimentation. Investigators observe and conduct
experiments in systematic ways.

Research Approaches.

Introduction:

A research approach is the procedure selected by the researcher to collect, analyze and interpret data. The
approach according to dictionary means a way of dealing with some situation. The term research approach is
the details or steps taken by the researchers to work on their research projects.

Kinds of Research Approaches:

Following are the three kinds of research approaches,

 Action Research.
 Case Study Methods.
 Experiments.
 Surveys.

1. Action Research:

The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and

8
evaluate their decisions and actions is called action research.

Steps of Action Research:

Following are the steps involved in action research,

 Planning.
 Action Phase.
 Analysis.
 Conclusion.

Planning:

It is the first phase in action research. Here the researcher begin with inquiry, where he define a specific research
question. It needs to be something that can be actually tested.
Next, the researcher will conduct a literature review to gain a deeper understanding of the topic. Finally, the
researcher will move into the design process where he determine his data methods, consider ethical issues, get
the required permissions.

Action Phase:

In this phase, the researcher will engage in multiple cycles of experimentations and data collection. The data
collection might include qualitative data like observations, interviews, etc. or quantitative data like scores,
surveys, etc.

Analysis:

The researcher will start by organizing the data with charts or charts. The researcher will also discuss it with
other friends or write in a journal before jumping into the conclusion.

Conclusion:

This is the last phase of action research. This is where a researcher share his research with the world.

Categories of Action Research:

Action researches can be divided into three categories. These are,

 Positivist Approach to Action Research.

 Interpretive Approach to Action Research.
 Critical Action Research.

1. Positivist Approach to Action Research:

It is also known as classical action research. It observes research as a social experiment. According to this
approach, action research is accepted as a method to test hypotheses in a real-world environment.

2. Interpretive Approach to Action Research:

It is also known as contemporary (modern) action research. It focuses on specifications of local and

9
organizational factors when conducting research.

3. Critical Approach to Action Research:

It is a specific type of action research that adopts critical approach towards business processes and aims for
improvements.

Usage:

Action research is used mostly by,

 Teachers.
 Supervisors.
 Administrators.

Advantages of Action Research:

Following are the advantages of action research,

 It can be performed by anyone, in any type of school or institution.

 It can help to improve educational practice.
 It can help the researchers to identify problems systematically.

Disadvantages of Action Research:

Following are some of the disadvantages of action research,

 Action research did not follow the scientific method accuracy.

 The relation between the participants and the researcher might affect the outcomes.
 The results in action research cannot be generalized.
 It is more difficult to conduct that conventional research as it takes longer time and requirements.

2. Case Study Methods:

Case study methods focus on collecting information about a specific object, event or activity such as a particular
business unit or organization.

Nature:

Typically, case studies are qualitative by nature, however they can contain quantitative data as part of a mixed
methods design.

Characteristics of Case Study Methods:

Following are the characteristics of case study methods,

1. Study of Single Unit:

Under this method, only one unit is selected for purpose of investigation. Here, the unit can be a person, a
group, organization, event, situation, a whole nation, empire or a historical age.

10
2. Intensive or Depth Study:

Under this methods, the researcher has to use all his skills in a systematic way to gather information about the
unit to allow an induvial to understand how it function.

3. Qualitative Study:

Under this method, the researcher has to depend upon his own observation and logic rather than the facts.

4. Flexible Method:

The case study method is flexible in character; therefore, a researcher has complete independence in
approaching the problem from any angle that he consider fit.

Steps to be Taken for Case Study Method:

Following are the steps which are taken for the case study method,

 Determine and define research questions.

 Select cases and determine data collection and analysis techniques.
 Preparation for data collection.
 Evaluate and analyze data.
 Prepare the report.

Sources of Data for Case Study:

In case study, information may be collected from various sources. Some of the important sources include,

 Life histories.
 Personal documents.
 Letters and records.
 Biographies.
 Information obtained through interviews.
 Observation.

Types of Case Study:

Following are the types of case study methods,

 Individual case study.

 Set of Individual case study.
 Community studies.
 Social group studies.
 Studies of organization and institutions.
 Studies of events, roles and relationships.

1. Individual Case Study:

In individual case study, the life a particular person, his activities and his totals are studied, observed and

11
discussed.

2. Set of Individual Case Study:

In this type of case study, group of persons that practice different culture are studied. For example, those who
live in rural areas and those living in urban areas, there will be different cases between them.

3. Community Studies:

In community studies, it may include hundreds of people from a community that are picked upon for some
reason.

4. Social Group Studies:

Group of people that defined their social position, e.g. a group of musician or a group of drugs taker are studied.

5. Studies of Organization and Institutions:

In this type of case study, the researcher will study for a particular group or an institution.

6. Studies of Events, Roles and Relationships:

This type of case study method is similar to individual study but focus more on events, roles and relationships
that are involved e.g. the role of a housewife.

