Introduction to Data Communications and Networking

● Data Communications
○ Process of exchanging data between a source and a receiver
○ Conveying data or information
○ Information in one direction - unidirectional (sender to receiver)
■ Simplex
○ Information in two direction - bidirectional
■ Full-duplex
● Telephone
■ Half-duplex
● One direction at a time
● Walkie talkie
● RF units are setup that when you setup the push to talk the receiver is disabled
● Basic Model for Data Communications
○ Involves only two participants
■ Protocol
● Language we used
● Part of the protocol may allow the automatic translation
○ Point to point communication system
○ Medium vs. Channel
■ They are the same
■ Medium
● used to denote that part of your point to point communication system
● Physical Channel
■ Channel - generic term, that refers to as the mechanism or the path where data flow through
● Virtual channel
■ As an end user
● Components involved
○ Browser
○ Server
■ Autonomous software implementation
○ Two software communicating with each other
○ You can treat the browser and server as sender or receiver
○ You cannot consider the browser and server as medium, but a channel since there is not
physical component
○ Transactional type of interaction
■ Data Networks
● Setting up data links between two entities
■ Expanded Model of Point to point Communication System

■ Transmission System
● Can be simple
● Complex
○ I.e. internet
■ Expanding it more

■ PCN
● Method that allows you to send analog in digital format
● Digital - information in the form of bits
● ASCII codes - falls under the format block
■ Source Encode
● Hide the content of your information
■ Encrypt
● Hide the content of your information
● Information system employs protocol
● No such thing as security by obscurity
● Normally rely on the use of standards
○ Standards - Allow interoperability
■ Channel Encoding
● Allow to maximize the success of communications
 ● Employing knowledge about the corruption or noise
■ Multiplexing
● Allows the maximize the use of a bandwidth
● Maximize the use of high bandwidth medium by allowing simultaneous voice signals
● Allows normal voice telephony
● Allows creation of multiple data paths
■ Pulse Modulation/ Baseband Modulation
● Converts data to bits
○ Manchester
● Does not make use of carrier
■ Bandpass Modulate
● Makes use of carrier
● Frequency division multiplexing makes use of bandpass modulation
■ Frequency Spread
● Spread spectrum - mobile communications utilizes this
○ Allow the creation of multiple channels so more than one
○ Multiple access - grants access to multiple user
● What is network
○ Data Network (network) - collection of communicating entities and devices that allow this entities to communicate
■ Set of interconnected devices that can connect with one another
■ The internet is a big data network
● You can have PCs, CPs, as communication endpoints
■ Routers
● Set of interconnected devices (example)
○ Drawing Time

■ Internet is a cloud that allows interconnected devices

■ Browser can connect to the internet cloud to the server
■ Any of the nodes is end points
■ End communicating nodes is considered as transmission network
○ Transmission Network (TN)
■ Set of interconnected intermediate communication devices allowing end devices to send data to each
other
■ Intermediate communication devices (ICD)
● Routers
○ Interconnect smaller network together
○ Allows one end node to have a connection with another end node
● Intermediate communicating devices that allow other intermediate communication devices to
communicate with each other
● Internet
○ We have different ISP providers
● Form part of the transmission network (ICDs)
○ Computer Network
■ Set of computers by one or more transmission networks so that they can send data between each other
● What A TN can do
○ Set up data communications channel between each other
○ Establish data channel between each other
○ Source - Browser; Receiver - Server
■ Establish a data channel through the internet server
● Example of a P-P link via a TN
○ Cloud Implementation

○ There’s only one user, the one operating the browser

○ User
■ The one supplying the input
 ○ Link between two handheld devices
○ Repeater Network
■ TN allowing P-P links to be established between endpoints
○ Another example of Cloud Implementation

● Public telephone network

○ Setup an analog p-p link, that is the voice channel
○ Not designed to send data, designed to send voice
○ Add modem in order to send data as part of your set of devices
○ Case for telephone modem communication
■ Establish a phone link and data link
■ We have a data network, we essentially send analog voice info through a digital network
○ PSTN provide analog communication links
● P-P link via link
○ TN is a SONET network

■
■ R - Repeaters
■ T - networks
■ Networks allows any points to act as a source and receiver
○ TN is an IP Network

■
■ Internet allows the setup of any p-p link
■ Communicate from browser to server, it is a p-p link
■ The internet is very flexible transmission network that can setup any p-p communication link
■ One point can send data to all, and single point as destination of multiple sources
■ routers interconnect networks
■ The line connecting one router to another is actually a network
● Two-wire vs Four-wire
○ Two-wire
■ Allows bidirectional communication using one pair of conductors
○ Four-wire
 ■ Circuits use separate pairs of conductors for each direction
○ In PSTN

■
■ Based on the figure
● Hybrid circuit
● Converts four wire to two wire

■
● PC is a DTE
● Modems actually make use of two different carriers one in each direction
● DTE - data terminal equipment
● DCE - data communications equipment or data circuit-terminating equipment
● Two carriers have two data channels that will act as four wire circuit
○ Virtual four wire circuit
○ Can be virtual or physical

●
○ When you local exchanges you have switches
○ Switches establish physical connections between devices
● Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching
○ Circuit
■ Path for signals or data
■ Physical
■ Virtual
■ Only two can use a certain circuit
■ Dedicate links to two communication processes
■ Demands use of dedicated lines
○ Multiplexing
■ FMD
 ■ TDM
○ Packet switching
■ Makes use of shared connections
■ Do not allocate shared links, use those links during the transmission of chunks of data

○
■ In order to allow multiple people to use, multiple channels must be established
○ PSTN uses circuit-switching to establish a connection from one node to another
■ A circuit (physical or virtual) must be established before info transfer takes place
■ The same path is used for the entire duration of the communications session (dedicated)
○ Packet Switching
■ Internet and other computer networks use this type of switching
■ Persistent circuit is not necessary for duration of communications
■ Data is broken down into chunks (packets) and each piece is sent through the network
■ Each packet may take various paths through the network
■ Packet may arrive out of sequence
■ Packets may use different speeds of transfer
■ Data is broken down into chunks (packets) and each piece is sent through the network
■ Each packet may take various paths through the network

■ Will send chunks as long as there are different paths available

■ Allows more users to gain access compared to the circuit switching
○ Message Switching
■ Involves breaking the information into larger chunks
■ Between the two person for every message there is one dedicated circuit per text message
■ You can share the network
■ If there is an error you have to resend the entire message
○ Connection - oriented vs. Connectionless
■ Communication over the PSTN is connection-oriented
■ Communication over the internet is either connection-oriented or connectionless
■ Connection oriented
● Before sending a data, you need to establish a formal connection first
■ Connectionless
● You don't have to make a formal request, just send
 Introduction to Data Communications and Networking - Synchronization
● Synchronization
○ Refers to the process of aligning the transmission of data generally with respect to time
○ Asynchronous versus synchronous
○ Plesiochronous vs mesochronous vs isochronous
● Asynchronous
○ Transmission does involve strict timing between receiver and transmitter clocks
○ Data does not have to be transmitted at regular intervals
○ There is still timing
○ You are not required to have consistent timing
● Synchronous
○ Transmission involve strict timing between receiver and transmitter clocks
○ Must be highly synchronized
● Transmitter clocks and receiver clocks are separate clocks
● Clocks Must be in phase and with same frequency
● Receiver must be able to decode the data sent by the transmitter
● Decoding the bits
○ Transmitting a 1 or 0, it must be converted to a symbol
■ Manifested by the rising edge or trailing edges
● Asynchronous Transmission
○ Data is transmitted in chunks and the time interval between chunks is variable
○ Receiver has no clock that tries to align in phase and frequency to the transmitter clock
○ UART/R1232 transmits one byte at a time

○
○ Start bit is essential in decoding a UART frame
○ UART can have variable timing between bytes sent
○ Sample signaling sequence with two characters F’s transmitted
○ Same baud rate must exist between the receiver and transmitter
● Synchronous transmission
○ Clock governs how the data is shifted out
○ Data is transmitted as a continuous stream of data
○ Aligned with a timing signal usually from a clock generator
○ Duration of a symbol is governed by the clock at the receiver
○ Data arrives at the receiver as steams of symbol elements
■ Translate to streams of bits inputted to the receiver
■ Receiver must be able to distinguish how many are carried by those voltage levels
○ Important that the receiver clock is perfectly synchronized of the transmitter clock
○ How do you get the clock synchronized with the transmitter clock
■ The receiver reconstructs the clocking signal
■ A separate time ckt to synchronize the transmitter clock and receiver
● Self clocking code
● Synchronous Serial Communications
○ Manchester encoding is a self-clocking line coding scheme where a clock signal is regenerated at the receiver
side
○ Manchester requires more bandwidth, expensive
● Bit-synchronization vs Frame synchronization
○ Bit-synchronization
■ Used to distinguish between one bit to another
■ Key to synchronization is to have a receiver clock in sync with the transmitter clock
○ Frame synchronization
■ Used to distinguish one frame from another in a give stream of data
■ Group of bits or bytes that represent a full message or just a chunk of it
■ Packet switching makes use of frames for each chunk of data sent
■ Alternative names for frames: packet, protocol data unit (PDU), datagram
■ Requires bit synchronization, you must distinguish one bit to the another
■ Frame synchronization is making sense of the data sent
 ■ Information are related to one another
■ If its partial data, it will ignore the entire frame and move on to the next
■ Error correction processes, receiver should know if its receiving the first frame or the second frame
■ Distinguish between one channel and another using frames
■ Sort out the output of the incoming frames using multiplexing
○ Frame format example

■
○ Preamble
■ Contains a bit or byte patterns for synchronization of the receiver clock
■ Provide enough transitions in its patterns
■ At the end of the preamble the receiver is synchronized with the transmitter clock
○ Start-of-frame / end-of-frame delimiters
■ Bit or byte patterns to indicate start or end of frame
○ Protocol information (typically the header)
■ Header
● Set of data that allows the protocol to work properly
● Can determine on how many bytes the payloads contains
○ Data
○ Error Detection/ Correction information
■ You calculate the crc based on the date you to protect (from SOF to EOF)
■ Allows the receiver to recognize if the data corrupted
■ Eof is often used for different protocols
○ USB Framing Example

■
■ Must be a certain count to consider start of packet
○ CAN bus Framing Example

■
● Frame Synchronization
○ Frames are recognized through predefined bit/byte patterns in the frame
○ Requires to recognize the frame

○ FCS is similar to CRC

● Byte oriented protocol Versus bit oriented protocol.
○ Byte oriented protocol
■ Uses full bites as control codes.
■ Bite patterns are used to distinguish frames.
○ Bit oriented protocol

■ Uses bit patterns instead of bytes. Example HDLC.

○ The format within the given free may vary
○ The difference between a byte oriented versus bit [Link] oriented is by bite pattern, bit oriented is by
Sequence of bits.
○ Bit oriented is more flexible
○ Frame Example: Ethernet Frame

■
■ Payload - data you are actually sending
 Introduction to Data Communications and Networking - Communication Devices
● Data Communications Devices
○ DCE (data communications equipment) vs DTE (data terminal equipment)
■ Device that produces or consumes data you are sending
■ PC is DTE to connect to the internet you must use DCE
■ Router is a DCE
○ DTE - data source or sink
○ DCE - interfaces the DTE to the transmission circuit or channel

○ RS232 - physical signaling protocol for asynchronous serial communications

■ Uses UART, asynchronous transmission methodology
○ DTE

■
■ Terminal Device part of the motherboard
○ UART setups the transmission protocol
○ RS232 setups the voltages, etc.
○ RS232 defines the control signals that can be used to manage the signals
○ Applications Program Processor
■ Responsible for managing the connection and exchange of data with other DTE via the DCE.
○ Line Control Unit
■ Access interface between one or more terminal devices in the APP and UART.
○ Terminal Devices
■ Data Source or Sink
○ Example of Traffic Control
■ If the terminal device needs to send the data, it will signal when it can
○ CSU/ DSU
■ CSU connected to the network side
■ DSU connected to the DTE
■ A DCE can be a modem or CSU/DSU set
■ Data Service Unit
● Responsible for managing the connection to the DTE.
■ Communication Service Unit
● responsible for the connection to the telecommunications network.
■ Modem
● Modulator / demodulator
● CSU and DSU combination
■ Example of a CSU/DSU unit
 ● A device example router that converts land data into a form suitable for connection to a WAN and
vice versa.
● Modems
○ Telephone modem - Used two talents. Meet digital data through a bandwidth limited analog channel.

○
○ To be able to send date you have to modulate data that can propagate through the voice channel
○ Analog network is the PTSN
● Telephone Modem Standards

○
● DSL Modem
○ Digital Subscriber Line Modem - Allows data communications from the telco using a telephone line as a means to
connect to the Internet.
● ADSL modems Also perform bandpass modulation based on discrete multitone.
○ Used in ADSL.
■ Subscriber can have bandwidth up to 1.1 Mhz
● But limited by some components for voice comms
■ Channel spectrum is split into sections

■
○ ADSL DMT block diagram
 ■
● Collection of multiple QAM modems
○ Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
■ Allows multiple channels to be transmitted in a single link
■ General Setup

■
■ Bidirectional - you can multiplexers on either ends
■ SONET can be used to link one router in the internet to another
○ Inverse Multiplexing
■ Allows multiple existing channels to create a single faster link
■ High Speed channel

■
● Concentrator
○ Multiple inputs into a single data stream
●
 Data Network

● Data Network
○ Is [Link] order presented in many ways, but [Link] definition revolves [Link] one or more
[Link] can't communicate with one another, so last time introduced the term
○ Collection of nodes and network core components that would allow the nodes to communicate with one another
● Transmission Network
○ Collection of intermediate devices that will allow other devices to connect with each other
● Network Core
○ Links end nodes with one another
● Intermediate Node
○ Can reside inside the cloud e.g. router
● Computer Network
○ Network of computers
● Why build a network computer

○
○ You can interconnect other servers like printers
○ Interconnect for multiple clients to share resources and peripherals
● The internet
○ Is a network of networks not only of computers but a variety of devices
○ Higher level ISPs will contain higher level
○ Routers does not interconnect devices, they interconnect networks
● Uses of CNs
○ Resource Sharing
■ Hardware
■ Data
○ Etc
● Grid (parallel) computing
○ Folding @ home
■ Crowd-sourced supercomputing
■ Network of GPUs, sony playstations, compatible, smartphones
■ For simulation of protein folding
■ 470 petaflops as of Mar 2020
○ Data Crunching
○ Employ calculations over different processors that can run simultaneously
○ Many computers trying to connect to a server
● Factory Automation Network
 ○
○ Manage an entire process so they can be coordinated
● Sensor Network Example

○
○ Detection of Forest Fires
○ Global warming is a driver for large sensor networks
● Home Automation / Network

○
● Network Applications
○ Are applications that make use of network communication
○ Typical Architecture
 ■ Client-Server
● Connect to a web server, there is a server that clients connect to
■ Peer-peer
● Collaborative games, bit torrent
● Not perfectly private
■ Hybrid
● Combination of peer-peer and client-server
■ Centralized vs distributed
● Problem with centralized, if it goes down you lose the server
○ Relevant Terms
■ Network programming
■ Socket Programming
● Interface that allows other computers to connect to you
● Categories of Networks
○ By type of media
■ Wired
■ Wireless
○ By Coverage
■ LAN
■ Metropolitan Area Networks
■ Wide AN
■ Home Networks
■ Personal AN
■ Internetwork

○
○ LAN
■ As small as two computers
■ Laboratory with network computers
■ Can be a network within a building or between several buildings
○ Wide Area Network
■ Internet is the ultimate WAN
○ MAN
■ Network that spans a metro area using MAN connectivity technologies
○ Storage Area Network
■ Provide a network dedicated for the optimum storage and delivery of data
■ Cloud storage
● Google Drive
○ Virtual Private Network
■ Private network connected through a public network
 ■
■ Public network - internet
○ Intranet vs Extranet
■ Intranet VPN
● Network that is residing in premise area
■ Intranet
● Private network but accessible inside the premises
○ Other Networks
■ Campus Area Network
● Essentially a local area network
● Not to be confused with Controller AN
■ Personal Area Network
● A network, typically of devices centered around the user
■ Wireless PAN
● Typical implementation of a PAN
■ Sensor Networks
● Specialized network of devices typically used for monitoring
● PAN/WPAN example

○
● Internet of Things (IoT)
○ Network of physical devices, vehicles, buildings and so on embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and
network connectivity that enable these object to collect and transmit data via the internet
● Network Topologies
○ Structure of interconnecting devices

