Electric Circuits

Chapter 4:
Techniques of
Circuit Analysis
CONTENTS
④
4.1 Terminology
4.2 Introduction to the Node-Voltage Method
4.3 The Node-Voltage Method and Dependent Sources
4.4 The Node-Voltage Method: Some Special Cases
(★)
4.5 Introduction to the Mesh-Current Method
4.6 The Mesh-Current Method and Dependent Sources
4.7 The Mesh-Current Method: Some Special Cases
4.8 The Node-Voltage Method Versus the Mesh-Current
Method ( ★ )
CONTENTS
4.9 Source Transformations M
∅4.10 Thévenin and Norton Equivalents
4.11 More on Deriving a Thévenin Equivalent
4.12 Maximum Power Transfer
4.13 Superposition
Introduction

❑
4.1 Terminology

non -

planar circuit

9
planar circuit

β
A planar circuit
4.1 Terminology

A nonplanar circuit
2
↑

node
⑥ puode G b c d e
fg )

□
:
. .
. . .
(2

( ]
essential - node : b G .g ( 3
)
e
2 . . .

)
3)
path (

node

.
4) branch → 2
5) esseutiaf branch → 2
- essential nodes
-

6)
loop ) 1o p
( 100 0

7) mesh →
p
,
⑥O
 Fig. 4.3

Essential Node : (b,c,e,g) : n=4

Essential Branch : c-a- b, … b=7

Fig. 4.3

Number of Node Equation = n-1

Number of Mesh Equation = b-n+1
Simultaneous Equations – How Many?

❑ We must have b independent equations to solve a

circuit with b unknown currents.

❑ If we let n represent the number of nodes in the circuit,

we can derive n-1 independent equations by applying
Kirchhoff ’ s current law to any set of n-1 nodes.
4.2 Introduction to the Node-Voltage Method
➢ It works with both planar and nonplanar circuits.
➢ A reference node is chosen from among the
essential nodes.
 Selection of Reference Node
referchce
4 nodes ③

nodes
③
bessential e -

①
④ KCL
∅ A
-
←2

.
V

8 s .⑥

tz
⑧
4

→ 2 A
+ Ia + I3
N
=
0
.

V 9 09 V
=
-

In+ I4 +I=O
ref
.

V
=
1O91 V

5
4.2 Introduction to the Node-Voltage Method

3 essential
nodes (n e = 3)
Two (n e - 1)
node-voltage
equations

A circuit used to illustrate the node-voltage method of

circuit analysis
4.2 Introduction to the Node-Voltage Method

➢ Voltage variables are assigned at the remaining essential nodes, and

Kirchhoff ’s current law is used to write one equation per voltage variable.
@ →
+ =

IOV ←
V v
×

↓ ↓

The circuit with a reference node and node voltages

U .
Ne

Fig. 4.7. Computation of

the branch current i
4.2 Node-Voltage Method
tinodes
Bessential nodes
δ ⑥
← …

Is an
v
viabou
.
Ie V=
28 V

U1 40

{
-

+ + = 0
≠
∞
^ KC
bret + -
+α
=
0
{
→
 n + =
+

× 40 :
400 -
8u ← (20 = 5Vi

IBV .
= k 20 U= KOV

×
→

cow
lo0 W
defiver
160 w44 ↓ zowdeliver
n → 3

7
(
wltagebivided
)
= II

D①
=
I2 R

. " znodes
=

/R
essential nodes

↓
2

Isn
4OV
aid
4A
160

+ + y
40
Obret =
0

40v ( 3AI= -
=√ P O
= -

N. =
KOV

=4
I1 =
2t
 + - 15 + µ = 0
34µ 1
-
24W 2
=
1800

34µ M - 1192 850

=

' + +h 0 a5 Ns a 5o
= =

N2 =
1O

U. =
6o
5. 9 oo + 12µ - 12N 2 =
0
IOA
-

…
④ L =

I701 -

12N2 = 9 oo

N2 - Uh iN2tt 5o o
=
2
+

…
③
2 U - MU 5O
1 =

5 U
boow 3 essential nodes
Ov (n e = 3)
→

on absor
aoow 2400
tow yow

* ×
*
I 1 + I2 tI 3 TI4 0
=

5* =

I4+ *→ g6 = 0

W, =
bov ,
N= Ov . ( oA

P =
V. I =60π= 9 oow

⑧O .

B =√
( I = -

- 9D
☆
= yow
-

i
∞ ② →
F6

± s .

dss
dzn is * bubdes
bessentsal nodes
A
 av +
-
4.50 9U. -

Vs =
36
←
3K - = -

180

br 15 V 18 √ + = 0
GV - 33 V2 =
540
-

32V2 =
576

3V 3U 1 U =8
+2U 2 + bv2 180
2
-

2 -

b
-
3U , + 11
V
= 180

mnoedes
nodes

{Sitrth
resentkal
V
5AtV . +
0
.

04
=

tFstI5

6"
=
.
r . . (8V

.
.

, o
+
+=
A
dse 5
☆A
ItA
*
I =
W
1= 6
AI *=
= .

∞ I☆= WrvE = vIGA

4.3 Node-Voltage Method and
Dependent Source

{
Ʃ , +ZsxI3 =0

+ + = 0
U. = l6 V

I3+I4tI5 = 0
U = IOV

=1 . 2
A
P = 17.
2w + +
= 0
↑
i0 =
=
2 A
∞

∅
F3
V2
∅
3 essential nodes
(n e = 3)
' " 2

.
P . IEL R
1
.
=

* o
π =
( 1 21β 5
t
tnodes
.

=
1 44 5
t
3 essential nodes
.

CCVS
- .

∞
=
7 .
2 W
 Fig. 4.11

Summing the currents away from node 1:

Summing the currents away from node 2:

Express the controlling current in terms of the node voltages

Substituting this relationship into the node 2 equation simplifies the

two node-voltage equations to
 t at 144
w
t
3

"
↓
←

σ evifto ↓
tkow
PnA
Iow
-

-
+ 3 ( U - 12V2 = 800

4V1 -

3 Va = 80
160 - l2la =
320

( 5V; = 480 V. =
32
VK =
Ib
100 2v . + 2V2 2VixV2 20 = 0
~
- -

omercomukng
iguntte☆
P

δ
A
YXEPO

g
Foreystsathy .
i t h ts i s ,
=+

…
4.4 Node-Voltage Method:
Some Special Cases - Supernode
A circuit with a known voltage
Vi =+
300 → 2 ,

FF UI known ( 1 O0 V )
voltage
. .

S 5
⑥ ⑥

II
4

+ -
5 = 0

π [ ( too ) + 2
-
=
5 GO
A circuit with a dependent voltage source connected between nodes
+ ti =
0

knourn
voltage V3 - 2+ 4 0
i
- =

Ψ
⑥ ⑥ ⑥
SN
-
.

+ + 4
=0 .

V3 -U 2 = =
100 0

V2 =
600
Vs
=
fov
 i= V

V 2
5oU 3 V2 100
-

-
V

= LU2- 100

Un =
3 U5 -

100

℃ _

4 A

↓
^
KCL nodes
in
. +
=
0

=( 0

--= 10 -Ue
KCL in noden +4 - 3
%
"

=0

14
-u- 103Uz 1 =
0

5
-V
Itk 2= 0 2 6ou
=

U3 =
8oV
❑ When a voltage source is between two essential nodes,
we can combine those nodes to form a supernode.

σ
vlot µ -

20

µ Not
‰
+ + = 0 = +
10

"
0
t nt * .

=4 -
13 N .

. +-1 + 200 ti 0
= 0

Psza
13
(

0
20
.
.
=
→

M 0 10 v

o
,

*
0

-
1
4 - .
=

netlost
N .= 3
.N .
=
2
IatZ = + -
+ V

A
0

6 =
-
e
0 =

32 -
3 3
.

A
vx=24
U =
64 V
 → Ui s Vs Vatix

σ
×

↓
isuper
node

tm
at wode
48.
=
+
saper ,

+ *
+ + ~
36 = U . + 30.- 3

4V 1 -

3V 2
= 36

4Uif32 36
-

4( V2 . ) + V2+ 45 Vitix) +
=
-

10 ( V 0
*

- -12)
=

19V .
-

4V , t 14i× -

120 =
0

(6 Vaf14ix -

156 =
0
it ,

8V 2+n X 78
④

- =0

. boKt U
7 - 585 =0

-
bolat 8oV . 72
= o

t ☆V
-y =
4 6
.

tt =
v.
*
=
E☆ , VrlL i☆
=

Viiy
V= 8
 21- 6o
boV K

+ 6 + .-
(
= 0

µ
4
0-
=
+ +

=
( 21 -

720 + 1 -

8v , + 480

o
5V: = 240
ts
e
00 0

U . 48
=

.
∆
μ
4.5 Introduction to the Mesh-Current Method

❖ It works only with planar circuits.

❖ Mesh currents are assigned to each mesh, and

Kirchhoff’s voltage law is used to write one equation
per mesh. Node essential nodes KCL
loflage
-
.

Mesh Cureat → mesh

-
KVL
4.5 Introduction to the Mesh-Current Method

❖ The number of equations is b – (n – 1), where b

is the number of branches in which the current is
unknown, and n is the number of nodes.
❖ The mesh currents are used to find the branch
currents.
4.5 Mesh-Current Method
A circuit used to illustrate development of the mesh-current
method of circuit analysis

Fig. 4.19
❖ Apply Kirchhoff’s current law to the upper node and
Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the two meshes to generate
the following set of equations:
Selection of Mesh/Loop-Current
 Mesh currents

➢ Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the two meshes, expressing all
voltages across resistors in terms of the mesh currents, to get the equations:
 ④Resistor amnt ←)→←)
(

Λ
nw
( -)
(←→

=
-

ER

"
"…

. "
∵ 08
8 .
7 branches bntl

Q
bnodes

* ⑥ . .

.
planar - cirict
↓ ⑤ b -
ny
↓ Gnode

{
KVL -
× ( 2+ 60 * × 4.
-
α

- ( ) × 10 -2
-
2
= 0 branch element
.
.

aunent
③ mesh ,
Part
2-*×22-20 =
22 ×3-2 t( - * ) × 10
V

④ KVL
-

-
Steps for Mesh-Current Method ( β
!
) ( )

])
-10= 6
-15

10
= 20

)
Comments on Current Directions
 7branches
Gnodes
17-51 B
=
Q QEs
:
2I1 + 8 (I -
I2 ) =
40

( I2-Ʃ, ) + 6I26
( I5-I ) 0
=

n. 8 2

In :
6 ( I2 I3 )
- -
4I3
=

20

+I-4I

I 20
2
=

-4 z 1+4It 3In =
0

n- tI=10

(. | / ) .)
 θ δ

b nt1
-
bbranches
4 nodes

= 3
s = 2 5
.

2
F1 :
3(F1
-

522 -
26I3 =
8 o P82 L R
=

5I- (2522taoI3 ∞
Z 0
=
:
2

I3 : 26f1 taoI2 124f3 -

=
0

PBo=
-

5X 80

.×( . ) = -

400W
4.6 Mesh-Current Method and
Dependent Sources
Example 4.5)
Use the mesh-current method of circuit analysis to determine the power
dissipated in the 4 Ω resistor in the circuit shown below.

6 branches 4nodes

_ 6 4t =
-
3meshes
←

^ Q L U L= -I
I
2

50 5
t ((- ) 20 (-22) 0
_
)
Z. " =
-

*
-
∠
0
I≥ : 20 (2 ( -
22) -
4(* -
) -
1520 =

Fn : 5((- * - 3
Z + 4(22-☆) 0
7
=
4.6 Mesh-Current Method and
Dependent Sources
❑ Example 4.5
] !

θ
Example: Use the mesh-current method of circuit analysis to determine
in the circuit shown below.

θ
⑥ ∅

5 branches
uodes

2 mesues

planarcircuit
①
 fbranches
IA
nodesmesnes
-

③
↑

IQ
4A BA

0
-5( , i ☆)- 10
=
: +2h - 2 ( )

36) - 14in+ 3 ( ib- 2)=

O
2
: 2(( -2]← ( -

:
10t 5(( ☆] -
-
b
( y-i21 in =
0

V0 =
(23 2 ] ×3
-
4.7 Mesh-Current Method:
Some Special Case - Supermesh
_

①planar ③ b -
ht /
54
-

+ 1
=③ mesh
mesh - ament
supermgh .

