3 CONTOURING:
3.0 Introduction:
A complete map should show accurately relief of the ground. A good map should
represent the vertical dimensions accurately as it represents the horizontal dimension.
There are various methods of representing relief and the best method is the one, which
enables the user of the map to interpret the map as a model of the ground.
The methods are:
(a) By spot height- This is achieved by writing the reduced levels of point on the
map reduced with the reference datum.
(b) By hachure - These are lines representing a surface form but they do not
portray any information about the height.
(c) By hill shading: this form of relief representation is made by creating shadows
on one side of the hill as if light is shining from the other side.
(d) By contour lines - This is the most scientific method of showing the relief of
the ground. A contour line is an imaginary line drawn on a map to connect
points of equal elevation on the earth’s surfaces.
Uses of contour map:
1. Sections can be drawn along any line which is shown in plane.
2. Route lines of particular gradient can be traced on the map.
3. Intervissibility – The ability to see directly between two points can be
established by either drawing a section or by interpolation.
4. Earth works – Quantity of the earthwork involved in the various engineering
works can be computed with the help of contour map and rough cost estimates
prepared.
5. Determining/computing catchment area of the drainage basin.
3.1 Contour interval:
The vertical distance between two successive contours is known as contour interval while
the horizontal distance between these contours is known as the horizontal distance or
horizontal equivalent.
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The choice of a particular contour interval depends up on the following:
(a) Nature of the terrain
(b) Purpose of survey
(c) Scale of the map (the smaller the scale of the map, the greater the contour
interval). If the contour interval is smaller the amount of field and office work
involved will be greater.
(d) The time and cost for carrying out the survey
3.2 Characteristics of contours:
(i) All points on a contour have the same elevation.
(ii) A contour line cannot simply end. It must close back on itself either within or beyond
the limits of the map.
(iii)Contour lines of different elevations will never cross each other except in the case of
an overhanging cliff and there must be two intersections.
(iv) A contour can never splits into two lines and also two contour lines of the same
elevations cannot unite and continue as one line.
(v) Spacing of contours also gives an idea about the topography:
(a) Uniformly spacing of contours indicates uniform gradient.
(b) Closely spaced contours indicate steep slope.
(c) Widely spaced contours indicate flat slope or gentle slope.
(vi) The direction of the steepest slope at a point on a contour is always at right angles to
the contour.
3.3.0 Methods of contouring:
Plotting of the contours on the maps involve both the horizontal and vertical
measurements. The methods normally employed can be classified as:
(1) Direct method
(2) Indirect method
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3.3.1 DIRECT METHOD:
In this method the contour lines to be plotted on the map are actually traced on the
ground i.e. first the various points lying on a contour are located on the ground and they
are plotted on the map by surveying.
The procedures are as follows:
(a) Establish a temporary Benchmark at the site by fly leveling.
(b) Set up the level near the temporary Benchmark and determine the elevation or the
line of sight by taking back sight on the T.B.M.
(c) From this calculate the reading to be observed on the staff for various contours
within the range of the level.
(d) First trace out the contour on the ground by directing the staff man up hill or down
hill till the required reading is sighted. Arrows carrying chit for the contour value
fix all the points on the contour.
(e) Similarly other contours are located and then they are surveyed by plane table
survey, chain survey, or by other means i.e. horizontal measurements to enable
plotting of the various contours. To avoid confusion the pegs for a particular
contour are referenced
3.3.2 INDIRECT METHOD:
In this method spot levels of various points, which are easily accessible by the staff man
are taken and the contour of particular value interpolated based on the assumption that the
ground is uniformly sloping between two points whose spot levels have been taken. The
method is done in one of the following methods.
(a) Locating contour by cross-section.
This method is employed for preparing contour map for roads, railway lines, canal
projection etc. The cross-sections are set out at right angle to the traverse line or a base
line to cover the whole site. The spot levels of the various points on these lines are taken
at regular intervals unless warranted by abrupt change in levels.
(b) Locating contours by grid lines
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If the area to be contoured is not very extensive and the terrain not rugged, then the
contouring of the area can be done by dividing the area into squares and then finding out
the spot levels at the corner of each squares and then the contours are interpolated. Pegs
can fix the corners of the squares; all the squares need not be of the same size. This
method is only practicable where the ground is not rough.
(c) Radiating lines.
Rays are set out on the ground from a central point, the directions being known. Levels
are taken along these lines at measured distances from the center. Again interpolation is
used to give the contour line. The method is suitable for rough terrain.
(d) Tacheometric method
In hilly area the contouring by ordinary levels is a very slow process and proves both
sluggish and uneconomical. In this case the tacheometric method is used.
3.4.0 Interpolation of contours:
Interpolation is the process of locating in plan or map any required level along a line
joining two known levels. The interpolation of contours is based on the assumption that
the ground is uniformly sloping between two points whose spot levels have been taken.
The various methods of interpolation are:
3.4.1Mathematically:
The positions of the contours are interpolated mathematically from the reduced levels by
simple proportions e.g. a 92m contour passes some where between stations A and B with
reduced level 90.7 and 92.5 respectively. The location of the 92m contour is calculated as
follows.
Horizontal distance between A and B =D
Difference in level between A and B = h2 =92.5 - 90.7=1.8m
Difference in level between station A and the 92m contour = h1= 92 - 90.7=1.3m
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Therefore: Horizontal distance from A to the 92 (d) contour is calculated as,
h1 xD 92 − 90.7 1.3
d= = x 20 = x 20 = 14.4 92 h2=1.8
h2 [Link] 1.8
h1= 1.3
A B
d
D
3.4.2 Graphically.
(a) Scaling
The positions of contours are located by scaling between the known levels using the
principle of proportions.
(b) Parallel lines method
A number of parallel lines at equal intervals are drawn on a tracing paper, each fifth or
tenth line is made thicker the tracing paper is positioned over the line to be interpolated.
The interpolated points are then easily and quite precisely interpolated as illustrated in the
figure 2.1.
(c) Radial line method:
This method consists of a tracing paper on which a number of equally spaced radiating
lines are plotted. The line to be interpolated must lie parallel to the base line. The points
to be interpolated are picked through the paper (fig.2.2).
3.4.3 Comparison of the methods:
(a) Direct contouring is accurate but due to excessive amount of fieldwork it is often not
adopted.
(b) Indirect contouring is most commonly used because is the quicker method and
provides contours with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes.