QBASIC TUTORIAL

IG4/O4 Computer Science

Chapter1: Your first program

After launching the QBasic interpreter you might see a window requesting a list of
"parameters." If this window comes up, press the Enter key to continue.

You should now see the QBasic interpreter, which has a blue background and
displays a dialog box at the center. (If the interpreter fills the entire screen, then you
may want to press "Alt + Enter," to make it smaller.)

Press the Esc key to hide the dialog box.

QBasic interpreter - main screen

Type the following (including the quotation marks) in the QBasic interpreter:

PRINT "Hello World!" <press Enter>

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Now press F5 to run the program. You should now see a black screen,
with Hello World at the top, and Press any key to continue at the bottom.

Press a key on the keyboard to return to the main screen.

(The figure below displays the "output screen.")

QBasic interpreter - output screen

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Chapter 2: Strings
There are certain types of data (or information) called "strings." Strings contain a
sequence of characters (letters, numbers, and symbols) enclosed in quotation
marks. For example, "Hello World!" is a string.

The following are also strings:

"0123456789"

"This is a string"

"abc123"

"1 + 1 = 2"

"!@#$%^&*()"

Commands
There are also special functions called "commands" (also called "instructions"). A
"command" tells the QBasic interpreter to do something.

The PRINT command tells the QBasic interpreter to print something to the screen. In
this case, the interpreter printed "Hello World!".

TIP: Instead of typing PRINT, you can enter a

question mark. For example:

?"Hello World!"

With the PRINT command, you can also print numbers to the screen. Delete the
current program (unless you already have) and write the following:
PRINT 512 (or ?512)

<press Enter>
Press F5 to run the program. The program outputs:
512

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Chapter 3: Expressions
An expression is something the interpreter calculates (or evaluates). Such as:
1 + 1 (returns 2)

100 - 47 (returns 53)

3 * 34 (returns 102)

80 / 4 (returns 20)

(100 * 3) + 56 (returns 356)

^ 2 ^ 3 = 23

NOTE: The asterisk (*) means to multiply two

numbers; the slash (/) means to divide

If you pass an expression to the PRINT command, the value returned (a number) is
printed.

Clear the current program, and then run the following:

PRINT 512 + 478

Program output:
990

If you enclose the expression with quotation marks, the expression becomes a string
and isn't evaluated. For example:
PRINT "512 + 478"

Output:
512 + 478

TIP: To clear the output screen, use the CLS

command.

CLS

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More about the PRINT command

You can use multiple print statements in your program.
PRINT "Hello"
PRINT "World"
Output:
Hello
World

To place World onto the previous line, place a semi-colon after PRINT "Hello".
PRINT "Hello";
PRINT "World"
Output:
HelloWorld

Also, if you put a comma instead of a semi-colon on the first line, the program will
insert spaces between the two words.
PRINT "Hello",
PRINT "World"
Output:
Hello World

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Chapter 4: Variables

This chapter discusses an important topic in programming, "variables." Please read

this section thoroughly.

A variable is a piece of data kept in the computer's memory (RAM). The location of a
variable in RAM is called the "address."

How a variable is stored in RAM

The following program prints the variable X to the screen:

print X
Since the variable hasn't been assigned a number, the value of the variable is 0. So,
the output of the program is:
0

This next program sets X to 15, and then prints the variable:
X = 15 x  15

print X

This time, the output is:

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15

In the above example, the number 15 was stored in the computer's RAM at a certain
memory address. Then the PRINT command accessed (or looked at) that address
when it printed "15" to the screen.

(NOTE: The memory address of X is not necessarily 1000000)

ADVANCED TIP: Although you don't normally need

to, you can find the actual memory address of a
variable (X, for example) by using
the VARSEG and VARPTRcommands.

PRINT (VARSEG(X) * 65536) + VARPTR(X)

(For more information, see Memory.)

As in the programs above, a variable is accessed by calling its name. Variable

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names can have a combination of letters and numbers. The following are valid
variables:
Y

num

VALUE

xYz

abc123

Also, you can use multiple variables in your program.

X = 82
Y = 101
Z = 79

PRINT X
PRINT Y
PRINT Z
Output:
82
101
79

(NOTE: The memory addresses of these variables are not necessarily as specified)

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Expressions
If you pass an expression to a variable, the expression is evaluated and the variable
is set to that value.
x = 500 + (10 * 7)

PRINT x
Output:
570

You can also use variables as expressions.

rate = 50
time = 2

distance = rate * time

PRINT distance
Output:
100

Plus, you can have both variables and numbers in an expression.

