INTRODUCTION Objectives By the end of this chapter students shauid be able to -Define research Slate the purpose of research Outline motives what motivates doing a research State and identify Scientiic and Non Scientific method of acquiring knowledge RESEARCH DEFINED 1 Isa systematic, objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to development of generations, principles or theories resulting in Prediction and possible ultimate control of events 2 san objective formal process of systematically collecting, analyzing and interpretation of data for the purpose of providing functional information to managers for decision making. 3. Isafactfinding activity Conclusions which can be derived from the definition 1 Is an intensive and purposeful search far knowledge and understanding af « phenomena anc establishing of facts, theories and laws 2 Isamethod of discovering the truth 3 snot haphazardly but is done systematically and takes time. 4 Involves coletion of data using acceptable research tools on which data is recorded 5 —_Isdone with a purpose so as to solve a problem PURPOSE OF RESEARCH Isa fact nding activity and its purpose is to discover answers to questions through the use of certain pre-defined procedures. These procedures were developed over time in oider to increase the likelinood that information that is Gathered is relevant, reliable and unbiased. Research helps managers to make better informed and less risky management decisions, Accordingly the Information obtained through research must be objective, impartial, current, tensletable and relevant. MOTIVES (REASONS) FOR CARRYING OUT A RESEARCH a) Desire to face challenges in solving the unsolved problems b) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work ©) Desire to get a research qualification together with the subsequent benefits, In some cases it may be a ‘course requirement being studied e.g. HND, PHD ete, The research is not self initiated by a requirement that a student should full to get a full qualification, 4) Desire to afer service to the society 2) Tofill the gap in knowledge f Government directive ~ Research can be directed by the government to try and get a solution forthe nation or society 5) Employment conditions ~ There are some established research stations that specializes in research. Insuch research stations people are employed to carry out research e.g, Grasslands Research Station which specializes in Agricultural Research bh) Organizetional problems may motivate research e.g. a company may have high rate of staff turnover ‘The research Process in brief Basically, the research process follows a series of steps as follows: -Defining the problem and set research objectives Developing the research plan(proposal) Collecting the data Analyzing the data and derive information -Presenting of findings “Research is one of the methods of acquiring knowledge. METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE Ways of acquiring knowledge can be grouped into: ) Non scientific methods b) ——Scientfie methods 8) _ NON SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQURING KNOWLEDGE “Are subjective methads of acquiring knowledge -Depend mostiy on human judgment -Issues adcressed incorporate the existence of Gad, whether a person is good or bad and issues relating to moral values. - Issues addressed do not require investigation and are even dificult to verify or investigate Mostly used in social research *Social research isthe collection of methods and methodologies applied systematically 10 produce scientific based knowledge about social world no variables can be deduced to be tested Non sclentifie methods inelude: (1o continue) i) Appealing to custom and tradition |i) Appeal to authority lil) Mystical method iv) Rationalistic method/ use of personal experience ¥) Empirical method vi) Common Sense vil) Media Myths 1) Custom end tradition Is the earliest human search for truth or knowledge which has been pasged from generation to generation since time immemorial, Specify how things have been done since time immemorial Reference to custom and tradition is used to solve problems. Determines or dictate people's eanduet in sacieties, ving style foad, language, articulating problems, making judgments, specify human food and speech etc “Isa special case of authority of the past People obey custom and tradition avoiding is much as possible to violet them and seek explanations to various situations and problems through custom beliefs. Advantagesii) iii) 1D) Is the simplest way of acquiring knowledge Knowledge acquired may be universally accepted May result in standard approach to problems Disadvantages Traditional knowledge although once true may be come distorted as itis passed on and may no longer be tue People may clinch to traditional knowledge without real understanding it May instill development of new ideas Authority method This method depends upon acauiring knowledge and wisdom from prominent people who are considered to have vast sucial and environmental knowledge more that an ordinary person Is mostly used by a child to acquire knowledge from parents and also by elders from village heads, chiefs, priests, presidents ete Is based on faith inputted into a person *Man appeal to tribal wise- man and to gods in times of crisis. Tribal chiefs remain the supreme authority and considered as all-knowing and all-competent supermen Chiefs are sought for guidanee and advice in social, religious, political and even private affairs, Moreover, priests in churches assumed the role of authority, neople turning for knowledge, advice, explanations, domestic problems ete Authorities spend time and effort to learn more things (researching) to remain up to date and others may benefit rom their experience and work ‘Advantages of Authority Is.@ very cheap, quick and simple way of learning something -Not seriously dangerous because people placed in authority will ely on continuous researches and strategies to justify and preserve their positions, using professional jargon and emphasizing the uniqueness of one’s e.g tis true because | the Minister Do notrequite cattying out a sophisticated research in order to understand the world and events Disadvantages of Authority May result in individuals hiding thelr superficiality of theie knowledge until they are in authority -May cteate conflict in the society due to struggle for power Authorities may speak on fields they know litle about explaining things in the ‘wrong way thereby misleading people. Authority may be frequently misused or abused -May result overestimating the expertise of other people when they are not ~Overdependence on experts or authority Keep others in the dark, loosing ability to make own meaningful judaments Authorities may only promote ideas that strengthen their power and position Mystical method Is when or where the correctness cf the knowledge is assumed to reside in a supernatural source. One's ability to appeal to irrational feelings by using rituals, ceremonies, emotionally loades situations and explanations and using unusual languages is necessary and remain from being questioned e.g. Medium spirits, tradition healers, prophets etc Rationalistic Method/Personal experience/Self Knowledge This methods is based on human reasoning, ability o think logically and discovery of laws and principles using pure, abstract intelligence in solving problemsIs when man thinks that cannot refer his itfculties or problems ta ethers but should try ta solve them by him-selt_ Uses his experience and trials to solve prablems not outsiders What a person, personally sees or experience is accepted as true, has a strong impact andis a forcefully source of knowledge. Based on seeing and experiencing is believing, Observation of reality and collections of facts using the five human senses is necessary -Rationelistic may lead to astray due errors of personal experience which are: a) Overgeneralizations Are statements that go far beyond what can be justified based on the data or empirical observations that one has experienced, Oveurs wien one has evidence that he/she can believe and assume that is applies to many other situations. Is caused by rmisjudging bb) Selective observation is making observations in a way that reinforces pre-existing thinking rather than observing in a neuiral and balanced manner. Is determined or governed by preconceived ideas. ©) Premature closure Is making a judgment or reaching a decision and ending an investigation before one has the amount or depth of evidence required by sciemtific standards, Operates with and reinforces overgeneralization and selective observation, Oceurs when one feels has all the answers and do not need to listen or seek more information or raise mate questions, A person or researcher take few pieces of evidence (information) and believe to have all necessary information to make a decision d) Helo effects allowing prior reputations of persons, places or things to colour (overshadom) one's evaluation rather than evaluating all in a neutral, equal manner, Eg. Peoale do not serutinize what is sald or written by a respected person, highly educated or from a prestigious University or college ¥) Empire method -Is where facts observed in nature are the only elements toely on “Isnot based on theories but experience end observable factors Whatie observable and canbe perceived by human senses constitute knowledge e.g. A wood fosrs on water bute meta doesnot Bur surprisingly © bast made with mesa eannt sink vi) Common Sense Is form of ordinary reasoning, Is when people rely on what everyone knows and what makes sense to be the truth, What is believed by an ordinary reasonable person to be good and true is taken without any further analysis, Disadvantages ~Can allow logical fallacies ta slip into thinking e9 if wind blows eastwards i willrain Contain contradictory ideas that may go unnoticed because people use the ideas at different times eqUnlike poles attracts and birds of the same feather flock together. vil) Media Myths Television shows, movies, newspaper and magazine articles are important sources of information ‘about social life. The main advantage of this method is that what is learned is permanent Disadvantages -Whatis portrayed distorts reality (do not accurately reflect social reality) e.g movies (eg flying vehicles), crimes, sports(eg wrestling) ‘Tend to perpetuate the myths of a cultureb) People are misled by visual images more easily than other forms of lying (Has powerful etfect on people) |g-@ forum in which competing interests try to win publi support (propaganda) SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE This is known as scientific research or scientific thinking. Therefore research Is regarded 1a scientific thinking Scientific thinking is regarded as the men's unending search for truth which has brought him to the stage of science as the main source of evidence Refers to a systematic investigation of a question, a phenomena or a problem using certain principles. Considered as the integration of empirical and rationalistic methods of acquiring knowledge because is based on observations made during experiments followed by reasoning ability, ‘Types of Research Scientific enquiry methods are descriptive research, experimental research or quasi~ experiment research. This classification is based on the nature and approach of the research activities Descriptive research (Comparison research} Is a research intended to produce an accurate description of a variable under study relevant to the problem peing faced without necessarily demonstrating exactly the degree of relationship that exists between variables. Attempts to determine the frequency with which something happens or the extent to which 2 or more variables are related, which would permit only inference to be drawn about causation, Ranges trom simple data gathering to investigating possible relationships between 2 ar more vatiables, but without determining to what extent are variables related, so that precictions of future events can be possibly made Is a research is which the primary purpose is to “paint picture", using words or numbers and to present a profile, a classification of types or an outine of steps to answer questions such as who, when, where, and how. But mainly focus on how and who questions Research is conducted to describe a well-defined subject accurately. Outcomes a detailed picture of the subject eg 80% of subjects. ‘A reat deal of social research is descriptive research 6 Most data-gathering techniques are surveys, field research, content analysis and historical- comparative research “Descriptive and exploratory research have many similarities and are blurting together in practice Purpose of Descriptive Research “To provide a detailes, highly accurate picture ofa thing or problem “Tolacate new data that contradict past data “[Link] set of categories or classity type of situations ~To clatify a sequence of steps or stages -To document a causal process or mechanism -To report on the background or content ofa situation,ii) ii iy) Experimental research, Is a type of research intended ta demonstrate the cause-end effect relationship between variables being studied ‘An experiment entails a test which allows the researcher to determine the effect of an independent variable on a dependent vatiable and controlling other external factors that might influence the ‘outcome. The researchers have direct control over at least one or more independent variables and determine the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable NBa) variable isan empirical property that is cepable of taking two or more values, thus, can change in value or kind e.g, water can be soli, iquid, or gaseous “Aitibutes are the categories or levels of a variable b) —_Gonetantisa property that cannot take more than one value e.g, citizenship of a specified country ©) Am independent variable is the one which can influence the value or state of another vatiable. Is a factor in an experiment over which Ue researcher has some control ancl ‘manipulates Its value, this being expected to have some effects on the dependant Variable Is a cause variable that produces an effect or results on a depencient variable in a causal hypothesis, €) Dependent variables are factors whose values are influenced by the value of other variables. This is @ response measure understudy in an experiment whose value is determined by the independent variable e.g height of 2 child! depends on age -{s the effect of result variable that is caused by the independent variable in a causal hypothesis 4d) Intervening variable is 2 variable that is logically or temporally after the independent variable and before the dependent variable, and through which their caval relation operates. is a variable which appears in more complex causalrelationships. Comes between the independent and dependant vatiables showing a link or ‘mechanism between them. Acts as a dependent variable with respect to the independent variable and also acts as an independent variable towards the dependant variable, Found in ‘theories with multiple independent. intervening and dependent variables. NB Casual relationship requires only an independent and dependent variables Quasi-experimental research ‘Sometimes know as semi experimental research Is an experiment which does not possess the pre-requisite of control. It lacks the control attributes of a truly experimental research. It takes short-cuts in experiment requirements thus it lacks valid demonstration of variables’ association but stil i is not descriptive because it does not yield same quantitative indicators of association between variables Exploratory research Is one in which the primary purpose isto have alittle understanding of an issue or phenomenon, to develop preliminary ideas, to have an insight into the prablem and move towards refined research questions by focusing on the “what” question, The goal is to formulate more precise questions that future research can answer. Can be the first stage ina sequence of esearch studies. Can be done ta know appropriate designs to use and execute a second more systematic and extensive study Purpose of Exploratory research To become familiar with the basic facts, seting and concerns “To create a general mental picture of conditionsTo formulate and focus questions for future research “To generate new ideas, eanjecture or hypothesis, “To determine the feasiaility of conducting a research To develop techniques for measuring and locating future date Explanatory research