○
○ Bus topology
■ is only applicable to LANs
○ Tree topology
■ There is a central node
 ■ Branches
■ Full connectivity to the different nodes
○ Ring topology
■ Goes in one direction
■ Devices that link different stations to the ring
■ Every connection requires a node (repeater)
■ There are two ring
○ Star topology
■ Common
■ There’s a central hub
■ You can add another hub
● Need for hierarchical network structure
○ Flat structure for building a network
● Cisco Hierarchical Network Model
○ Extended Star

○
○ Core layer (backbone)
■ Responsible for reliably and quickly transporting large amounts of traffic
○ Distribution Layer (Workgroup layer / Routing)
■ routing , filtering, WAN access, core layer access
○ Access Layer (desktop layer/ switching)
■ Provides and control user access to network resources
■ Workgroup connectivity to distribution layer
■ Segmentation
● Structure of the Internet

○
○ Tier-1 ISP - major provider
○ Tier-2 ISP
 ○
○ Cloud is the connection of all end nodes
● Access Networks
○ Connects end host to the network core
○ Provides connectivity between the residential LAN to the internet
○
● Residential Access
○ Dial-up modem via public switched telephone network
○ DSL
○ Cable Broadband
○ Wireless Broadband (Wimax, etc)
○ Fiber based - replacement to DSL
● Access within enterprise LANs
○ Ethernet / IEEE 802.3
○ Wifi
○ Inside enterprise LAN bigger network
○ More LAN access of the participants within the LAN
● Purpose of Cable TV
○ Distribution of TV
● WAN Technologies
○ Network of networks
○ Core Internet is linked by the Tier 1 Networks
○ There’s alway router that links one network to another
■ There is a link between any 2 routers that is referred to WAN technologies
○ Links the components of the internetwork core
○ Includes
■ X.25
● Started packet switching
■ Frame Relay
●
■ ISDN, BISDN
● ISDN
○ Successor to the analog
○ Low bandwidth compared to BISDN
■ ATM
● Makes use of sonet/ sdh
● Switching technology
■ SONET/ SDH
● Transport technology
● Sonet - american standard
● SDH - european standard
 Introduction to Data Communications and Networking - Networking Devices
● Networking Devices

○
● Networking Devices
○ The technology that implements the smaller devices
● Internetworking Devices
○ LANs
○ In banks, in ATMs they use WAN technologies
■ Before they use similar to telephone lines
● Protocol Architecture

○
○ Basics subdivision of functionality
■ Left Side of the picture
● Applications are where the browsers and servers are found
■ Repeater
● Least intelligent networking device
■ Gateway
● Proxy server
○ You set your browser
○ Part of the application
● Network Interface Devices
○ Basic way of connecting to the LAN
○ Data Link Layer
● Network Devices
○ Repeaters
■ Physical layer device used to interconnect the media segment of an extended network

■
■ There is a limit to the physical distance between one point and another
■ Extend the range beyond the range of a typical network adapter card
■ Regenerator, refreshes the quality of the signal
 ■
■ Regenerate signals corrupted primarily due to distance effects
■ Non-intelligent device
■ Sample use-cases
● Wifi
● Wired
○ Most common with wired
■ Increases the size of the network
○ Hub
■ Multiport repeater
■ Physical layer device that connects multiple user stations each via a dedicated table
■ Used to create a physical star network while maintaining the logical or ring configuration of the lan
■ Can be considered as multiport repeater
■ Other stations can hear what one is sending
○ Bridge
■ Data-link layer device that links one LAN segment to another
● Read all frames transmitted on one LAN and accept those address to any station on the other
LAN
● Using MAC protocol for second LAN, retransmit each frame

●
■ Links two star networks
■ Will not hear the transmission, limit type of transmission
■ If there is traffic Intended for one side, it will not be broadcasted to the other side
■ Provides filtering
■ Link between different protocols
■ Filtering repeater
○ Switch
■ Merger of the hub and bridge function
■ Physical & data-link layer device that looks like a hub but is capable of filtering
● Filtering rules allow lan segmentation.
■ Modern replacement for bridges. (multiport bridges)
■ Can also be configured to function as a hub.

■
■ Prevents the concept of broadcast introduced by the repeaters and hubs
■ Intelligent enough
○ Router
■ Is a network layer device that forwards packets in internetwork using an optimal route
 ■
■ If you know your gateway and network address, you will know that the destination is outside the network
in that case the computer will forward the information to the router
■ Multiport device
■ It will decide to send to the destination network instead of the destination device
○ Gateway
■ Is a (Multilayer, including upper OSI layers) device that interconnects heterogeneous networks that
operate on different communication architecture or protocols

■
■ Provides access between two or more networks
■ Internet cloud is the domain of the router
■ Gateway can perform translation of the entire protocol suite
■ Proxy server
● Uses all layers but focuses on the application layer
● Provide as gateway for web traffic
 Protocol Architecture
● Protocols
○ Many different kind of hardwares can talk to one another
○ Protocols
■ Collection of rules or standard
■ Shared conventions for communicating information
■ Allows entities from different systems to communicate
○ Protocols Specify
■ Syntax
● Data Format and Signal levels
■ Semantics
● What data means and what to do with it. Flow control
■ Timing
● Speed match, and sequencing
● Protocol Architecture
○ Specifies how a protocol is organized and implemented
● Two approaches
○ Monolithic (single module)
○ Modular
● Modular Approach
○ Breaks complex tasks into subtask
○ Each module handles specific subset of tasks
○ Communication occurs
■ Between different modules on the same system
■ Between similar modules on different systems
○ Easier application development
○ Network can change without all programs being modified
○ Communication Functionality
■ Sub Functions
● Tasks do be done to have two nodes communicate with one another
■ Application Programming Interface
● Define of functions
● Layered Protocol Architecture
○ Common way of modularizing protocols is the use of a layered architecture
■ The protocol implementation is organized into layers
■ Each layers as a module
■ Entities or objects within a layer is viewed as communicating with peers (same layer)
○ The higher the layer the the higher the obstruction
○ Browser resides at the highest layer- application layer
■ You can run a telnet server in the application layer
○ A layer is a module
○ For a particular module
○ Wifi and ethernet are layer 2 and ethernet functions
○ Virtual medium allows communication [Link] arrow between layer N to layer n.
○ The medium does not know the details, they just know how to send.
○ Protocol Entities
■ Browser
■ Server
○ Solid arrowheads - represent physical connection
○ Dash Arrowheads - virtual connection
● Layered Protocol Architecture Example
○ OSI Model
■ 7 models

■
■ Physical
● physical transfer occurs, actual electrical signal gets sent
● It doesn't have any idea if its a part of a frame or not
● Transfer in the form of frames
■ Data-link
● Lowest layer of framing
 ● End to end will be able to transfer
● Setting up the link between the PC and the router
■ Network
● Delivering
● In order for your pc to deliver information to a server it needs to get past
● It is the responsibility of the network layer to determine how to deliver.
■ Transport Layer
● One VM Responsible for setting up the Virtual link between the client software and server
software in order to provide horizontal communication
■ Session
● Setting up the link provided by the transport layer
● There is a request and an acknowledgement
■ Presentation layer
● Responsible for Encryption
● Translation of character code
● Protocol setup so there’s automatic translation
■ Application
● Provide service and access to the service in the form of the clients
● OSI and TCP/IP Layered Models

○
● Protocol Suite Functions
○ Network protocols provide for the following common data communications functions and are implemented across
the layers.
■ Encapsulation
● Framing
● Data from one side is encapsulated by a layer as part of it frames
● PDU - format specific to the layer
● Upper PDU becomes the data of the lower layer
■ Segmentation and reassembly
● Part of packet switching
● Send data in terms of chunks
● Breaking data
■ Connection control
● Layer 4
● Setting up the link during the duration of the communication
■ Ordered delivery
● Different pathway
● No guarantee that all layers arrive at the same
■ Flow control
● Related to error control and timing
■ Error control
● Sending acknowledgement
● The server needs to acknowledge
■ Addressing
● IP address for layer 3
● MAC address for layer 2
■ Multiplexing
● In order for a browser to send to a browser
● The link between the HR and ISP router is definitely multiplexed
■ Transmission services
● Host of things including bandwidth control
● Layered Operation Analogy
○

○
○

○
 Protocol Architecture - OSI Protocol Stack
● Layered Protocol Architecture Example
○ Intermediate nodes do not perform the entire protocol
○ Routers only perform Network layer and below
○ Web server function it implements the entire
○ If you have an application layer process, that requires the layers below to be implemented as well
● OSI Protocol Suite
○ 7-layer protocol
○ It explains everything that happens in a TCP/IP model
■ How internet works
■ It can explain how different communication system works
● Open Systems Interconnection Model
○ The lower layers - provide virtual Channel
○ The server for the browser and the server just exchange messages
○ The upper layer - maintains the connection and interface between web server to the virtual channel
○ Session layer - mechanism to allow the setup of the virtual link