Advantages of Case Study Method:

Following are the advantages of case study method,

 Case study methods turns the observations into useable data.

 Case study methods turns opinions into facts.
 Case study methods is relevant to all parties involved.
 Case studies methods uses a number of different research methodologies.
 Case studies methods can be done remotely.
 Case studies methods are inexpensive.

Disadvantages of Case Studies Methods:

Following are the disadvantages of case studies methods,

 Case studies methods uses longer time to analyze the data.

 Case studies methods can be an inefficient process.
 Case studies methods requires a small sample size to be effective.
 Data collected from case study is usually based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at
many occasions.
 It is very difficult to draw generalizations on the basis of fewer cases.
 Case studies methods cannot be effectively used in big and complex societies.

12
3. Experiments:

Experimental research is a scientific and systematic method of research. In this method, researcher has a strong
control over variables. He controls independent variables to see its effect on dependent variables. This method
relies on control method.

Scope:

Experimental method is the only method which can identify the cause-effect relationships.

Characteristics of Experimental Method:

Following are the characteristics of experimental methods.

1. Variables:

Experimental research contains variables. The types of variables are,

 Independent Variable.
 Dependent Variable.

Independent Variable:

A factor or condition that can be tested to determine whether it causes any change in any other factor or
condition, is known as independent variable.

Dependent Variable:

A factor or condition that is measured at the end of an experiment is known as dependent variable.

2. Groups:

There are two types of groups in experimental methods,

 Experimental Group.
 Control Group.

Experimental Group:

The group which is exposed to independent variable is known as experimental group.

Control Group:

A group that is exposed to the same experimental group but is not given the treatment.

3. Setting:

The sitting is where the experiment is carried. Many experiments are carried out in the laboratory while other
experiments are carried out in a less controllable setting. The choice of setting used in research depends on the
nature of the experiment being carried out.

13
4. Multivariable:

Experimental research may include multiple independent variables e.g. time, skills, test scores, etc.

Steps to Conduct Experimental Research:

Following steps are involved to conduct an experimental research,

 Establish question and set variables.

 Build the hypothesis.
 Designing experimental treatments.
 Categorize into treatment groups.

Establish Question and Set Variables:

In the first stage, the researcher will establish the research question and use it to distinguish between dependent
and independent variables.

Build the Hypothesis:

In the next step, the researcher will state his hypothesis. This should be a specific and testable statement.

Designing Experimental Treatments:

In the third stage, the researcher will design his experimental treatments. This means that the researcher will
test his independent variables to see its effects on the dependent variables.

Categorize into Treatment Groups:

In the next stage of experimental research design, the researcher should classify his subjects into appropriate
treatment groups. There are many ways one can do this, but the researcher should be aware that the approach
he use can impact the validity and reliability of the results.

Types of Experiments:

There are three types of experiments,

 Lab experiment.
 Field experiment.
 Natural experiment.

Lab Experiments:

A lab experiment is an experiment which is conducted under highly controlled conditions to draw accurate
results.

Filed Experiments:

Filed experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real-life) environment of the participants. The experimenter still
controls the independent variable but in a real-life setting, it is difficult for him to control unimportant variables.

14
Natural Experiments:

Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. real-life) environment of the participants, but here the
experimenter has no control over the independent variable as it occurs naturally in real life.

Usage:

Experimental research design can be majorly used in physical sciences, social sciences, education and psychology.
It is used to make predictions and draw conclusions on a subject matter.

Advantages of Experimental Research Approach:

Following are the advantages of experimental research approach,

 It can lead to excellent results.

 It gives researchers a high level of control.
 It can be combined with other research methods.
 There is no limit to the subject matter or industry involved.
 Experimental research approach provides conclusions that are specific.
 Experimental research approach allows cause and effect to be determined.

Disadvantages of Experimental Research Approach:

Following are the disadvantages of experimental research approach,

 It can be affected by errors.

 It is a time-consuming process.
 It can lead to artificial situations.
 It can take a lot of time and money.
 Participants can be influenced by their current situation.
 There may be ethical or practical problems with variable control.
 Experimental research approach can create situations that are not realistic.

4. Survey:

A survey is a research method used for collecting data from a predefined group. They can have multiple purposes
and researchers can conduct it in many ways depending upon the methodology chosen by the researcher.

Definition:

A survey is a system for collecting information from or about people to describe, compare or explain their
knowledge, attitudes and behaviors.

Characteristics of Survey:

Following are some of the characteristics of survey,

 It can seek and cover a very large population.

 It is carried in a natural setting or field study.

15
  It obtains responses directly from respondents.
 Information is collected from a group of people.
 The main way of collecting information is through asking question.
 Information is collected from a sample rather than from every member of population.