X = 100
Y = X * 7

PRINT Y
Output:
700

TIP: The following increases X by 1:

X = X + 1

Strings
If you add a dollar sign ($) to the end of a variable, the variable is a string.
X$ = "Hello World!"

PRINT X$
Output:
Hello World!

If you try to set a string to a non-string variable, an error occurs.

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X = "Hello World!"
The QBasic interpreter says "Type mismatch" when you try to run the above
program.

A string can be added to the end of an existing variable string.

X$ = "Hello"
X$ = X$ + "World" /// string concatenation

PRINT X$
Output:
HelloWorld

You can also add variable strings together.

a$ = "String1"
b$ = "String2"
c$ = "String3"

d$ = a$ + b$ + c$

PRINT d$
Output:
String1String2String3

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Chapter 5: Retrieving keyboard input from the user

One way to receive input from the keyboard is with the INPUT command.
The INPUT command allows the user to enter either a string or a number, which is
then stored in a variable.
INPUT data$

PRINT data$
When this program is executed, the INPUT command displays a question mark,
followed by a blinking cursor. And when you enter text, the program stores that text
into the variable data$, which is printed to the screen.

TIP: If you place a string and a semi-colon

between INPUT and the variable, the program will
print the string.

INPUT "Enter some text:"; data$

To receive a number, use a non-string variable.

INPUT number

PRINT number
If you enter text instead of a number, the QBasic interpreter displays an error
message ("Redo from start").

Below is another example of the INPUT command:

PRINT "Enter some text:"
INPUT text$

TIP: You can have the question mark displayed on

INPUT “ now enter a number: “, num the previous line by using a semi-colon.

PRINT text$ PRINT "Enter some text:";

PRINT num INPUT text$

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Chapter 6: The IF and THEN commands

The IF and THEN commands are used to compare an expression and then perform
some task based on that expression.

x = 5

IF x = 5 THEN PRINT "x equals 5"

Since X does equal 5 in this case, the program outputs:
x equals 5

Expression signs
You can also enter the following statements, instead of the equals sign:
x < 5 (x is less than 5)

x > 5 (x is greater than 5)

Run the following:

x = 16

IF (x > 5) THEN PRINT "x is greater than 5"

Output:
x is greater than 5

You can also combine the signs like this:

x <= 5 (x is less than or equal to 5)

x >= 5 (x is greater than or equal to 5)

x <> 5 (x does not equal 5)

Run the following example:

CLS

x = 5

IF (x >= 5) THEN PRINT "x is greater than or equal to 5"

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IF (x <= 5) THEN PRINT "x is less than or equal to 5"
IF (x <> 5) THEN PRINT "x does not equal 5"
Output:
x is greater than or equal to 5
x is less than or equal to 5

ELSE
Using the ELSE command, you can have the program perform a different action if the
statement is false.
x = 3

IF x = 5 THEN
PRINT "Yes"
ELSE PRINT "No"
Since X doesn't equal 5, the output is:
No

END IF
END IF allows you to have multiple commands after the IF...THEN statement, but
they must start on the line after the IF statement. END IFshould appear right after
the list of commands.
x = 5

IF (x = 5) THEN

INPUT a$
PRINT a$

END IF

The following program uses ELSE with the END IF command:

x = 16

IF (x = 5) THEN

INPUT a$
PRINT a$

ELSE

PRINT x * 2

END IF
Output:
32

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TIP: There is a way to have multiple commands

after IF...THEN without usingEND IF. To do so,
place a colon between each command.

IF (x = 5) THEN INPUT a$: PRINT a$

ELSEIF
The ELSEIF command allows you to perform a secondary action if the first
expression was false. Unlike ELSE, this task is only performed if a specified
statement is true.
x = 6

IF (x = 5) THEN
PRINT "Statement 1 is true"

ELSEIF (x = 6) THEN
PRINT "Statement 2 is true"

END IF
Output:
Statement 2 is true

You can have multiple ELSEIF commands, along with ELSE.

x = 8

IF (x = 5) THEN
PRINT "Statement 1 is true"

ELSEIF (x = 6) THEN
PRINT "Statement 2 is true"

ELSEIF (x = 7) THEN
PRINT "Statement 3 is true"

ELSE
PRINT "No above statements are true"

END IF
Output:
No above statements are true

Multiple expressions
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You can have more than one expression in IF...THEN by using either
the OR operator or the AND operator.

The OR operator only requires one expression to be true in order to print "Yes" in the
following program:
x = 20

IF (x = 5 OR x = 20) THEN PRINT "Yes"

Output:
Yes

The AND operator requires both expressions to be true.

x = 7

IF (x > 5 AND x < 10) THEN PRINT "True"

Output:
True

This is a slightly more complex example:

x = 16
y = 3

IF ((x > 5 AND x < 10) OR y = 3) THEN PRINT "Correct"

Output (since Y is 3):
Correct

Strings in IF...THEN
So far in this chapter, we've only been dealing with numbers, but you can also use
strings with the IF...THEN command.
x$ = "Hello"

IF (x$ = "Hello" OR x$ = "World") THEN PRINT x$

Output:
Hello

You can also compare two variable strings:

x$ = "Hello"
y$ = "World"

IF (x$ <> y$) THEN PRINT x$; " "; y$

Output:
Hello World

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Chapter 7: Labels and the GOTO and GOSUB commands

The GOTO and GOSUB commands enables you to jump to certain positions in your
program. Labels are used to specify what point in the program to continue
execution.

GOTO
To use GOTO, place a label somewhere in your program, and then enter.
GOTO <label>

Run the following example program:

PRINT "1"

GOTO TheLabel

PRINT "2"

TheLabel:

PRINT "3"
Output (notice how PRINT "2" is skipped):
1
3

TIP: TheLabel can be placed on the same line

as PRINT "3"

TheLabel: PRINT "3"

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GOSUB
The GOSUB command is the same as GOTO, except when it encounters
a RETURN statement, the program "returns" back to the GOSUB command. In other
words, RETURN continues program execution immediately after the
previous GOSUB statement.

PRINT "1"

GOSUB TheLabel

PRINT "2"

END

TheLabel:

PRINT "3"

RETURN
(Note: The END command exits the program.)

Since the program returns to the GOSUB command, the number 2 is printed this time.
1
3
2

Line numbers
"Line numbers" can be used as labels.
PRINT "1"

GOTO 10

PRINT "2"

10 PRINT "3" (Notice the line number)

You can also write the program like this:

10 PRINT "1"

20 GOTO 40

30 PRINT "2"

40 PRINT "3"

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The line numbers don't even have to be in sequence.

17 PRINT "1"

2 GOTO 160

701 PRINT "2"

160 PRINT "3"

Each of these programs output:

1
3

Guessing game
The following is a simple guessing game:
CLS

start:
PRINT "Guess a number between 1 and 10: ";
INPUT num

IF (num < 1 OR num > 10) THEN

PRINT "That is not between 1 and 10"
GOTO start
END IF

IF (num = 6) THEN
PRINT "Correct!!!"
ELSE
PRINT "Try again"
PRINT
GOTO start
END IF
Output (may be slightly different):
Guess a number between 1 and 10: ? 2
Try again

Guess a number between 1 and 10: ? 7

Try again

Guess a number between 1 and 10: ? 6

Correct!!!

TIP: Notice the second PRINT statement

under PRINT "Try again". It adds a blank line
under Try again when the program is executed.

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Chapter 8: Loops

"Loops" make it easier to do an action multiple times. There are at least four types of
loops: IF...GOTO, WHILE...WEND, DO...LOOP, andFOR...NEXT.

IF...GOTO
This program uses IF...GOTO to create a loop:

x = 10

start:
PRINT x

x = x + 1 (This adds 1 to x)

IF x < 15 THEN GOTO start

Output:
10
11
12
13
14

WHILE...WEND
The WHILE...WEND commands continue a loop until a specified expression is false.

To use WHILE...WEND:
1. Place an expression after WHILE

2. Enter a list of commands

3. Place WEND at the end

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Run the following:

x = 10

WHILE x < 15

PRINT x

x = x + 1

WEND
Output (same as in previous example):
10
11
12
13
14

DO...LOOP
DO...LOOP is exactly the same as WHILE...WEND, except it has at least two slight
advantages. With DO...LOOP you can:
1. Loop until an expression is true

2. Loop at least one time regardless of whether the expression is true or not.

To use DO...LOOP:
1. Specify whether the loop continues "while" the expression is true
or "until" the expression is true, using the WHILE and UNTIL statements,
respectively.

2. Place an expression after WHILE/UNTIL

3. Enter a list of commands

4. Place LOOP at the end

The following uses the WHILE statement:

x = 10

DO WHILE x < 15

PRINT x

x = x + 1

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LOOP

This program uses the UNTIL statement:

x = 10

DO UNTIL x = 15

PRINT x

x = x + 1

LOOP

They both output:

10
11
12
13
14

If you place the expression at the end of the loop instead, the program goes through
the loop at least once.
x = 32

DO

PRINT x

x = x + 1

LOOP WHILE x < 5

This is the output because the loop was only gone through one time:
32

FOR...NEXT
FOR...NEXT provides an easier way to create a loop.

FOR x = 1 TO 5

PRINT x

NEXT x
Output:
1
2
3

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4
5

TIP: The X after NEXT is optional (unless you have a

loop within a loop).

Also, you can use the STEP attribute to specify how much X will be increased each
time through the loop.
FOR x = 1 TO 5 STEP 2

PRINT x

NEXT x
Output:
1
3
5

STOPPING LOOPS
To stop a loop prematurely, use the EXIT command, followed by either FOR or DO.
FOR x = 1 TO 5

PRINT x

IF (x = 3) THEN EXIT FOR

NEXT x
Output:
1
2
3
(NOTE: This command only works with
the DO...LOOP and FOR...NEXT commands, not
with WHILE...WEND or IF...GOTO.)

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Chapter 9: Adding documentation to your programs

Documenting your program (also called "commenting") allows you to remind yourself
about something in your program. Plus, if your program is seen by other people,
documenting can help them understand your code.

The REM (remark) command enables you to add comments to your program without
the text being treated like an instruction.
CLS
PRINT "Some text"

REM This text is ignored.

REM This program clears the output screen,

REM and then prints "Some text."

TIP: You can use an apostrophe instead of

the REM command.

' Comment goes here

You can add REM to the same line as another command by placing a colon after the
first instruction.
CLS: REM This command clears the screen
PRINT "Text": REM This command prints "Text" to the screen
PRINT 534: REM This prints the number 534 to the screen
NOTE: If you use an apostrophe instead of REM while doing this, you do not need to
add a colon.
CLS ' This command clears the screen
PRINT "Text" ' This command prints "Text" to the screen
PRINT 534 ' This prints the number 534 to the screen

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Chapter 10: QBASIC Built in Functions and Sub routines

Mathematics functions

QBasic provides several functions to do mathematical calculations. A few of them

are discussed here.

SQR
Use SQR to find the "square root" of a number.

PRINT SQR(1)
PRINT SQR(4)
PRINT SQR(9)
PRINT SQR(16)
PRINT SQR(25)
Output:
1
2
3
4
5

ABS
ABS returns the absolute value of a number. In other words, ABS converts a
negative number to a positive number (if you pass a positive number,ABS does
nothing).
PRINT ABS(12)
PRINT ABS(-12)
Output:
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12
12

COS, SIN, TAN, and ATN

You can do the following trigonometric functions in QBasic:
COS (Cosine)
SIN (Sine)
TAN (Tangent)
ATN (Arctangent, inverse of TAN)
Example:
CONST PI = 3.141593

PRINT COS(PI / 4)
PRINT SIN(PI / 3)
PRINT TAN(-PI / 2)
PRINT ATN(TAN(-PI / 2))
Output:
.7071067
.8660254
6137956
1.570796 (Same as PI / 2)

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Chapter 11: Arrays

An array is a list of variables of the same type. Arrays are useful for organizing
multiple variables. To create an array, use the DIM (dimension) command.

The following example does not use arrays:

a = 2
b = 4
c = 6
d = 8
e = 10

PRINT a, b, c, d, e
Output:
2 4 6 8 10

This uses an array called vars, which contains 5 variables:

DIM vars(5)

' Each of these are separate variables:

vars(1) = 2
vars(2) = 4
vars(3) = 6
vars(4) = 8
vars(5) = 10

PRINT vars(1), vars(2), vars(3), vars(4), vars(5)

Output:
2 4 6 8 10

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How an array of variables is stored in memory

(NOTE: Memory addresses are not necessarily as specified)

The above program can also be written like this:

DIM vars(5)

FOR x = 1 to 5
vars(x) = x * 2
NEXT

FOR x = 1 to 5
PRINT vars(x),
NEXT
Output:
2 4 6 8 10

Strings
You can also create an array of string variables.
DIM vars$(5)

vars$(1) = "Two"
vars$(2) = "Four"
vars$(3) = "Six"
vars$(4) = "Eight"
vars$(5) = "Ten"

PRINT vars$(1), vars$(2), vars$(3), vars$(4), vars$(5)

Output:
Two Four Six Eight Ten

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Chapter 12: Variable types

The non-string variables we've used in this tutorial are actually called single-
precision variables. These types of variables (SINGLE's) are used to store numbers
that can contain a decimal value (such as 1.89 or 3.141593). Since they have
decimal values, they are also known as "floating-point" variables.