○
● OSI Reference Model
○ DEEPEN SLIDE
_______ FROM MAV - (one more episode)
Layered Protocol Architecture
● Popular examples of the layered architecture of the OSI model and TCP/IP
● The stack defines the relationship between the different modules that implement the functionality of data network to allow
network communication
● Concept of protocol stack applies to the different nodes in the system
● Intermediate nodes do not implement the entire protocol stack. The functions they have are just to forward traffic at the
network layer (network - data link - physical)
● It depends on the function of the node how many layers are involved
● Endpoints typically implement the protocol stack
● Forward traffic at the network layer
○ Router function only implement the network, data link, and physical
● Webserver function of the home router box implements the entire layers
● Layered architecture starts from the bottom to the top
● Application needs communication over the internet
● The lower layers implements the means for this applications to talk to one another
● Network applications are typically bidirectional in terms of communication needs, thus tx and rx at either ends
○ Lower layers provides the virtual links that exists between applications
OSI Protocol Stack
● Seven layer protocol stack
● Depicts structure of how comms over network is implemented
● De jure standard; the orig developers of this model were hoping that people would use this to implement networking
protocols that will run the internet now, but TCP/IP was the one adopted universally
● Explains pretty much everything that happens in a TCP/IP communications process, can explain how other data
communication works, it just depends on how many layers are involved
● Walkie talkie is only up to Data link
● Every communications system can be explained by OSI model
● Lower layers provide the virtual channel, setting up the link, and responsible for sending data from the upper layer to the
other side.
● Upper layers maintains the connection and the interface of the web server to the virtual channel
● The layers have to talk to adjacent layers
● Service access points -- interface points in the vertical linking of adjacent layers
● Example of service access point is the port number associated with the network application (eg port 80 -- port between
two network applications web browser and server)
● There could be more than one layer in a protocol, example Data link layer can employ ethernet and wifi, and another set
of protocol such as mobile access
● There are horizontal communications happening between layers in relation to the protocols being used
● TCP/IP application layer is at layer 5
● OSI application layer is at layer 7
● If the browser would be exchanging requests and replies with the server, it will be the browser that will be initiating the
communication, talking using the horizontal communications channel
● To send an actual packet, the actual flow of information will be going downward
● Session layer does not actually send data, it only negotiates
● Everytime it passes through the next level, it is possible that additional traffic needs to be initiated between the two

● Transport layer → data pipe

● Network layer → forwards data to intermediate nodes
● Data and Physical layer -- actual channel for data to be sent between nodes; link between nodes
● PDU - Protocol Data Unit
● Presentation layer is already part of application layer
● Session is part of Transport layer
● User space ← programmer
● A lot of protocol stack is implemented by software; makes it easy to hack
● ARP poisoning -- instead of traffic being delivered to intended destination, it might be delivered to another system
● Hardware part ← routing