Types of Survey Research:

There are two types of survey research,

 Cross-Sectional Surveys.
 Longitudinal Surveys.

Cross-sectional Survey:

In cross-sectional survey, the researcher record information about their subjects without manipulating the study
environment. It involves the collection of information from any given sample of population only once.

Longitudinal Survey:

In longitudinal survey, the researcher repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that might
occur over a period of time.

Method of Conducting Survey:

A survey is based on the questioning of respondents. They are asked a variety of questions regarding their
behavior, intensions, attitude and awareness. The questioning is structured and may be asked verbally, in writing
or via computer.

Advantages of Survey Research Approach:

Following are the advantages of survey research approach,

 It is an inexpensive method of conducting research.

 Surveys are a practical solution for gathering data.
 It is a fast way to get the results.
 Survey gives the researcher the opportunity to compare results.
 It offers a straightforward analysis and visualization of the data.
 Survey can cover every component of any topic.
 It can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail, online forum, etc.
 It is a cost control and cost-effective method.
 Large number of respondent can participate in survey research approach.

Disadvantages of Survey Research Approach:

Following are the disadvantages of survey research approach,

 There is always a risk that people will provide dishonest answers.

 Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that present themselves in an unfavorable
manner.

16
  Survey with closed-end questions may have a lower validity rate than other question types.
 There can be differences in how people understand the survey questions.
 Some answers can be challenging to classify.
 Survey question answer options could lead to unclear data because certain answer questions may be
interpreted differently by respondents.

Research Methods and Research Methodology.

Introduction:

Research methods and research methodology are the two terms that are often confused as the same. However,
they are not. This article shall elaborate research methods and research methodology in detail.

Research Methods:

By research method, we simply mean the research techniques or tools used for conducting research irrespective
of whether the research belongs to physical, or social sciences, or any other disciplines.

Characteristics of Research:

Following are the characteristics of Research,

1. Controlled:

In real life, there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control means that, in exploring the
relation between two variables, the researcher must set up his research in such a way that minimizes the effects
of other factors affecting the relationship between two variables.

2. Rigorous:

The researcher must ensure that the procedures followed to find the answers to questions are relevant,
appropriate and justified.

3. Systematic:

This means that the procedure adopted to start an investigation must follow a certain logical sequence. The
different steps cannot be taken in an unsystematic way.

4. Valid and Verifiable:

This concept means that whenever you conclude your research, the findings must be correct and can be verified
by you and others.

5. Empirical and Critical:

This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from
real life experience or observations. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to resist critical
examination.

17
Types of Research:

Following are the basis on which research methods are classified. These are,

 General Category.
 Purpose of Study.

General Category:

On the basis of general category, research methods are classified as,

 Quantitative Research.
 Qualitative Research.
 Descriptive Research.
 Analytical Research.

Purpose of Study:

On the basis of purposes of study, research methods are classified as,

 Applied Research.
 Fundamental Research.
 Conclusive Research.
 Empirical Research.
 Surveys.
 Case Studies.

Research Methodology:

Research methodology explains the methods by which a researcher may proceed with his research. Research
methods involve conduct of experiments, tests and surveys, etc. On the other hand, research methodology
involves the learning of various techniques that can be used in the conduct of research. This is the technical
difference between the two terms i.e. research methods and research methodology.

Types of Research Methodology:

Research methodology are classified into two types,

 Qualitative Methodology.
 Quantitative Methodology.

Qualitative Methodology:

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data to understand concepts, opinions or
experiences.

Application:

Qualitative research methodology is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences in subjects such as

18
sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

Approaches to Qualitative Research Methodology:

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches
to qualitative research, common approaches include,

 Grounded theory.
 Action research.
 Ethnography.
 Phenomenological research.
 Narrative research.

They share some similarities, but focus on different aims and perspectives.

Advantages:

Following are some of the advantages of Qualitative research methodology,

1. To Find the Missing Issues:

This types of research methodology allows the researcher to find issues that are often missing by the scientific
studies.

2. To Determine Cause and Effect Relation:

It can play an important role of suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects and dynamic process.

3. Descriptive and Narrative:

Qualitative research uses a more descriptive and narrative style. This research provide benefits to the researcher
as he could explore qualitative reports in order to examine forms of knowledge that might be unavailable.

Limitations:

Following are some of the limitations of Qualitative research methodology,

1. Time Period:

The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation is lengthy.

2. Invalidity:

Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability
and validity.

Quantitative Methodology:

Qualitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It is applicable to the phenomena
that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

19
Application:

Quantitative research methodology is commonly used in the natural sciences.

Basis:

The quantitative paradigm is based on positivism.

Advantages:

Following are some of the advantages of Quantitative research methodology,

1. Can be Tested and Checked:

It requires careful experimental designs and therefore can be tested and checked by anyone.