1
Ia
(
40 2ia
+ 0
: =
x
-

C S
-

2b lx 3 ib 30
:
0
40 2 bi5 30 0
-
- = -
- =
a
-

x irin= - 20

A circuit illustrating mesh analysis when a branch contains an independent current

source : Only one mesh equation
 oplanar
❑ Current Source ③ 8 6+ 1
-
= 3

→
iaib sic ib -

Fig. 4.25

A circuit illustrating mesh analysis when a branch contains an independent

current source ; ic – ia = 5A
4.7 Mesh-Current Method:
Some Special Case - Supermesh
❑ Current Source
The circuit illustrating the concept of a supermesh
❑ Supermesh
 a .

i☆☆
b

The circuit with the mesh currents i a , i b, i c

The circuit depicting the supermesh created by the
presence of the dependent current source
↓ .

Q
Qc
aQ
. -

^
QQ
iar Zu- e

)
jat(o N. = π( ia -
e

ia :
5- (jat(o)-
2
5
( iaric )

l 1
Up =
5(ia c
4.8 Node-Voltage Method Versus
Mesh-Current Method
Advantage:
Reduce the number of simultaneous equations that must
be manipulated.

There is no clear-cut answer

 bnodes
4 essential nodes
Isupernode+ essential nodes
2
oltage source
= 3
- |

( supernode ) +( leperdent)

√ VL UUs UV3 √

10 branches bnodes

b-

+=⑤
n . imeshes -
0( supermesh )
t l ( dependentsource) 6
 supernodex
σ 4essettial nodes cobranches bnodes

)
adependent sovrce
(0 8+1
- = 3 meshes

3 -

①+2 : 5uar: . 2
supermesh .

2 dependenp foree
3 2t2= b

℃
-
uari .
 X ×

< '

'

NVM MCM NUM 4 essential nodes→ 3 vavi

MCM

2essential nodes - war .5 dements anodes tameshes X supernode ebements6 nodes→ smeshes
dependent source
super nesh
super mesh
I (
Xsuper node I
sowre
xdependet I depent
Xdependent source sorce .

3 -

0+ 1 = 4
3 - 1 +1 =
3
( 2 -

) =
4.9 Source Transformation

❖ It allows a voltage source in series with a resistor

to be replaced by a current source in parallel with the
same resistor or vice versa.
Ψ
Iski !" ,

t.
:
I
Rto
=

10852
Br :. va ,3 -☆
=e
is
=
2
= A

X, ②2 s=
+ OV -

10 d
+

yov
I stv

_
ton . :
0
= sor
 4Xb
CO
= =

∠
32/a

Gbxk
 19
.
I
19 . 2 V =
❑ What happens if there is a resistance
Rp in parallel with the voltage source or
a resistance Rs in series with the
current source?
▪ The resistance has no effect on the
equivalent circuit that predicts
behavior with respect to terminals
a, b .
▪ The circuits in Fig. 4.39 are
equivalent with respect to terminal
a, b because they produce the
same voltage and current in any
resistor R L
 9 2A
.

2OU
250
⑥

250 × 112
-

-
6× 60 =
4O
-

9 2t

.
.

O
5oVT
.
?
.

↑ aitt
.

A
I
I1 2
.
_

\
A t
0 2

①
→

Y- A200
17+
(
↓
n.
⑤ ↑ oA 2
fov
co
102
G 1252
-

↓
G
 tnor

57 6
.
s
3 12 t
.
↑
t
3.1 ↑

Arfgon
G

Tot 4
o bot kr Knot

Tllll1
☆ 2$ 9
( 202
.62

l
1111
6 nT
-1.00 -

*s±240
Pot × 19 6) *.OV
.
=

~
+
72× 2- 4
6E )
=
48 V
4.10 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents

:
:

tur
θ
ω
Thevenin Norton

FVen
③ isc (short civrit )

③ Rth =
 .
=
nams
?
 Finding a Thevenin Equivalent
ishomcivcatt

❑ Find V TH
- Open circuit voltage
+
+
"

= l6 V

=
4A

Yeret
*

mer
Ven =
32V

1
d 4branches
θ-
)42 !

A circuit used to illustrate a Thévenin equivalent

teme
+ 3 0
θ
- =

Vi =U
 Finding a Thevenin Equivalent
❑ Find R TH
- Short circuit current i sc

A circuit with terminals a and b short-circuited

Example: Finding a Thevenin Equivalent
❑ Place a short circuit across the terminals and calculate the
resulting short-circuit current.
 Norton Equivalent

❑ Norton equivalent circuit consists of an independent

current source in parallel with the Norton equivalent
resistance.
❑ We can derive it from a Thevenin equivalent circuit simply
by making a source transformation .
❑ Norton current equals the short-circuit current at the
terminals of interest, and the Norton resistance is identical
to the Thevenin resistance.

