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Unit – 2
Chemical and cellular basis of life
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Elemental composition of living matter
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There are about ninety two elements recognized in nature.
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Of which, about 20-25% elements are essential to continue healthy life and reproduction.
n
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(about 25- elements are essential for humans and about 17 for plants).
Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Nitrogen (N) make up 96% of living matter.
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Calcium (Ca), Phosphorous (P), potassium (K) and sulphur (S) - make up most of the remaining 4% of the mass of


the organism.
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In addition to these Na, Cl,Mg,B,Co,Cu,Cr,F,I and Fe are also found in minute amounts in living matter.

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Physical and chemical properties of water important for life

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Water is a vital inorganic molecule; life could not exist on this planet without water.
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 It is important due to following reasons,
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1. Vital chemical constituent of living cell

a - 1
2. Provides a biological medium for all organisms
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Physical and chemical properties of water molecule provide the ability to render the vitality.

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Water molecule is a small, polar and angular molecule.
y
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is u
D δ+ partial positive
δ-partial negative

Chemical structure of the water molecule

 Polarity is an uneven charge distribution within a molecule.

 In water molecule, oxygen atom is slightly negative and hydrogen atom is slightly positive.
 Weak attractions between the slightly polar hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the slightly polar oxygen
atom of adjacent water molecules are known as hydrogen bonds.
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These hydrogen bonds play a major role in maintaining all the properties of water.
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The properties of water arise due to the hydrogen bonds between different water molecules.
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When the water is in liquid form its H bonds are very fragile. Hydrogen Bonds
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H bonds form, break and reform with great frequency.
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Four major properties of water to maintain life on earth
1. Cohesive behavior
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2. Ability to moderate temperature
3. Expansion upon freezing
4. Versatility as a solvent
Hydrogen bonding in water

Properties of water related to functions

1. Cohesive behavior

 Attraction between water molecules due to hydrogen bonding is known as cohesion.

 Attraction between water molecules and other substances are known as adhesion.

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Both of the above properties of water allow it to act as a transport medium.
Due to cohesion between water molecules, water and dissolved substances such as

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minerals are transported as a continuous column xylem against gravity.
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Adhesion between water molecules and cell walls also helps in conduction of
a
water and dissolved substances.
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Water has a high surface tension.
y a
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This ability is given to water molecules, due to cohesion between the water

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molecules.


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Therefore, in an aquatic system, upper surface water molecules are attracted by lower surface molecules and it
forms a water film. Small insects e.g. water skaters can walk on the surface of a pond.

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2. Ability to moderate temperature

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Water can absorb or release a relatively high amount of heat energy by a slight change in its own temperature.
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temperature fluctuations on earth.
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Due to the high specific heat, water will function as thermal buffer in living system and aquatic bodies during the

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Due to the high heat of vaporization, with the minimum loss of water an organism can release much heat energy.
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 e.g. Prevent from overheating.
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This helps the organisms to cool their body surface.

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Evaporation of sweat from human skin helps to maintain the body temperature at constant level.

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Transpiration in plants helps to cool the plant body surface and prevent from becoming too warm in the sunlight.
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3. Expansion upon freezingu
 D
Generally, in an increase in temperature of any substances, reduces their density and on the other hand, in a
decrease in temperature increases their density.
 When the temperature of water falls below 4 ˚C, it begins to freeze and forms a crystalline lattice called ice cubes.
 Water has the maximum density at 4˚C.
 Hence, ice floats on the surface of water bodies.
 It is an important property of water in Polar Regions, where, organisms in aquatic bodies can survive during the
winter.

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4. Versatility as a solvent
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This ability is given to water due to their polarity.
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Polar molecules (e.g. Glucose), ionic compounds (e.g. NaCl), molecules with both polar and ionic
(e.g. lysozymes) can dissolve in water.
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Water molecules surround each of the solute molecules and form hydrogen bonds with them.
Therefore, solubility depends on polarity and not in their ionic nature.

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Chemical Nature and functions of main organic compounds of organisms

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y a Carbohydrates
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Most abundant group of organic compound on earth is carbohydrates.
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Major elemental composition is C, H, and O.
Hydrates of carbon contain the same proportion of H: O which equals to 2:1 as in water.
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General formula is Cx(H 2O)y.
Three major groups of carbohydrates are monosaccharides disaccharides and polysaccharides.
 Generally carbohydrates include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides
 The simplest form of carbohydrates having general molecular formula as (CH 2O)n are monosaccharide.
 The number of C atoms varies from 3-7.
 All monosaccharide are reducing sugars, water soluble and occur in crystalline form.
 According to the number of carbon atoms, they are named as;
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 3C- Triose [Link] (Phosphoglyceraldehyde is a derivative of Triose)
 4C- Tetrose [Link](rare in nature)
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 5C- Pentoses e.g. Ribose, Deoxyribose, Ribulose (RUBP is a derivative of ribulose)

s
 6C- Hexoses e.g. Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
n

y a
According to the type of carbonyl (Keto, aldo)group, they are classified as;
a.
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Aldoses-glucose, galactose
b.
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Ketoses-fructose
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Aldose

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Aldehyde group
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is u Aqueous form of Glucose molecule

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Solid form of glucose

Ketose

Keto group

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Solid form of fructose
li A Aqueous form of fructose

 i s u
In aqueous media some monosaccharides are in ring form
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(No need to memorize the chemical structures)

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Dehydration ( condensation) and Hydrolysis

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Disaccharides
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They are sugars formed by joining two monosaccharaides by a glycosidic bond.
Glycosidic bond is formed by removal of a water molecule from two adjacent monosaccharides by a condensation
reaction.
 Water molecule is formed from OH group of one monosaccharide molecule and H from adjoining
monosaccharide molecule.