This chapter describes other types of variables used in QBasic.

INTEGER - A non-floating-point variable (no decimal value) that can store

integers between -32,768 and 32,767

LONG - Same as INTEGER, but can contain numbers between -2,147,483,648 and
2,147,483,647.

DOUBLE - Same as SINGLE, but can have twice as many digits.

To define a variable's type, use DIM with the AS attribute.

DIM var1 AS INTEGER

DIM var2 AS LONG
DIM var3 AS DOUBLE

var1 = 15.28
var2 = -2000000000
var3 = 12345678.12345678

PRINT var1
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PRINT var2
PRINT var3
Output:
15 (Notice how the decimal value is removed)
-2000000000
12345678.12345678

Using special characters

You can use special characters to specify a variable's type. These characters can
also be used to specify a number's type.

To do so, place one of the following at the end of a variable (or number):
! (single--actually, this doesn't change anything)

% (integer)

& (long)

# (double)

$ (string--as we already know)

Example (notice the number sign on 12345678.12345678):

var1% = 15.28
var2& = -2000000000
var3# = 12345678.12345678#

PRINT var1%
PRINT var2&
PRINT var3#
Output:
15
-2000000000
12345678.12345678

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Chapter 13: Subroutines and functions

A subroutine (also called a "module") is a "mini-program" inside your program. In

other words, it is a collection of commands--and can be executed anywhere in your
program.

To create a subroutine:
1. Go to the "Edit" menu

2. Select "New Sub"

3. Enter a name for the subroutine

4. Type a list of commands between SUB and END SUB

To use the subroutine:

1. Press F2

2. Select "Untitled"

3. Press Enter to return to the "main module"

4. Use CALL to execute the subroutine

TIP: Another way to create a subroutine is by

typing SUB <name> in the main module.

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SUB MySub

The following example does not use subroutines:

PRINT "Enter some text:";
INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$

PRINT "Enter some text:";

INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$

PRINT "Enter some text:";

INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$

PRINT "Enter some text:";

INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$

PRINT "Enter some text:";

INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$

PRINT "Enter some text:";

INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$

PRINT "Enter some text:";

INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$

By using a subroutine, the above program can be simplified like this:

CALL GetText
CALL GetText
CALL GetText
CALL GetText
CALL GetText
CALL GetText
CALL GetText

SUB GetText

PRINT "Enter some text:";

INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$

END SUB

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The following is even more concise:

FOR x = 1 TO 7
CALL GetText
NEXT

SUB GetText
PRINT "Enter some text:";
INPUT text$
PRINT "The text you entered was: "; text$
END SUB

Parameters
Parameters are numbers and strings that you pass to a subroutine, much like a
QBasic command.
' This passes 16 as a parameter:

CALL OutputNumber(16)

' Notice the parentheses around the parameter "num."

' Any variables placed inside the parentheses are set as
' the subroutine's parameters.

SUB OutputNumber (num)

PRINT num

END SUB
Output:
16

TIP: Variables created in your program cannot be

used in the subroutines unless you
use COMMON SHARED (followed by a variable) in the
main module.

COMMON SHARED x$

Functions

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A function is the same as a subroutine, except it returns a value. Also, you must
leave out the CALL command.

To return a value, set a variable with the same name as the function.

PRINT Add(10, 7)

FUNCTION Add (num1, num2)

Add = num1 + num2

END FUNCTION
Output: 17

Since a function can return a value, the name of the function can end with special
characters (see Variable types, Using special characters).

' Notice the dollar sign ($) after "Add." It means

' the function returns a string.

PRINT Add$("Hello", "World")

FUNCTION Add$ (str1$, str2$)

Add$ = str1$ + str2$

END FUNCTION
Output:
HelloWorld

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Chapter 14: Numbering systems

Normally, when we use a number such as 110, we understand it to mean "one

hundred and ten," but in this chapter you will see how this is not always the case.

Hexadecimal numbers
We generally use the base 10 (decimal) numbering system, where each digit must
be between 0-9; but the "hexadecimal" system (base 16) can also have
digits A, B, C, D, E, and F (16 total digits).

(The hexadecimal numbers in this tutorial are red.)