2. Objectivity and Accuracy:

There are few variables involved with quantitative research methodology. The data which the researcher is
collecting is often closed ended which means, people are choosing clear-cut multiple-choice answers, such as
yes/no.

Limitations:

Following are some of the limitations of Quantitative research methodology,

1. Artificial:

It needs to be carried out in an unnatural environment so that it can be controlled due to which the results a
researcher gather might differ from real world findings.

2. Wrong Assumption:

It leads to the assumption that facts are true and the same for all the people of all the time.

3. Limited:

The type of the research and the format of the research findings are limited as well.

Research Strategies.

Introduction:

A research strategy introduces the main components of a research project such as the research topic and focus
the research prospective, the research design and the research methods. It refers to how you offer to answer the
questions and how you will implement the methodology.

Definition:

A research strategy is a step by step plan of action that gives direction to one’s thoughts, enabling him to conduct
research systematically to produce quality results and detailed reporting.

20
Types of Research Strategies:

There are two types of research strategies,

 Induction.
 Deduction.

Induction Research:

In an inductive approach to research, a researcher beings by collecting data that is relevant to his topic of interest.
Once a significant amount of data have been collected, the researcher will then analyze his collected data. At
this stage, the researcher will look for patterns in the data, working to develop a theory that could explain those
patterns. Thus, when researchers takes an inductive approach, they start with a set of observations and then end
to generalizing theory.

Another Name:

It is also known as qualitative research. Qualitative research is used to gain a deeper understanding of the subject.

Methods Used:

Common methods which are used in inductive research approach are focused groups, individual interviews and
observation.

Stages of Inductive Research Approach:

There are three stages of inductive research approach,

 Observation.
 Observe a pattern.
 Develop a general conclusion.

1. Observation:

The first stage is observation. The researcher will gather data through observation, individual interviews and
group discussion. For example,

 A low-cost airline flight is delayed.

 Dogs A and B have fleas.
 Elephants depend on water to exist.

2. Observe a Pattern:

The second stage is to observe a pattern. The researcher will analyze the gathered data and formulate a strategy
before jumping to conclusion. For example,

 Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed.

 All observed dogs have fleas.
 All observed animals depend on water to exist.

21
3. Develop a General Conclusion:

After analyzing the gathered data, the researcher will draw a general conclusion based on data observed. For
example,

 Low-cost airlines always have delays.

 All dogs have fleas.
 All biological life depends on water.

Advantages:

1. To Develop Hypothesis:

Inductive research approach helps to develop ideas or hypothesis.

2. To Uncover the Opinions:

Inductive research approach is used to uncover tends in thoughts and opinions.

Limitation:

A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be proven, but it can be invalidated.

Deduction Research:

A deductive approach to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation. The
researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories of whatever phenomenon and then tests the
hypothesis that emerge from those theories.

Another Name:

Deductive research approach is also known as quantitative research approach. Quantitative research is a way of
collecting numerical research or data which is then can be converted into useable statistics.

Stages of Deductive Research Approach:

Following are the five stages of deductive research approach,

 Start with an existing theory.

 Formulate a falsifiable hypothesis based on existing theory.
 Collect data to test the hypothesis.
 Analyze and test data.
 Decide whether you can reject the null hypothesis.

1. Start with an Existing Theory:

In the first stage, the researcher will start an already existing theory and collects data from that theory. For
example,

 Low-cost airlines always have delays.

22
  All dogs have fleas.
 All biological life depends on water to exist.

2. Formulate a Falsifiable Hypothesis:

In the second stage, the researcher will formulate a falsifiable hypothesis from the gathered data. For example,

 If passengers fly with a low-cost airline, then they will always experience delays.
 All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas.
 All land mammals depend on water to exist.

3. Test the Hypothesis:

In the third stage, the researcher will gather further data to test the hypothesis. For example,

 Collect flight data of low-cost airlines.

 Test all dogs in the building for fleas.
 Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water.

4. Analyze and Test Data:

In the fourth stage, the researcher the analyze and test the collected data. For example,

 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed.

 10 out of 20 dogs did not have fleas.
 All land mammal species depend on water.

5. Conclusion:

In the final stage, the researcher after analyzing and testing the gathered data, shall draw conclusion to reject or
support the hypothesis,

 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed (reject hypothesis).
 10 out of 20 dogs did not have fleas (reject hypothesis).
 All land mammal species depend on water (support hypothesis).

Selecting, Defining and Refining a Research Topic.

Research Topic:

A research topic is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested in when conducting a research. A well-defined
research is the starting point of every successful research project. A research topic can be both a research question
and a hypothesis.

Selecting a Research Topic:

Choosing an interesting research topic is the first challenge. The researcher should choose a topic that he is
interested in. The research process is more relevant if he choose his topic carefully.

23
Narrowing the Topic:

If the topic is too broad, you will find too much information and you will not be able to focus. Background
reading can help you choose and limit the scope of your topic.