● Layers
○ Application Layer
■ Interface to user
■ Network services reside here
■ Communications at this layer are messages between network applications
■ Interface between application programs and osi environment
■ Management functions and other useful mechanisms for distributed applications support
■ Ex
● HTTP, FTP
○ Presentation Layer
■ Deals primarily with formatting of data
● Encryption
● Language
● Format
■ Format of data to be exchanged between applications
■ Defines syntax used between application entities
■ Provides for selection and modification of the representation used
■ Data compression and encryption
○ Session Layer
■ Responsible for setting up and maintaining a transport link between the end nodes
■ Partially implemented in TCP/IP transport and application layers
■ negotiates between the two to create a virtual channel
○ Transport layer
■ Provides data transmission services between network applications with the help of session and
presentation layers
■ Provinces process-to-process communication
■ Transfer the bulk of the data
■ Mechanism for exchange of data between end systems
■ Ensures that data are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplication
■ May optimize the use of network services
■ Provides a requested quality of service to session entities, based on acceptable error rates, maximum
delay, priority, and security
■ Size and complexity depend on the reliability of underlying layers
○ Network Layer
■ Provides delivery of PDU(s) from one host to another typically through intermediate nodes
■ Provides host to host delivery services
■ Transfers information across communications network, performing switching and routing functions
■ Hides underlying data transmission and switching technologies
■ Highest layer in a network node
■ Systems could be connected across a single network, using circuit switching or packet switching
techniques
● Ex. packet level of X.25 standard
■ In direct point-to-point network there is no need for network layer as data link layer manages the link
○ Data Link Layer
■ Provides delivery of Layer 2 PDU(s) between nodes
● Intermediate
● End-node
■ Provides node to node delivery services
○ Physical Layer
■ Provides physical transmission and reception of Layer 2 PDU(s) between nodes
■ Identifies the rules to physically pass bits from source to destination (raw bit stream service) via hardware
■ Four important characteristics
● Mechanical
○ Physical properties of the interface to transmission medium
● Electrical
○ Representation of bits in terms of voltage levels
○ Data transmission rates
● Functional
○ Functions of individual circuits of physical interface between a system and transmission
medium
● Procedural
○ Sequence of events by which bit streams are exchanged
● Whatever is needed to be sent by the application layer is fed to the end of the transport layer, and from there, it will be
delivered to the other side of the transport layer
● There is no such thing as an actual link between layers, just a virtual link
● The role of the data in the physical is to implement the mechanism, the actual channel, for the data to be sent between
nodes
● Entity implements the process that makes use of a particular protocol at a particular layer
● Data is passed in a form known as the PDU (Protocol Data Unit)
○ PDU is the rein that gets exchanged between layer
●
 ● Hardware implements many of the function using Linux
○ Has a concept of virtual router, thus performs routing

OSI Reference Model: Primitives

● Primitives
○ Request - issued by a service user
■ Invoke some service
■ Pass the parameters needed to specify fully the requested service
○ Indication - issued by a service provider
■ Indicates that a procedure has been invoked by the peer service user on the connection and to provide
the associated parameters
■ Notify the service user of a provider-initiated action
○ Response - issued by a service provider
■ Indicate that a procedure has been invoked by the peer service user on the connection and to provide the
associated parameters
■ Notify the service user of a provider-initiated action
○ Confirm - primitive issued by a service provider to
○ Acknowledge or complete some procedure previously invoked by a request by the service user
TCP/IP vs OSI
● Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
○ Dominant layered model
■ Used by the Internet
○ A de facto standard
○ Developed through DARPA funding
○ Defines only five layers
● OSI
○ De jure standard
○ Was not adopted
○ But used as reference for defining and understanding layered protocols

How the TCP/IP stack works

● The Internet provides the mechanism for a communication link that is a virtual channel, to
establish a connection between the two. They can exchange transactional
messages
○ Ex. of transactional messages
■ Banner identifying the telnet server and the prompt, user and password
■ Response to user credentials
■ Exchanges of commands, and results of these commands
○ Many processes can reside in the same machine
○ For every process-process communication, there must be a different transport layer link established between
them
○ It’s the responsibility of network layer to deliver from host to host
○ Key function of communications on the internet rests on the IP
● Topological representation
 ○ Transport layer - process to process delivery
○ Network layer - host to host delivery
○ Data Link / Physical layer - note to note delivery
● Data flow through intermediate nodes

○ Actual data flow has to go down

○ Router decides if info will be forwarded to WAN port
○ WAN port has access to the next router

○ Peer-to-peer communication is done virtually

● Data is communicated between and across layers as PDUs

○ Application Layer Operation

■ Pass transactional messages between peer processes at the same layer
■ Network applications communicate and perform transactions or operations in accordance with the
network service
○ Transport Layer Operation
■ Delivers the request to the other side thru the data channel that was created
■ Once the peer obtains the request, it will pass it back to the application layer
■ Provides a data channel to allow process-to-process communications
○ Network Layer Operation
■ For every packet sent thru the transport layer, there is an equivalent process needed to actually send
from one end point to the other which involves the physical end nodes
■ Provides mechanism to deliver packets from host to host typically via intermediate nodes on a wide area
network
○ Link Layer Operation
■ Requires the internet layer to pass downward to layer 2, and passed across
■ Provides node to node communication
● Broken into data-link layer and physical layer
● Node is either a host or an intermediate node
 FOR PORTFOLIO
● The Inner Workings of a Hybrid Circuit
○ What is a PSTN
■ Telephone switches can be seen as nodes and the connections that link this can be called as edges
(Livengood et al, 2006).