0 = Zero
1 = One
2 = Two
3 = Three
4 = Four
5 = Five
6 = Six
7 = Seven
8 = Eight
9 = Nine
A = Ten
B = Eleven
C = Twelve
D = Thirteen

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E = Fourteen
F = Fifteen
In the base 10 system, you add another digit when you get past the number 9; but with
base 16, it isn't added until after F (or fifteen).
10 = Sixteen
11 = Seventeen
12 = Eighteen
13 = Nineteen
14 = Twenty
15 = Twenty one
16 = Twenty two
17 = Twenty three
18 = Twenty four
19 = Twenty five
1A = Twenty six
1B = Twenty seven
1C = Twenty eight
1D = Twenty nine
1E = Thirty
1F = Thirty one
20 = Thirty two
21 = Thirty three
22 = Thirty four
23 = Thirty five
24 = Thirty six
.
.
.
In the decimal system (base 10), we multiply ten for each time a digit goes to the left.
10 = 10
100 = 10 * 10
1000 = 10 * 10 * 10
10000 = 10 * 10 * 10 * 10
.
.
.
But in the hexadecimal (base 16) system, we multiply sixteen, instead.
10 = 16 (16)
100 = 16 * 16 (256)
1000 = 16 * 16 * 16 (4096)
10000 = 16 * 16 * 16 * 16 (65536)
.
.
.
Therefore, since 10 is 16 and 100 is 256, the number 110 is two hundred and
seventy two (272).

110 = (100 + 10) = (256 + 16) = 272

(To download a number converter, click here.)

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TIP: To enter a hexadecimal number in QBasic,

use &H.

&H110

Binary numbers
The "binary" system (base 2) can only have two digits, 0 and 1. Therefore, no binary
number has a digit between 2 and 9.

0 = Zero
1 = One
10 = Two
11 = Three
100 = Four
101 = Five
110 = Six
111 = Seven
1000 = Eight
1001 = Nine
1010 = Ten
1011 = Eleven
1100 = Twelve
1101 = Thirteen
1110 = Fourteen
1111 = Fifteen
10000 = Sixteen
10001 = Seventeen
10010 = Eighteen
10011 = Nineteen
10100 = Twenty
.
.
.
Notice how binary numbers can be found by excluding numbers that have a 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, or 9.
0
1
2
3
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4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
.
.
.
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110 TIP: Binary (and hexadecimal) numbers are often
111 written with leading 0's.
112
113 0000 (same as 0)
114 0001 (same as 1)
115 0010 (same as 10)
. 0011 (same as 11)
.
.
In base 10, as explained above, we multiply ten for each time a digit goes to the left.
10 = 10
100 = 10 * 10
1000 = 10 * 10 * 10
10000 = 10 * 10 * 10 * 10
.
.
.
But in binary, we multiply by two.
10 = 2 (2)
100 = 2 * 2 (4)

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1000 = 2 * 2 * 2 (8)
10000 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 (16)
.
.
.
So, since 10 is 2 and 100 is 4, the number 110 is six.

110 = (10 + 100) = (2 + 4) = 6

Chapter 15: Memory

Bits
A "bit" is the smallest piece of data stored in your computer's memory. The value of a
bit can be either 0 or 1. All data in your computer has a certain number of bits.

Bytes
A "byte" is 8 bits, and can have a value between 0 and 255 (or, in binary,
between 0 and 11111111). A character, such as Q, takes up one byte of memory.
This is because there are 256 different characters.

(If you don't fully understand bits and bytes, don't worry about it.)

How data is stored

Data is stored in RAM at a certain memory address, as explained in chapter 3
(Variables). Each address takes up 1 byte of memory. Therefore, it can only have a
value between 0 and 255.

A memory address (on a 32-bit computer) can be somewhere

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between 0 and 4,294,967,295. In hexadecimal, this is between 0 and FFFFFFFF.

Each memory address is divided into two parts: segments and offsets. See the
figure below.

Segments and offsets

A memory address such as 12345678 (in hexadecimal) has a segment of 1234 and
an offset of 5678.

A segment can have a value between 0 and 65535 (or between 0 and FFFF). An
offset can be within the same range.

You can find out a memory address of a piece of data by multiplying its segment
by 65536 (or 10000, in hexadecimal) and then adding its offset to the result. In
QBasic, you can get a variable's segment by using VARSEG and its offset by
using VARPTR.
segment = VARSEG(x)
offset = VARPTR(x)

' This prints the memory address of "x" (in decimal):

PRINT (segment * 65536) + offset

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Made by: Sir Adnan Kazmi VLE Lecture

Roots IVY International School