Questions relating to Research:

The researcher should think of ‘who, what, when and why questions’, i.e.

 Why did you choose the topic?

 Who are the information providers on this topic?
 What are the major questions for this topic?
 Where is your topic important i.e. at the local, national or international level?
 When is/was your topic important? Is it a current event or an historical issue?

Refining a Research Topic:

The most common problem in research which arises is when a researcher chooses a topic which is either too
broad and he finds too much information about his topic or is too narrow that he cannot find any information
about it. Therefore, it is necessary for a researcher to refine his research topic before conducting his research.
Following are different steps taken to refine a research topic.

1. Selection of Research Topic:

The researcher should write down the general ideas of interest. At this stage, it does not matter if the terms used
are broad or specific. The important point is to put ideas on papers.

2. Planning the Ideas:

In the next step, the researcher has to explore his ideas by examining the following factors,

 Define your research topic.

 Define the nature of your research.
 Define the issues that you will explore.
 Develop propositions or hypothesis.
 Avoid biased or self-answering questions.
 Use the literature for support.

3. Narrowing the Topic:

Once a research topic has been specified and planned, the researcher must narrow it down in order to develop
a research problem. This process is done through generating questions from the research topic. List of questions
can be developed from the research topic.

4. Review of Literature:

Review of literature will also help to identify what is known and what is not known about the research topic.
Therefore, the research topic could be specified and stated at this point.

24
5. Writing the Statement of the Research Problem:

This statement acts as a guide to the researcher in the course of designing the study. The problem statement
should have the following characteristics,

 Identify the key variables in the study.

 Express the relationship between two or more variables.
 Specify the study population.
 Indicate the type of research.

6. Other Factors:

While refining the research topic, the researcher should also consider the following factors in his mind,

 Availability of research participants.

 Facilities and equipment.
 Co-operation of the others.
 Qualifications and experience of the researcher.
 Significance of the problem.

Conducting a Systematic Literature Review.

Introduction:

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current
knowledge, allowing a researcher to identify relevant theories, methods and gaps in the existing research.

Meaning:

In literature review, the term literature means the works we consult in order to under and investigate our
research problem.

Purpose:

The purpose of literature review is to gain an understanding of the existing research relevant to a particular topic
and to present that knowledge in the form of written report. Literature review help us building knowledge in
the relevant field.

Reasons for Reviewing the Literature:

Following are the reasons for reviewing the literature,

 To conduct a search of existing material.

 To organize valuable ideas and findings.
 To identify other research that may be in progress.
 To generate research ideas.
 To develop a critical perspective.

25
Elements of Literature Review:

Following are the three elements of literature review,

 An Introduction or Background information section.

 The body of the review containing the discussion of sources.
 Conclusion.

Approaches in Literature Review:

There are two approaches involved in literature review,

 Deductive Approach.
 Inductive Approach.

1. Deductive Approach:

Deductive approach develops a theoretical or conceptual framework from the literature which is then tested
using the data. In simple terms, deductive approach is,

Theory Develop Hypotheses Collect and Analyze Data Accept/Reject Hypothesis.

2. Inductive Approach:

Inductive approach explores the data to develop theories which are then tested against the literature. In simple
terms,

Observe Phenomenon Analyze Patterns Formulate Relationship Develop Theory.

Types of Literature Review:

Following are the types of literature review,

 Narrative Literature Review.

 Systematic Literature Review.
 Argumentative Literature Review.
 Integrative Literature Review.

1. Narrative Literature Review:

Narrative literature review analyzes the literature and summarizes the body of a literature. It is also known as
Traditional literature review. Narrative review draws conclusions about the topic and identifies gaps or
inconsistencies in a body of knowledge.

2. Systematic Literature Review:

Systematic literature review requires more rigorous and well-defined approach as compared to other types of
literature review. Systematic literature review can be divided into two categories,

 Meta-Analysis.

26
  Meta-Synthesis.

(i) Meta -Analysis:

When a researcher conduct meta-analysis, he take findings from several studies on the same subject and analyze
them using statistical (numerical) procedures.

(ii) Meta-Synthesis:

Meta-synthesis is based on non-statistical techniques. Meta-synthesis literature review is conducted usually when
a researcher is following inductive research approach.

3. Argumentative Literature Review:

Argumentative literature review examines literature selectively in order to support or disprove an argument or
philosophical problem already established in the literature. It should be noted that a potential for bias is the
major shortcoming associated with argumentative literature review.

4. Theoretical Literature Review:

Theoretical literature review plays an in establishing what theories already exist, the relationships between them
and to what degree the existing theories have been investigated.

Steps in Systematic Literature Review:

Following are the steps involved in systematic literature review,

 Identify your research questions.