Is a research in which the primary purpose isto elaborate, extend or test theories. Its emphasis isto explain why something happens although the issue is known and there is description of it. Looks for causes and reasons, Purpose of Explanatory research To elaborate and enrich a theory's explanation -Toextend a theory to new issues or topics -To support or refute an explanation or prediction “To link issues or topies with a general principle -To determine which of several explanations is best To test a theory's predictions or principle STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC THINKING PROCESS 7 Location and definition of a problem through exploratory research techniques Survey of past experiences with tie problem and available data to get ideas about the past and possible future solutions and methods of investigation (Review of related literature) Formulation of a hypothesis This representa tentative solution to a prablem under investigation and employed as a guide inthe collection of additional data which may lead to an accepted solution to the problem Mental elaboration of the hypothesis checking for agreement with facts, veifiabilty and logical consistency Collection of data i.e. additional data by means of research tools, measurements, observation, experimentations and interviews Analysis, classification and summarization of the data collected Formulation of new generalization representing observed unifarmities, explanstory principles or scientific law Formulation and communication of recommendations CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH/SCIENTIFIC THINKING. 1 Research requites expertise, systematic logic and an accurate investigation Researcher should 2] be anexpertin the field of research before undertaking an investigation b) plan procedures carefully and detailed eg no prediction before description and explanation of observed phenomena ©) gather, record and analyze data with complete accuracy 3) standardize and ensure that valid data gathering tools are devised and used 2) ensure that mechanical means are employed to improve the accuracy human observations, recordings, and computations of data Is based on facts and empirical events Framework is constructed basing on facts which are observable leading to the formulation of important theories. Research is aimed at knowing reality and each step is based on observationu Employs methods of analysis, This involves breaking down of a phenomenan into small manageable parts and attending to each part separately to enable the investigator to give each part separate and undivided attention. This ensures full appreciation of the problem is a whole Employs hypothesis to guide thinking process. Experience is used to show that two phenomena are related and follows one another Employs quantitative methods in the trestment of data Scientist/researcher does not rely upon estimates, quess and general impression but measures a phenomena under consideration as accurately as possible Reoults are recorded in units that can be counted, added, subtracted, multiplied and divided Make use of new and exact language of mathematics to make the analysis, classification, summarization of data mare reliable Fact are summarized into mathematical values such as means, medians, modes, deviations ete which are less ambiguous than ordinary language terms Employs objective measurement Scientists measures, weighs, tests and accurately determine amount of phenomena under Investigation Free from emotional bias Research demands alertness, flexibility and open minded ie mind free from emotional bias. The researcher needs to be alert and watch for new ideas and ready to modity old ideas in the ight of new evidence and never allow personal kes and dislikes colouring the facts Personal feelings and preferences should be prevented from research activity. These argues with a scope and relevance of data Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary sources Restating and re-organising what is already known is not research. Research endeavours to reach first hand sources of data and nat fram second-hand sources Requires patience, unhurried end courage ‘researcher has to work patiently towards sound conclusions and need to realize that significant findings do not come as a result of hurried and careless procedures Research is highly purposive Research deals with a significant protlem demanding solution(s). Usually places much emphasis upon the discovery of general principles and scientific generalizations that can be applied ta the solution of wide range of problems |s carefully ecorded and reported Terms of references and unique technical terms should be clearly defined for easy understanding by readers. “Procedures are described in detall Limiting factors are recognized References are documented Results are objectively recorded -Conclusions and generalizations are cautiously arrived at considering limitations, data collected and errors minimized Non essential details are omitted12 Isreplicable and transmittable [nyane placed in the same circumstance can observe the same event and make reasaning leading ta the same explanations and predictions because of logistic and objectivity. 18 Isteduetive (Reductionism) Complexity of reality is reduced by grasping the main relationship of laws. No essentials are omitted Necessities and chances are distinguished Disadvantages of Scientific Method of acquiring knowledge -Is not possible to observe systematically every phenomena Is expensive in terms of time and resources fe money and instruments ‘Some characteristics remain unknown so that explanations and predictions cannot be accurate CLASSFICATION OF RESEARCH Basic research or fundamental research -referred to as pute research Carried out to provide broad and general principles, theories, results or information Aimed at discavering basic truth laws on which action research may be based on -Not carried out to provide specific information ot for a specific problem hence not conceined with day io day solutions but to provide basic information in general eg educational research on alms of education, motivation, environment ete Results are public -Used to advance fundamental knowledge about the social world -Isa source of mast new scientific ideas, methods, theories, ideas used in applied research. Ask questions that seem impractical eg causes of cancer in chickens Stimulates nevr ways of thinking about deviance etc Provides foundation for knowledge and understanding that are generalized to many policy areas, problems and studies -Demand higher level problems, procedures, tools and expertise Acts like an exploratary research aimed at gaining ideas and insights about a research problem. Basic research can take 2 forms: i) Discovery of new theories ii) Development of the existing theory B Applied research or field research “Isa research designed to otter practical solutions to a concrete prablem or address the immediate and specific needs of clinicians or practitioners. Is that type of research work of which its results find direct application in the field of work. Its devoted to problems of field work and other affected individuals -Used to answer a policy question conducted for a specific problem -Results are private -cattied an a small sample +s based an application of known theories derived from basic research “Is used to test theories and laws discovered through basic research and applying them into practice ie application of known theories eg use of learning devices (aids), textbooks, library -Is sometimes known as decision making research because is used for decision making -Rely on quick. small scale study that provides practical results that provides practical results that people ‘can use in the short term “Primary auidience or consumers are teachers, counselors, practitioners, decision makers (managers) ete-Its results may generate contliets ifthe desired outcome is not expected B Action research -Is similar to applied research in many ways, hence regarded as another form of applied research with the primary gos! of facilitating social change or bring about a value oriented social change. “The difference is that applied research is cartied out on a larger sample resulting in more universal applicable findings