Condensation
Glucose + Glucose Maltose + H2 0

Condensation
Glucose + fructose Sucrose + H2 0

Condensation
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Glucose + Galactose
1 5 Lactose + H20

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Maltose and lactose are reducing sugars and sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

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Maltose

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Lactose (Milk Sugar)

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Sucrose

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Polysaccharides
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They are macromolecules and biopolymers.
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Polysaccharides are made up of few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharide subunits

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They are non-crystalline, water insoluble, and not considered as sugars.
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 - 1
Some polysaccharides act as storage components where others contribute to the structure of living organisms.
a
Based on their function they are categorized as Storage polysaccharides and structural polysaccharides.

n s
1. Storage- Starch, glycogen
y a
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2. Structural- Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Pectin


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Based on their architecture they are categorized as

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1. Linear forms- Cellulose, Amylose

2. Branched forms- Glycogen, Amylopectin, Hemicellulose

Major polysaccharides, their monomers and functions

Polysaccharide Monomer Function

Starch Glucose
5 7 Stored in plants and chloropytes

1 5
Glycogen Glucose

a- 1 Stored in animals and fungi

Cellulose

a ns
Glucose Component of Cell wall of plants

Inulin
y Fructose Stored in tubers of Dhalia

u li A
Pectin

D i s Galacturonic acid Component of Middle lamella of

plant cell wall

Hemicellulose Pentose and hexose Component of Plant cell walls

Chitin (nitrogen containing Glucosamine Component of Fungal cell walls

polysaccharide)
and exoskeleton of Arthropods

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Glycogen
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Chitin

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Functions of carbohydrates

Monosaccharaides
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 Energy source
1 5
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Building blocks of disaccharides and polysaccharides (disaccharides such as maltose, sucrose and polysaccharides
a

such as starch, glycogen)
n s
a
Components of nucleotides(DNA, RNA)
y
Disaccharides
li A

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Storage sugar in milk- Lactose

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Translocation in phloem –Sucrose
Storage sugar in sugarcane- Sucrose

Polysaccharides

 Storage polysaccharides-
 starch stores glucose as energy source in plants and chlorophytes,
 glycogen stores glucose as energy source in animals and fungi,
 inulin stores fructose as energy source in Dahlia tubers

 structural polysaccharides-
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 Cellulose in the cell walls of plants and chlorophytes
1 5
 Pectin in the middle lamella of plant tissues.
 Hemicellulose in cell walls of plants.
a- 1
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 Chitin in the cell walls of fungi and in exoskeleton in Arthropods.
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Lipids


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Diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
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Large biological molecules but not considered as polymers or macromolecules.
Consist of C, H, O and H:O ratio is not 2:1. Comparatively more H than O are present.

- 1
Biologically important types of lipids: Fats, Phospholipids and Steroids.
a
Fats
n s
y a
 Fats are made up of glycerol and fatty acids; Glycerol belongs to alcohol group having 3 carbons where each of

li A
them bear single hydroxyl group.
 Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains with long (16-18) carbon skeleton with a carboxyl group at its one terminal.

is u
Fatty Acids
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Oleic acid

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1 5 Palmitic acid

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Alcohols

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 Fatty acid molecules bind to each hydroxyl group of glycerol by ester bond resulting fat molecules are called as
triacylglycerol (triglycerides).

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Hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids contribute to the hydrophobic nature of the fats. Based on the nature of

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hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids, they are categorized as 5

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Saturated fats- fats are made up of saturated fatty acids: fatty acids with hydrocarbons having no any double

n s
bonds. Usually animal fats come under this category.

y a
They are mostly solid at room temperature. e.g: butter


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Unsaturated fats- fats are made up of unsaturated fatty acids- fatty acids with

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Hydrocarbon chains having one or more double bonds.
i
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Usually plant fats come under this category.
They are mostly liquid in room temperature. e.g: vegetable oils.
Unsaturated fats are classified based on the nature of their double bonds.
a) Cis Unsaturated fat
b) Trans Unsaturated fat
 Consumption of excess saturated fats and trans unsaturated fats contribute arthrosclerosis.

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Phospholipids

 Phospholipids are major components of the cell membranes.

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They are composed of two fatty acids and one phosphate group attached to one glycerol molecule.


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The phosphate group gives the negative electrical charge to the phospholipid molecule.
Typically another additional polar molecule or small charged molecule is also linked to the phosphate group
[Link].
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
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The two ends of the phospholipids show different behaviour.
y
A
The hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic while phosphate group and its attachment (head) are hydrophilic.

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Functions of Lipids

 Food reserve as energy source (triglycerides such as fats and oils).

 Maintain the fluidity of plasma membrane (phospholipids, cholesterol).
 They act as signaling molecules (eg: Hormones) that travel through the body.
 Found as components of animal cell membrane (cholesterol, phospholipids ).

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5 7
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……………………………………….…………………………………………
a - 1
ns
………………………………….………………………………………………
y a
A
……………………………………………………………………………………

is uli
………………….………………………………………………………………

D
…………….……………………………………………………………………

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