 Define Criteria.
 Search for Relevant Studies.
 Extract Data from Included Studies.
 Summarize Findings.

Identify your Research Questions:

In the first step, the researcher must have to formulate a clear, well defined research questions with appropriate
scope. He has to define the terminologies, find existing reviews on the topic to inform the development of
research questions. Further, the researcher must identify the gaps and confirm that he is not duplicating the
efforts of previous reviews.

Define Criteria:

The researcher must clearly state the idea that he will use to determine whether or not a study will be included
in his research. He has to consider study design, determine various variables and measure outcomes.

Search for Relevant Studies:

The researcher must have to search for relevant studies regarding his research topic. He can consult with his
professor or a librarian to make his topic more relevant and comprehensive.

27
Extract Data from Included Studies:

A researcher can use a spreadsheet or systematic review software to extract all relevant data from each included
study.

Summarize Findings:

The researcher must clearly present his findings with detailed methodology so that the review can be easily
updated in the future.

Research Design.

Introduction:

The most important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of the research project
which is known as research design. The word design has various meanings but in research methodology, research
design is a pattern or an outline of research project.

Definition:

A research design is a framework for conducting a research project. It provides procedures which are necessary
for obtaining the information need to solve research problems.

Elements of Research Design:

The most common contents involved in a research design are,

1. Selection of Research Problem:

As regard to the selection of topic, the researcher can select any topic which is relevant to the problem.

2. Selection of Units of Analysis:

Determination of the units of analysis is a key factor in any research. The objects, events or entities under
investigation are referred as unit of analysis.

3. Choice of Variables:

Since a researcher is interested in studying the relationship between variables. Therefore, it is necessary for a
researcher to decide which variables should be the focus of research.

4. Formulation of Hypothesis:

In order to the state the questions in a precise manner, the research questions must be stated in the form of
hypothesis. Hypothesis are uncertain generalizations based on unconfirmed relationship between two or more
variables.

Objectives of Research Design:

Following are the objectives of research design,

28
1. Research design makes research efficient by planning and formulating an outline of the research work.
2. It provides an accurate idea of where research has reached in his research journey.
3. The aim of research design is to minimize time, energy and cost.

Questions in a Research Design:

Following questions should be undertaken in a research design,

1. What is the study about?

2. Why is the study being made?
3. What type of data is required?
4. Where can the required data be found?
5. How will the data be analyzed?
6. What will be the sample design?
7. What technique of knowledge collection is going to be used?

Parts of Research Design:

Following are the parts of research design,

 Sample design.
 Observation design.
 Statistical design.
 Operational design.

1. Sample Design:

It deals with the method of selecting which should be considered for study.

2. Observation Design:

It deals to the condition under which observation is to be made.

3. Statistical Design:

It deals with the question that how many items to be observed and how information and data gathered is to be
analyzed.

4. Operational Style:

It deals with the techniques by which the procedures are to be carried out practically.

Characteristics of Research Design:

Following are the characteristics of a research design,

1. Neutrality:

When a researcher setup the research study, he may need to make some assumptions about the data collected,
and the outcome of his research must remain neutral and free from any bias.

29
2. Reliability:

A good design would deliver consistent results each time each time the research is repeated under the design.
The researcher can attain the desired results only if his research design is reliable.

3. Validity:

The design must deliver valid, accurate and correct results. It collects and measures what it is supposed to do
and nothing else.

4. Generalization:

It means that the results collected under the design must apply to the entire population not to a confined group.

Types of Research Design:

Following are the types of research design,

1. Exploratory Research Design:

The main purpose of exploratory research design is to gather information which will help in the formulation of
a research problem. The aim of exploratory research is the clarification of concepts, establishing priorities for
research and collection of data about the actual conditions which can affect the research.

2. Descriptive Research Design:

The purpose of descriptive research design is to describe some event, situation, people, group or community.
Usually, descriptive research involves numerical descriptions such as distribution of a population of a
community by age, sex, caste or education.

3. Diagnostic Research Design:

In diagnostic research design, the researcher is trying to evaluate the cause of a specific problem or phenomenon.
This research design is used to understand the factors that are creating problems.

4. Experimental Research Design:

This sort of research design determines cause and effect relationships among various variables in such a way that
the independent variable is changed in order to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Data Collection.

Definition:

Data collection is a process of gathering information from all the relevant sources to find a solution of the
problem.

Object:

The object of data collection is to find the answer of the research problem.

30
Types of Data Collection:

There are two types of data collection,

 Primary Data.
 Secondary Data.

Primary Data:

Primary data is a type of data which is collected for the first time. It is the data collected by the investigator
himself for a specific purpose.

Scope:

Primary data is original in nature and directly related to the issue or problem.

Sources/Methods of Primary Data:

Following are the sources/methods of primary data collection,

 Observational method.
 Interview method.
 Surveys and Questionnaire method.
 Case study method.
 Experiments.