while action research is eondueted on an immediately available small sample in order 10 salve the immediate problem for the same group “Isa research conducted on a small sample to solve immediate problem far the same group on whieh applied research s being done. -Is the process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions Primary concerned with eld workers eg teachers to ty to imprave own teaching and algo by school administrators to improve administration behavior. Represents a more disciplined, objective and scientific approach ta a prablem -Tries to keep problem solving in close touch in reality at every stage and focused on the immediate application of know laws Deals with really practical problems hi action “Those who are being studied participate in the research process -Research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge “Focuses an power with 8 goal af empowerment Seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness -Is tied directly to political action -Used to advance or improve conditions by expanding public awareness "Researchers ty to equalize power relations with research subjects, avoiding more control, status and authority that those they study. Cc) Evaluation research -Is an applied research in which one ties to determine how well a program, theory or policy Is working or reaching t goals and objectives. Is the mastly used applied research -Ethieal and politcal conflicts may arise in this research because people may have opposing interests in findings of a program or theory. Is part ofthe administration applied by many organizations Types of evaluation research are formative or summative evaluation Formative evaluation is bult- in monitoring or continuous feedback on a theory of program. Summative evaluation is one that laoks atthe final program or theory or end result D) Social impact research Is. an applied research that document areas of social life if a major new change is introduced into @ ‘community. Estimate the consequences of ¢ planned change. ‘It should be therefore be concluded that Action, Evaluation and Social impact researches are types of applied research. Differences between Basie and Applied Research ASPECT BASIC RESEARCH ‘APPLIED RESEARCHPrimary Audience Scientific Community & Other Practitioners, Participants, Supervisors, researchers Non- researchers i) Evaluators Researcher peers Practitioners, Supervisors i) Autonomy of High Low moderate researcher iv) Research niger very High Varies, Maderste 1) Highest Priority Vetted truth Relevance vi) Purpose Create new knowledge Resolve a practical problem vil) Success Indicators | Publications, Impact an knowledge or | Direct application to address speciic Scientists problem or concer Research can be classified as quantitative or qualitative research Quantitative research is a research which looks ata large group of eases , people units and measures a number of features, Gan be a single point in time (cross-sectional) and multiple time points (longitudinal research). Collects hard deta, thatis inform of numbers. Measure veriables and test hypotheses that are generalized to the entire population Qualitative research is a study oF research which focuses on one or few eases during a limited time period. Is used Inorasa case study. Collects soft data, that is, data in form of impressions, words, sentences, photos, symbals etc Quantitative research distinguished from Qualitative research Quantitative research Qualitative research Measure objective facts Construct social reality, cultural meaning Focus on variables Focus on interactive processes and events Reliability is key Authenticity is key Value free Values are present and explicit Theory and data are separate Theory and data are fused together Independent of context or situation Situational constrained Many cases or subjects are considered Few cases and subjects Employs statistical analysis Employs thematic analysis, Researchers are detached Researcher is involved CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS This s just a rundown of the process or procedures when doing a research 1) PROBLEM AND OPPORTUNITY A problem arises when a decision maker faces uncertainty regarding which action to adopt ina2 3) 4 5) 9 situation. Oris a situation where management needs to make ¢ decision but do not have enough Information to make a sound decision. Posses a negative cannatation ‘An opportunity is a situation with a positive potential if recognized and capitalized, is profitable to the enterprise, Possesses a positive connotation Researcher must identify and define the research problem or opportunity, sometimes known as research question, Distinction between the two is difficult, hence research problem is used to refer to either problem or appartunity. Research problem a may come from the desire to solve a current problem or pursue an opportunity PRELIMINARY STUDIES. Is exploratory research to gain insights and ideas about a problem Undertaken in order to a) Discover the problem and define it b) Analyze the problem's environment ©) ——_Detesmine correct definition ofthe problem Common preliminary research includes desk research, observation and discussion. Datais collected through discussion and observations Other necessary techniques are expert opinion, focus groups, secondary data analysis, ete DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis is @ suggested answer to a problem, whici is tested, and empirical -Gives direction (For details refer to detailed notes on hypothesis. STATEMENT OF AIMS, OBJECTIVES, DELIMITATION AND LIMITATIONS a) Aims are broad goals of the research. Sometimes ere called institutional objectives bb) Objectives are the specific cleatly goals that are developed from aims. Are the precise and measurable goals to be achieved by the research process... Are also specific tasks the researcher carries out in order to achieve or test the aims €)Delimitations are statements of limits or scape of the investigation, Determines the study boundaries. Indicates what the researcher should include or exelude fram the investigation. Outline breadth and depth of isaues ta be covered e.g. the entire industry or part of it. Defines radius of the research, timeframe of the research process, and time to be covered by the research process, REVIEW OF LITERATURE Is 8 summary and analysts of related literature, which provide background of the research. Researchers look into theories put by other experts, and authors and analyses their model and make opinions. Cantain the following: a) Conceptual view of experts b) —_Compatisons of the views from experts ©) Nature of issues being researched on DESIGNING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL Isa research plan. |s a formal written cocument that discusses the problem for research. Acts as @ marketing in @ research process Purpose of research proposal a) State the purpose of the study b) State how the research will be executed by: “Outlining research methodology ta be used e.g. interviews8) 9) 10) n) 12) Outlining in detail resources to be used that is time, finance, human, & material 4d) Provides the researcher with a guideline in carrying out the research work DECIDING ON A METHODOLOGY AND JUSTIFYING IT The researcher should decide on research methodalogy and justify why he or she opted for each PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS DATA collected data is edited, codes, summarized and tabulated before the statistical designs. Testing of hypothesis is done and relationship noted, with enaractersties revealed INTERPRETATION DATA OF DATA Is done derive meaning from data after analysis. Findings are deduced. These should be supported CONCLUSIONS are deduced from findings in light of objectives and hypothesis, RECOMMENDATIONS BASSED ON FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS Are based on findings and conclusions ~ Ate formulated course to action to solve the problem ~Should be specific, applicable and justified PF r r Is the reporting or communication of esearch results either orally ot in writing RESEARCH TOPIC OR RESEARCH QUESTION A research topie/ problem is the starting point in any research, A topic Is 100 broad for conducting a study. This must be narrowed down to or focused on a specific