⑤π
←
.④
Using Source transformations
trorT
1
σ

D
Example: Using Source transformation
16 252

@
, ,
T
.

r -
Q
_
↑ s
 Vn=91 . 65 V
Rtn 10 63-
=
.

Isc = w .
 ① En Bisc

U = -

202 × 25- 2 =
-oo [VJ2sc = - 20

= opencivait.
. δ

i
= ‰ =

5o = 5
, = Isc = -
-
1t
= -
fomA

odisc
= Ven v = -

tooi = -

GIVJ

ntryopurut
"
Rn=
mA 1002
=
❑ Find R TH
- Short circuit current i sc

V ab =0
 →
Ψ

U →
en =
64 8 V Nisc
720× X + +
.

=
@

oren ← →

= 364V
3 U

↓ .?
=

G
③ isc sc
= 4 . 8+ 6 =
10 .
8A

③ Ren

+ * = ot
=
.

V 60
=
& ×0 6 48V
.
=

∴ Vth =
60+46 =
64 6V .

bI
wo
1o . bA

⑤ 648 V

Ken =
64 .
fV Ren = 6 L
 .

?
t

⑤
6
A

α
 - oj
4
ned

mAO
↓
3

4+
*
'
⑤
, (
4.11 More on Deriving a Thevenin Equivalent
❑ If the network contains only independent sources :
▪ To calculate R Th for such a network, we first deactivate all independent
sources and then calculate the resistance seen looking into the network at
the designated terminal pair.
– A voltage source is deactivated by replacing it with a short circuit.
– A current sourc e is deactivated by replacing it with an open circuit.
❑ If the circuit or network contains dependent sources :
▪ Deactivate all independent sources, and we then apply either a test
voltage source or a test current source to the Thevenin terminals a, b.
– Thevenin resistance equals the ratio of the voltage across the test
source to the current delivered by the test source.
▪ In a network containing only resistors and dependent sources , you must use
the alternative method.
 ① Venlabl
armat copen )
BRth y
oltage
(shorts

R ab = R Th = 4 + 5 x 20 / 25 = 8 Ω
 20 i +
-

t = 0
.
=

=
= 100 r

20
β SR
-

er =

-
 F
*

Assessing Objective 5:
3 x+
+ -IT = 0 .=

_ R =
?

+ : + 4t =
0 .
=
8U

( 8v)
①
 Assessing Objective 5:

❑ If the circuit or network contains dependent sources :

▪ Deactivate all independent sources, and we then apply either a test
voltage source or a test current source to the Thevenin terminals a, b.
Assessing Objective 5: UHtlOo

V
β ↑ Nl
←

↓ ↓

Ve
S ++ +
.
0
0 =
0

VtH
=
30 V

BAE 7EA)
0

=
.

V
S. =
.

4 -

Velboiw K
n
Tke (:
.+
G
= .R = (
4.12 Maximum Power Transfer (skip)
 4.13 Superposition ) →

In a circuit with multiple independent sources,

superposition allows us to activate one source at
a time and sum the resulting voltages and
currents to determine the voltages and currents
that exist when all independent sources are
active.
4.13 Superposition

Opecammt
soure sope

-
-
1
②

-
" "

! ;
o.
e

σ σ "

voltage sourre short

4
↓
or
a
( tn
δ
.
!
vT- .
– A voltage source is deactivated by replacing it with a short circuit.
– A current sourc e is deactivated by replacing it with an open circuit
Example)

5
2 6

4
-
6
- 0
.No:10-α=
4
-

4µ6 . N; = 0
÷

b. '
=
10420 =
fu

' =
0 .4 A

04 .

A
 " "

" 2 No
+

¤ ¤
←

↓
2
"

+
KCC [
"
1
.
- 0 4.
.
"
= 0
N .
"

↑
bKCL
90 4. t
.
"

- *
= 0
+ N
.
"
=
Summary
1) Mesh Analysis
Summary
2) Node Analysis
3) Source Transform
4) Thevinin’s Equivalent