Observational Method:

It is a method of primary data collection under which the data is collected with the help of observation by the
observer.

Interview Method:

It is a type of method of data collection that involves two groups of people. The first group is the interviewer
(the researcher asking questions and collecting data) and the interviewee (who is answering the questions).

Surveys and Questionnaire Method:

Surveys and questionnaires are two similar tools used in collecting primary data. They include a group of
questions which are distributed to the people for their responses. After answering the questions, the survey is
given back to the research to record.

Case Study Method:

It is an appropriate tool for data collection in studying an individual, family, intribution or a group behavior in
detail.

Experiments:

An experiment is a method used for data collection in order to understand the causes, effect and processes

31
involved in a particular process.

Advantages of Using Primary Data:

Following are the advantages of using primary data,

1. Control over Data:

The researcher has the full control over the data collected through primary research.

2. Up to Date:

Primary data is usually up to date because it collects data in real time and does not collect data from old sources.

3. Accuracy:

Primary data is more accurate as compared to the secondary data because it is directly collected from a given
population.

4. Privacy:

The researcher who is maintaining the survey also maintains the secrecy of data.

Disadvantages of Using Primary Data:

Following are the disadvantages of using primary data,

1. Expensive:

It could be expensive to obtain primary data because for the collection of data, experts have to visit and use
equipment that may cost high.

2. Time Consuming Process:

It takes time to conduct the research from start to end from the raw sources. Therefore, it can delay to find the
solution of the problem.

3. Labor:

Primary data collection requires more labor as one person cannot make a survey on his own or collect the data
single handedly.

4. Limitations:

Primary data is limited to the specific time, place and number of participants.

Secondary Data:

Secondary data is a type of data which has already been collected by someone else. It is the data whose
information is already available and analyzed.

32
Sources of Secondary Data:

Following are the sources/methods of secondary data,

 Internet.
 Government and Non-Government agencies.
 Public libraries.
 Educational institutions.

1. Internet:

One of the most popular methods of collecting secondary data is by using the internet. It is almost free of cost,
although some websites may charge money but usually low prices.

2. Government and Non-Government Agencies:

Government and Non-Government agencies store relevant data and valuable information that both the
individuals and organizations can access.

3. Public Libraries:

Public libraries contain copies of research, public documents and other information which can be a source of
secondary data.

4. Educational Institutions:

Educational institutions are also considered during the collection of data because they conduct more research
than any other sector.

5. Commercial Information:

Commercial information sources like television, newspaper, radio, social media are a great source of information
on market research, economic developments, political agenda and other activities.

Kinds of Secondary Data:

There are two kinds of secondary data,

 Personal/Private records.
 Public records.

Personal/Private Records/Documents:

These documents include feelings and opinion of individuals, idea about socio-cultural changes, social incidents
and structural changes. These may include,

 Letters.
 Personal diaries.
 Autobiography and memories.

33
Public Records/Documents:

Public documents play a vital role in secondary source of data collection. Various types of records are collected
by the government and non-government agencies. Public records may include,

 Publications of central, state or local government.

 Technical and trade journals.
 Books and newspapers.
 Reports by research scholars, universities and economists etc.
 Official records.
 Historical records.

Advantages of Using Secondary Data:

Following are the advantages of using secondary data,

1. Access:

The secondary data sources are easily available. Nowadays, you have so much information available just by
clicking the mouse in front of the computer.

2. Cost:

The majority of secondary sources are absolutely free or at very low cost for use. It saves not money but also
efforts.

3. Time Saving:

One can collect secondary research data in no time. Sometimes it is a matter of few google services to find the
source of information.

4. Collection:

Secondary data can be collected by the people that are not familiar with the types of quantitative and qualitative
methods. Practically, anyone can collect secondary data.

Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data:

Following are the disadvantages of using secondary data,

1. Control:

The research has no control over the data while using secondary data.

2. Time:

Secondary data is collected in the past which means it might be out of date.

34
3. Biasness:

Secondary data is collected by someone else which means the data can be biased in their favor.

Issues of Values in Research.

Values:

Value is defined as, ‘moral principles that govern the behavior of a person’.

Research Value:

Research value are the set of ethics that govern how research is performed at research institutions and how it is
distributed.

Codes of Ethics:

Most of the research institutions have setup codes of ethics. They are the principles which are applicable to
almost all the organizations as well. Most common codes of ethics include,

 Researchers should contribute to society and mankind.

 Researchers should avoid harm to others.
 They should be honest, fair, trustworthy and do not discriminate.
 They should honor intellectual property rights and give credit where it is necessary.

Object of Value:

The object of value in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers the negative consequences from
research activities.

Participants in Research:

There are three participants in a research activity,

 The research participants.

 The researcher.
 The funding body.