research question that can be addressed in the study. Topic can be narrawed or focused during exploratory stage, planning and gathering data, therefore is an on going process As already alluded a reseerch problem may result ftom an opportunity or problem. ‘Techniques for narrowing a topic into a research question 1 Examine the lterature ~ published articles are an excellent source of ideas for research questions, These articles suggest questions that fecus on Replicating of previous research project exsetly or with slight variations Exploring unexpected findings discovered in previous research Following suggestions an author gives for future research at the end of an article Extending an existing explanation or theary to & new topic or setting Challenging findings or attempt to refute a relationship Specifying the intervening process and consider linking relation Talk over ideas with others The researcher should ask people who ate knowledgeable about the topic for questions that they have thought, Seek aut those who hold opinions that diffe from yours on the topic and diseuss possible research questions with them. Apply toa specific context Focus the topic onto a specific historical or time period. Narraw the topic toa specific society or geography unit. Define the aim or desired outcome of the study -Will tie research question be for an exploratory, explanatory or deseriptive study, will the study involve applied ar basic research.‘Sources of topics or ways to select topics 1 Personal experience, knawledge and interest-One can chonse a topic based on something that happens to him or her. Also may choase e topic only because has interest in that area or topic or thorough knowledge in that area eg a doctor can research related to medicine Curiosity based on something in the media. One can read a newspaper, magazine article, see TV rogram and left with questions, What is read or seen raises questions and suggest researches The state of knowledge in a field ~ Basic research is driven by nevr research findings and theories that push atthe frontiers of knowledge. Solving a prablem- Apolied research topies begin with a problem that needs a golution Personal values ~ people highly committed to a set religious, political or social values select topies to further their knowledge and uncierstanding of those velues Everyday life topics can be found throughout everyday life in old saying, novels, songs, statistics etc Social premiums- topics can be selected because are “hot” or offer an opportunity eg reward for Conducting a research ete Identification of a good research problem is ane of the most difficult phases of any research project. In the discovery of a problem, the investigator can take the help ofthe following procedures so as to save from wild search and aimless wondering: Select field of specialization and became a scholar in that specialization as carly as possible Develop a concer for that field Siudy critically the available research literature on the field of specialization Accept the difficulties or obstacles ofthat field as a challenge and try to exercise own originality and ability to tackle them Should be prepare a record of problems already studied fy others in the area of specialization Should acquaint him or herself with a research uncer way in that area Shouldanalyse the trends in his/her field of specialization Acquaint himself or herself with the possibilities, commitments and prophecies in that particular area Should widely discuss any problems that comes to his mind) Criteria of a good research problem/topic Before the proposed research problem can be finalized, several conditions and considerations have to be satisfied. Although there are no standard rules that will guarantee the suitability of a research problem, a number of eritetia in the form of eonditions might be listed for guidance in the selection ofa topic 1 Novelty It should be sulficiently original so that it daes not involve objectionable duplication. Originality is the basic credit point of any research. Ignorance of prior studies may lead to students spending time on a problem already investigated by some othr workets. Moreover, the study should employ the most recent data, However, the fact a problem has been investigated in the past does not mean that iis longer fit for study. There is constant need for verification of the findings of previous investigations using other methods or newer or better devices Interesting Problem should be motivating and interesting forthe investigator. If not interesting for him or her, will not be able to face and overcome the obstacles which may come at every stage in the research. I it seems tou him dull and boring, there is Ite hope that he would do justice to it, His interest should b e purely Intellectual and should not be there only for a revard, material benefits, advancement in position, increased authority ete Important Research aroblem should be significant enough and involve an important principle or practice. {fit is not worthwhile, ifitneither adds to knowledge nor leads to any improvements in the current practices, it would be in vein (vain) Feasibility or amenabilty The suitability of a plan for a particular research worker is the matter of its feasibility. Researcher should be able to carry itout io a successful conclusion. Should possess the special qualifications, training and ‘experience and should have the required competence, knowledge and understanding Availability of data The research worker should ensure the availability of valid and reliable deta, dsta gathering devices and procedures, although confidential, sensitive and classified information may not be possible to obtain Availability of cooperation The study may require cooperation from various institutions, authorities and individuals, Researcher must, make sure that necessary permission and caoperation will be readily available Availability of guidance A tesearch activity needs the patronage of @ quide and the approval and sanction of « competent authority, thats, sponsorship guidance from @ qualified member of the faculty Availability of other facilities The should availabilty of necessary financial resources to carry out the stusy. Reesearche should be able ‘to meet the expenses involved in data gathering, equipment, printing, test mterias, travel, ‘computerization, clerical help, postage, etc plus enough time Immediate application The research should help in solving an agent problem Aim of the research ‘The sim of the research also influence the selection af the problem Level of research The nature and scope of a study will be determined in the light of levels, like Master's Degree, HND, PHD. etc. Itmay simply be an action research or a research to produce a research paper or an experimental project Experience and creativity Good research problem stem from a clear understanding of the theoretical, empitical and practical aspects, ‘of the subject derived from personal experience and from thorough review of the literature. Another major ‘contributor to the wise choice of a prabiem is creativity and the other personality factors that make for are originality, flexibility, initiative, Ingenuity, and foresight. Courage and confidence Researcher should have the courage and determination to pursue the study in spite of the difficulties and social hazards that may be involved. Should be viling toss the critc'sm, suspicious or even opposition thata delicate or a controversial study may arise ete Common errors in selecting and formulating a research problem are:a) Naming a broad field or area of study instead of a specific problem e.g, Higher Edueation System in Zimbabwe is too broad b) Stating it such that the investigation is impossible eg, huge costs required ©) Narrowing oF localizing & topic, such thatt becomes too small or insignificant from research point of view 2.4. A critical study of the poems in book «) Including in it terms of an unscientific, emotional or biased nature e.g, “The blessing of teaching profession" Lack of precision in the instruments, The tools, tests, o devices which are proposed to be used in data collection may not he precise enough resulting in another ertor. HYPOTHESIS Isa tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theary used as @ guide in the investigation of other facts and theoties that are yet unknown -Acls as a temporary solution to a problem or suggested answer which is tentative, conctete and testable CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS -Isaguess -Is inagreement with the observed facts -Does not confilct with any law of nature, which is true -Be stated in simplest possible terms and clear Serves to explain facts -Must be specific not generalize the problem Should be conceptually Guide the search for new truth Must have empitical events and or evidence -Looks forward -Must be testable with available techniques -Must show expettise and stated in scientific and research terms UNGTIONS OR IMPOATANGE OF HYPOTHESIS ‘) Provides direction by: Defining what is relevant and what isirelevant in any research process -Directing the collection of deta and state what the researcher is locking for Prevents collection of useless or excess data and review of useless data “Should precede the gathering of data b) Organize the efforts by giving direction Pravide a framework for collecting, analyzing and interpretation of data Itis a guide to the thinking process and the pracess of discavery. Act as researcher's eye into the world of darkness ©) Places specific goals before the researcher, which enables the researcher to select samples and procedures to meet the goals, Prevents biind research 4) Save as framework for drawing conclusions by making possible the interpretation of data ©) Enables the researcher to understand the problem cleatly and data required. Clarify necessary pracedures and methods in solving problems 1) Sensitizes the individual to facts.. It focuses research 9) Link tagether facts and information and organize them into comprehensive wholeh) Guide the search for new truth and thinking process i) Set boundaries and indicate limitations SOURCES OF HYPOTHESS i General culture is source of ideas, theories and laws of existing problems e.g. prejudices against women education ii Personal experience. Hypothesis can emanate from personal experience eg. Teacher's punctuality enhances student's punctuality ii, Scientific theories and laws can be put into use. Sound mind in a sound body Wv. Analogies formulated basing on likenesses and similarities between objects. Similarities means something in common THE DISCOVERY OF HYPOTHESIS To discover or formulate hypothesis the researcher should have been: 1) Well read and informed about the problem ii) Examined with care features of the objects. Be alert ta new and incidental features of the objects and obvious features. Look with care ordinary and extra-ordinary aspects of phenomena object iil) See beyond the superficial aspects of objects. Search for vital relationships and underlying principle conditions and unifermities iv) Recognize the importance of analogies in the formation of hypothesis ¥) Recognize the importance of thinking about things DIFFERENT FORMS (TYPES) OF HYPOTHESIS A). Directional and Ne tional form i) Directional form ~ Indicates the way in which the dependent variable will be influenced by the independent variable. Is preferred because Is more precise and gives more information, |i) Non Directional form is apposite of directional “Use of directional and non-cirectional depends on the ability to predict future relationship between variables, B)MulLene Alternative Hypothesis i) NullHypathesis (HO) “States that no relationship exists between variabes being studied nor significance cifference wll found between the treatment, Results of studied population group will nt show any diferences whatever factors will be measured Assumes that all groups are equal Does not reflect the researcher's expectations “Better fited 10 statsticel techniques and defines the mathematical mode! to be utilized sls the ariginl hypothesis -Is a positive hypothesis which assumes that everything is ok and not worth investigating ii) Alternative Hypothesis (HA) Reverse of HO “Can be either directional or non-directional-States that the differences shown in results reflect real sifferences between population groups, C) Prediction form Allows the researcher to state principles, laws, etc expected to merge from the study or experiment Mainly used in action research D) Declarative form States the relationship between the variables concerned 5 ‘Question form. ‘Ask whether there is a relationship between vatiables concerned, A RESEARCH PROPOSAL Isa research plan, which is a forrval written document that discusses the problem for research. Acts as a marketing tool to ina research process Isa description of work o be performed Helps to convince funding agencies to fund and support the research therefore sa persuasive tool which should be ‘actual, accurate and complete. Reveals the image, characteristics, qualifications, and ability ofthe researcher in doing the research process Organise ideas and thoughts of a research process and communicate these effectively Should be easy to understand and comprehensive, bein simple direct language and in writing. Unique terms be clearly defined Should be justified, be specific not vague Reveal what should be expected tram the rescerch that is its benefits to the funding agency Steps in Proposal writing 1. entity the need for research , that is, define the problem throught exploratory research techniques Critical analyze the need forthe project Plan and design the research Estimate the research casts and time Write a research proposal Characteristics of @ good research proposal j) Should communicate the importance of the research ii) Bears an idea that is worthwhile and account part of community problem iil) Should make it clear thatthe applicant has made a suitable approach to the prablem and that the plan of actions likely to succeed i) Should indicate that the research falls within the area of interest of the sponsor by being properly elimitated ¥) Should indicate the probable results of the proposed project results so as to justi the expected expenditure vi) Should indicate that the researcher has the required capabilities, knowledge ett of the area of research vil) Should clearly indicate the delimitation (scope) ofthe research project, Purpose of research proposal a) State the purpose of the study b) State how the research will be executed by: -Outlining research methodology to be used e.g. interviews Outlining in detail resources to be used that is time, finance, human, & materiala) Provides the researcher with a guideline in carrying out the research work ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 10, n 12 13, 4 Title ofthe research project. This should be specifie not general and not too broad, Should le not more than 15 words Background of the study: addresses the environment of the problem. It outlines the history of the company, its objects, and partially introduce the problem ‘Statement of the problem, The problem should be clearly defined, quantified, effects on ‘the operations of the organization should be highlighted, The research proposal should clearly, specifically and physically define the problem. The problem should be separated ‘rom symptoms ‘Sub- problems. Are problems contributing to the main problem. These can be framed in form of questions ‘Aim of the study.- what is to be achieved by the research. Alms developed from terms of reference of the research. sa broad goal of the research process. Objectives of the study ‘These chould be specific, measurable, attainable (achievable), realistic, and time bound hhence people talk of SMART objectives Hypothesis Thisis a tentative solution or answer othe problem. (Refer to detailed notes) ‘Assumptions are conditions taken for granted and on which the research depend on, Importance or significance of the study- relevance of the research should be highlighted both to the researcher and the client company. Are the benefits cf the study Delimitations of the study-refers to boundaries or scope of the research. Specifies what, who, when ete to be included in the research process Limitations are obstacles or difficulties to be faced in the research process. Definition of key terms ~ only unique terms are defined. Ordinary words or meanings are not necessary Review of related literature ~ categories of books to be used should be presented Research methodology. This discusses how the research is to be done. Discusses the processes the researcher uses to meet the stated research objectives, 2) Research design is « programme to guide the researcher in collecting, analyzing and interpreting g observed facts. The research designs to be used include: i) Exploratory research designs. These are case studies, depth studies, experience survey, secondary data analysis, and background analysis Ii) Conclusive research designs, which includes descriptive research design, experimental, quasi experimental evaluative research design18. 