Types of Value Issues:

Following are the types of value issues which a researcher should always pay attention in his research design,

1. Value Freedom:

A researcher should have value freedom in order to produce trustworthy knowledge. Value freedom means a
researcher successfully removes their own personal beliefs from the research in order to present an impartial
and unbiased research.

35
2. Voluntary Participation:

Voluntary participation means that all the research participants are free to choose whether they want to
participate or not without any pressure. All participants must be able to leave the study anytime they want.

3. Informed Consent:

Informed consent means the participants know the purpose, benefits, risks, and funding behind the study before
they agree or decline to join.

4. Privacy:

Privacy means, the researcher does not know the identities of the participants. A researcher can only guarantee
privacy by not collecting any personal information.

5. Confidentiality:

Confidentiality means that the researcher knows who the participants are, but he removes all identifying
information from your report.

6. Potential for Harm:

A researcher must have to consider all the sources which can harm participants. Physical, social, psychological
and all other types of harm should be kept at minimum level.

7. Plagiarism:

A researcher must ensure that his work is free of plagiarism or misconduct.

Values in Different Stages of Research:

Following are the different stages of values in a research,

1. Choice of Topic:

Personal values of a researcher may influence the choice of topic, such as their interests, belief or socio-cultural
background.

2. Values in Research Methodology:

The researcher must establish a logical argument based on evidence. Personal ethics, time and financial
supporters can influence the decision about research methodology.

3. Values in Research Process:

The personal values of the researcher must be associated with the participants. It is necessary that the researcher
and the participants understand each other.

4. Values in Analysis:

Research conclusion often contain a judgement. While making the judgment, the researcher must analyze the

36
behavior the people while making the judgement.

Importance of Values:

Values are of great importance for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity. These principles make sure that
participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe.

Report Writing.

Introduction:

Research report is a written document containing key aspects of research project. Research report is a medium
to communicate research work with relevant people. Report writing is a formal style of writing elaborately on a
topic. The tone of a report is always formal.

Definition:

Research report is a written document that communicate the objective, hypothesis, methodology, findings,
limitations, suggestions and recommendations of a project to other.

Purpose of Report Writing:

The main purpose of a report is to provide information on a particular topic after research has been carried out.
Reports are used to give details of work carried out over a certain period of time. Therefore, it can be stated that
communication is the primary purpose of a report. The research report should be able to tell other what a
researcher did and what he found.

Types of Reports:

Following are the types of reports,

Written Reports:

Written reports are the most common types of reports and they can be classified in number of ways.

On the Basis of Length:

On the basis of length, a report can be short report, like memorandum or progress report, or it may be a long
report.

Technical Report:

A technical report is a long report containing full documentation. Since everything is described in detail, it
serves as a source document for further research.

Content of Technical Report:

Following are the contents of a technical report,

 Result summary.

37
  Research design.
 Discussion of data collected.
 Analysis of data.
 Bibliography (old books and concepts).
 Technical appendices (use of technique).
 Index.
 Conclusion.

Popular Report:

The popular report should be simple and attractive. In popular report, pictures and graphs should be used
instead of tables. The objective of the report should be stated in simple terms with clarity.

Contents of Popular Report:

Following are the contents of a popular report.

 Objectives should be stated with clarity.

 Pictures and graphs should be used.
 Findings should be clearly stated in clear print.
 Important points should be highlighted and underlined,
 Sentences and paragraphs should be short and direct.
 Results.

Oral Report:

An oral report is the presentation of information through spoken words. It has the advantage of creating an
interactive environment where there is a give and take of information.

Importance:

 It saves time and energy.

 Learner can request opinions and suggestions from the audience.
 Improves knowledge, skill and experience of a learner.

Disadvantage:

However, oral report has a disadvantage that there is no permanent record of the report.

Components of a Research Report:

Following are the components of a research report,

 Abstract or summary.
 Introduction.
 Review of literature.
 Methods.
 Results.
 Conclusion and Discussion.

38
  References.

1. Abstract or Summary:

The abstract or summary tells the reader very briefly what the main points and findings of the report are. This
allows the reader to decide whether the report is useful to them or not.

2. Introduction:

The introduction tells the reader what the topic of the paper is in general terms, why the topic is important and
what to expect in the report.

3. Review of Literature:

The literature review tells the reader what other researchers have discovered about the topic of report or tells
the reader about other research that is relevant to the topic.

4. Methods:

The method section must contain descriptions of data, the ways data were collected, sampling, response rate,
limitation of data, description of variables, manipulation of variables.

5. Results:

The results section contains the findings of the analysis and calculates whether your expectations (hypothesis)
were correct.

6. Conclusion and Discussion:

In this section, one should summarize the most relevant points of his research and discuss the general
significance of his topic and findings. He should discuss the shortcomings of his topic.

7. References:

This section contains the list of all the primary and secondary research sources.

39