16 17. b) ) a e 9 hy i Cy These should be fully discussed and justified ‘Types of data required and to be sotirced should be clearly disclosed and Identified. These include Primary, secondary and tertiary. Data ean he qualitative or quantitative Sources of data, Researcher should identify and explain sources of required data. These should be clearly specified and quantified Data collection methods or plan. This refers to how the datais to be collected. Methods include interviews, observation and abstraction Interviews can be personal interviews (Face to face), mail interview (questionnaire) telephone or telephone interviews ete Observation can be mechanical or personal observation, which can be participant or non-particizant The researcher should identity and! justify methods to be used. Specify to whom, these are to be applied, how many ete Research instruments or tools. The researcher should explain the research instruments (tools) on which data is to be recorded during collection. These should be quantified; method of distribution (administration) cleared, and the subjects to who there are aciministered identified and quantified. The tools include questionnaire, interview schedule, observation form, and checklist, action forms, Population of study. The researcher should define the population of study, hich i refers to all elements or objects to be possibly considered in the study, Is the totality of subjects of investigation. Include both human beings and non-human beings Sampling frame isthe list of element of the population from which the sample is to be drawn. ‘Sampling versos Census, The researener defines whether is to use census (all Population elements) or sampling (part of the population) shoula justify the Feason for his or her option. For population elements more than 30, sampling canbe done. Sampling methods, The researcher to select, explain and justify the sampling Gesigns to be employed. Sampling methods are probability and non-probabilty. The objects (subjects) to which these are to be applied chould be specified. Should also explain how these are to be done that is sampling steps Determination of sample size. The researcher should specify how the sample size is ta be determined. This can be mathematical approach, judgmental ‘approach etc Sample size isa ist of sample elements. This should be indicated Data presentation and analysis ‘The researcher should ourine how data isto be presented (tables, graphs, charts] and statistical designs (computations) and ather tests to be applied on summarized data to test hypothesis Research Project budget Budget is a plain exoressed quantitatively. The proposal to include estimated project, costs, time for activities, human resources, and material resources Prepared by, approved and supervised by. There shoul be an indication of the person s who prepared, approved and supervised the proposalRESEARCH DESIGN isa plan of how to proceed in determining the nature of the relationship between variables Isa formal written set of specifications and procedures for conducting and controlling the research project. Is.a form of the framework or strategies ofthe entire research process, Act as a programme to guide the researcher in collecting, analyzing and interpreting observed facts relevant to the variables understudy ‘The researcher must decide and justify the research design after formulating the problem What isthe difference between research design and methodology? Research design depends on: -Value of the information provided by alternative courses of action -Reguirements of the research objectives and hypothesis Characteristics of & qood Research Design Should ensure that information obtained is relevant tothe research problem Should be capable of managing or detecting errors. Should collect data objectively and economically using less costing procedures ‘Types of Research designs Research designs can be classified into a) Exploratory research designs b) Conclusive research designs DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPLORATORY AND CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS. ISSUES. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH ‘CONGLUSIVE RESEARCH 1 Objectives To provide insights and understanding of | -To test specific hypothesis and examine a problem relationships To provide information for decision making 2Characteristies | -Information needed is loosely Information clearly defined defined Research process is flexible and Research process is formal and structured unstructured Sample is small and may not be a Sample is large and representative of the representative of the population Population Data analysis qualitative Data anaiysisis quantitative 3 Findings Tentative Findings are conclusive 40utcome Generally followed by exploratory Findings used as input is decision making Exploratory research may define hypothesis which is then tested by conclusive research, but a by-product Conclusive research may be a suggestion of new opportunity or a new problem. The following diagram suggests the process, VAGUE PROBLEMEXPLORATORY RESEARCH DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH PROBLEM CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH NEW IDEAS DECISION MAKING In summary, research design, can be defined as the arrangement of conditions for the collection, analysis and interpretation of data in a manner that aims to callect data relevant tothe problem, ‘A EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGNS All research projects of any significant scope must begin with exploratory research, This preliminary phase is absolutely essential in order to obtain a proper definition of the problem at hand. Exploratory research studies are nat characterized by formal research design, nor are there basically very scientific in nature. The purpose is to bring the central problem inte focus, -Used to gain ideas and insights. Insights is the capacity to understanding hidden truths especially of situations or characteristics “Useful in bresking broad, vague prablems statements into precise simple small and easy to understand ones. Objective is to provide insights and understanding of the problem, that is, to discover ideas, insights and tentative explanation of the problems Characteristics of exploratory research designs “Information is loosely defined Research process is flexible and unstructures Sample is small and not representative of the population Analysis of data is qualitative Often the front end of total research project Findings or Results of Exploratory research designs “Temporary or tentative Not applicable in decision making but in understanding the problem -Outeame is followed by further exploratory or conclusive research Exploratory designs are used for the following purposes Formulating or detining a problem for precise investigation “To develop hypotnesis. “To identify alternative courses of action when solving a prablem Establish priomties for further research -Isolate variables and relationships for further investigation“To gather information about the practical problems of carrying out research of particular issues: “To gain insights for developing an approach ta the problem “To clarity unclear concepts To familiarize the researcher with the problem Encourages the development of creative, alternative research strategies. Provides guidance as to how of the entire research programme, eg sampling methodology to use Actas a preliminary and used to lay down principles and theories COMMON TECHNIQUES OF CONDUCTING EXPLORATORY RESEARCH Secondary data analysis This refers to the process of searching for and interpreting existing information or existing literature relevant to the research problem, Ittakes the form of abstractions from research done by other researchers, publications in newspaper, journal and magazines, company reports ete Secondary data analysis is the core of exploratory research because there are many benefits of examining secondary data and the costs are less. Also known as literature search/ review/ survey Experience surveys or executive opinion or expert opinion This refers to gathering of information fram those thaught to he knowledgeable in the issues relevant to research problem. Taps the knowledge and experience ftom people familiar with a general subject being investigaied. It is in the form of interviews with people having knowledge about the general subject being investigated. Where discussions are held with company executives, executive opinion is obtained and where discussions are held with experts, expert opinion is obtained, The term expert is used in this context to include anyone with knowledge relevant to problem being addressed, 3. Case studies This refers to a reveal of available information about former situations having similarities to the research problem. Usually, there are few research problems that do not have some similarities to some situations in ‘the past. Even when the research problem deals with a radically new product, they are often similar past ‘experience which may be observed. By studying a small number of cases, itis possible to obtain a good understanding af the relevant characteristies that might be operating in a given decision, situation of the broad inter-relationship that might exist in specific decision situation, Since a case study is an in-depth investigation based on a small number of cases, it helps clarify the nature of the problem, identify relevant variables and show relationships between variables. The analysis of selected cases involves examining existing records, observing business activities and conducting unstructured interviews, 4. Focus groups These are small groups of people, about 6 to 12, brought together and guided by a moderator through an unstructured discussion for the purpose of gaining information relevant to the research problem. While @ focus group should encourage openness and everybody's participation no member must be allowed to dominate the group discussion ‘The moderatar’s task is to ensure that the discussion is focused an some general interest and cbjective of the research, while the conversation is free-wheeling, The purpose of a focus group is to learn what people think about some specific aspects of any business under research. Is a useful technique for gathering information from a limited sample of respondents, The information can be used to gather ideas or to gain some insights into basic needs and attitudes of respondents Screening questionnaires can be used to obtain information from focus group members. These‘questionnaires set qualifications a person must possess to be in the focus group, A discussion guide being as used as an agenda establishes the plan of the focus group interview, including topics to be covered and to some extent time allocation, ‘Advantages of focus groups ~ Allow the client to get frst hand, close-up picture of the largest population - Provide more complex answers about the set of relevantissues than a structured questionnaire ~ Ate flexible Disadvantages of focus groups = Itis impossible and expensive to assemble and reach geographically spaced petsons and working class. = Cannot provide hard and fast conclusions. = Can result in quarrelling if not controlled ~ Results cannot be projected to a whole population 4, Depth study/interview Often referred to as “One on One" Depth study isa form of exploratory research to gain insights and understanding of a problem, This ic done through an intensive unstructured, direct and personal interview in which a single respandent is probed by highly skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations beliefs, attitudes and feelings on sensitive issues or topics Useful when dealing with confidential, emotionally and embarrassing matters and when group interviews are dificult to schedule for the target population. The depth interviewer must follow the following rules: ~ Avoiding appearing superior or condescending ~ Use familiar words = Ask questions indirectly end informative + Donot accept “yes or No" answers = Should remain detached and objective 6. Projective techniques Is an exploratary technique in which participants are allowed ta project themselves into @ situation and then respond to specific questions regarding the situations. Used when respondents cannct can not or will not communicate their feelings and belief directly. This provides a structured questions format in which respondents can respond indirectly their own feelings and beliefs. The most common projective techniques are {2) Word association, Respondents are presented witha list af words, one at a time and asked to indicate what word comes immediately to minc. (b) Sentence completion. Respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence. (c) Unfinished scenario story completion. Respondents complete the end of a story (@) 3" persan or rale playing. Respondents are presented with situations and asked to relate to feelings ‘and beliefs of third person to the situation, rather than to express their own feelings and beliefs about the situation. {e) Cartoon completion test. Respondents are presented with a cartoon of particular situation and asked then to suggest a dialogue that cartoon character might make in response to the comments of another cartoon character‘T. Stuation investigation Consists of scanning or over viewing both the intemal environment and the external environment of the ‘organization to identify potential, political and practical consequences of the research project. Determine whether the research is being proposed to discredit on individual, to prove a point, to support a decision, postpone a decision ete = Result in @ description of possible research project boundaries on terms of broad time and dollar resource requirements. = Provides guidelines for further avenues of both formal and informal inquiry ~ Major purpase is to place a problem in perspective and this is accomplished by posing a service of * what if question” = Should conclude with an impact statement which self form one potential impact of one resulting information on one prablem, organization and its general environments. Back ground analysis |s a type of exploratory research that aims at generating ideas and insights about the problem. Can be carried out prior to, uring or after problem identification Background analysis activities require the researcher to understand the topic by undertaking extensive reading and participating in discussions with numerous individuals bath in and outside the organization. Case studies, experience surveys situational investigation and desk researches are considered to be background analysis activities. Enables the researcher to determine why and how the problem arose 2) CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGN Is & design with the major emphasis of demonstrating the true explanation of problem Iis objective isto test specific hypothesis and examine relationship between vatiables under investigation igs of Conclusi oh. Information needed is clearly defined Research process is formal and structured ie is guided by prineiples and procedures Sample is large and representative of the population -Data analysis is quantitative Findings of Conclusive research ‘Ate conclusive that is, final and used as input is decision making Types of conclusive research designs Conclusiveis classified depending on objectives as Descriptive Research, Experimental, Evaluative, Correlation and Historical research design A) Descriptive Research design lis objective is to have a clear and accurate description of characteristics and functions of variables relevant to the decision or problem being faced without necessarily demonstrating to what extends some relationship exists between ot among the variables Emphasis is on determining the frequency with which something occurs and extent to which two variables co-vary, which would only permit inferences being drawn about causation,