■ Unit – IV ■

Special Theory of Relativity

■ Mechanics – Semester II | Core I

Hey! ■ This guide is made just for you — easy language, clear answers, no scary
equations. Just read, understand & score well! You've got this ■

■ Quick Concept Notes

■ Section A — 1-Mark Questions (×15)
✏■ Section B — 2-Mark Questions (×15)
■ Section C — 3-Mark Questions (×15)
■ Section D — 5-Mark Questions (×8)
■ Section E — 8-Mark Questions (×3)
 ■ Quick Concept Notes — Special Theory of Relativity

■ What is the Michelson-Morley Experiment?

Scientists once believed light needed a medium called 'ether' to travel through space.
Michelson and Morley tried to detect this ether by measuring light speed in different
directions. Result: They found NO difference — light speed is the same everywhere! This
proved ether does NOT exist and paved the way for Einstein's theory.

■ Einstein's Two Postulates (Foundation of the whole theory!)

1st Postulate (Principle of Relativity): The laws of physics are the same for all observers
moving at constant speed — no one frame is 'special'. 2nd Postulate (Constancy of
Speed of Light): The speed of light in vacuum (c = 3×10■ m/s) is the same for ALL
observers, no matter how fast they move.

■■ Time Dilation — 'Moving clocks tick slower'

When an object moves very fast (close to speed of light), time slows down for it
compared to a stationary observer. Formula: t = t■ / √(1 − v²/c²) where t■ = proper time
(time in rest frame), v = velocity, c = speed of light. Example: An astronaut in a fast rocket
ages slower than people on Earth!

■ Length Contraction — 'Moving objects appear shorter'

A moving object appears shorter in the direction of motion. Formula: L = L■ × √(1 − v²/c²)
where L■ = proper length (at rest). The object is only short for the observer watching it
move — it doesn't actually shrink!

■ Relativistic Addition of Velocities

In normal life: if you throw a ball at 10 m/s from a moving car (20 m/s), total = 30 m/s. But
near light speed, this simple addition FAILS. Einstein's formula: u = (v + u') / (1 + vu'/c²).
This ensures nothing ever exceeds speed of light c!

■■ Variation of Mass with Velocity

As an object moves faster, its mass increases! Formula: m = m■ / √(1 − v²/c²) where m■
= rest mass. At v = c, mass becomes infinite — that's why nothing with mass can reach
speed of light.

■ Mass-Energy Equivalence — Einstein's most famous!

Einstein showed mass and energy are interchangeable. Formula: E = mc² (E = energy, m
= mass, c = speed of light). Even a tiny mass holds enormous energy. This principle is
behind nuclear energy!

■ Lorentz Transformations
 These are mathematical equations that convert measurements (position, time) from one
moving frame to another. They replace the old Galilean transformations when speeds are
close to c. Key: x' = γ(x − vt), t' = γ(t − vx/c²), where γ = 1/√(1−v²/c²).

■ Relativistic Doppler Effect

When a light source moves toward you, its frequency appears higher (blue shift). When
moving away, frequency appears lower (red shift). Formula: f_observed = f_source ×
√((1±v/c)/(1■v/c)). Used in astronomy to measure how fast stars move away from Earth!
 ■ Section A — 1-Mark Questions (×15)
■ Tip: These are short, direct answers — 1-2 lines max. Just state the fact!

Q1. What is the speed of light in vacuum?

Ans: The speed of light in vacuum is c = 3 × 10■ m/s. It is constant for all observers.

Q2. State the second postulate of Special Theory of Relativity.

Ans: The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all inertial observers, regardless of the
motion of the source or observer.

Q3. What is 'ether' in classical physics?

Ans: Ether was a hypothetical medium through which light was supposed to travel. The
Michelson-Morley experiment proved it does not exist.

Q4. What is proper time?

Ans: Proper time (t■) is the time measured by a clock that is at rest relative to the event
being measured.

Q5. What is proper length?

Ans: Proper length (L■) is the length of an object measured when it is at rest relative to
the observer.

Q6. State Einstein's mass-energy relation.

Ans: E = mc², where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.

Q7. What is the Lorentz factor (γ)?

Ans: The Lorentz factor is γ = 1 / √(1 − v²/c²). It appears in all relativistic equations.

Q8. What is time dilation?

Ans: Time dilation is the phenomenon where a moving clock ticks slower compared to a
stationary clock.

Q9. What is length contraction?

Ans: Length contraction is the apparent shortening of a moving object's length in the
direction of motion.
Q10. What is rest mass?

Ans: Rest mass (m■) is the mass of an object when it is at rest. It is the minimum mass
of the object.

Q11. What conclusion did the Michelson-Morley experiment give?

Ans: The experiment showed that the speed of light is the same in all directions,
disproving the existence of ether.

Q12. What is the relativistic Doppler effect?

Ans: It is the change in observed frequency of light due to relative motion between
source and observer.

Q13. Can any object with mass travel at the speed of light?

Ans: No. As speed approaches c, mass becomes infinite, requiring infinite energy —
which is impossible.

Q14. What is a massless particle? Give an example.

Ans: A massless particle has zero rest mass and always travels at speed c. Example:
photon (light particle).

Q15. What are inertial frames of reference?

Ans: Inertial frames are reference frames moving at constant velocity (no acceleration).
Newton's laws hold true in them.
 ✏■ Section B — 2-Mark Questions (×15)
■ Tip: Write 3-5 sentences. Mention the concept + give a small explanation or formula.

Q1. State the two postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity.

Ans: 1st Postulate: All laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference —
no frame is preferred. 2nd Postulate: The speed of light in vacuum (c = 3×10■ m/s) is the
same for all observers, independent of the motion of the source or observer.

Q2. What is time dilation? Write its formula.

Ans: Time dilation means that a clock moving at high speed runs slower compared to
one at rest. Formula: t = t■ / √(1 − v²/c²), where t■ is proper time, v is the velocity of the
moving frame, and c is speed of light. The moving clock always shows less time than the
stationary one.

Q3. Explain length contraction with its formula.

Ans: Length contraction is the shortening of the length of an object moving at relativistic
speed. Formula: L = L■√(1 − v²/c²), where L■ is the proper (rest) length. The contraction
only occurs in the direction of motion — width and height remain unchanged.

Q4. What is simultaneity in Special Relativity?

Ans: Two events that appear simultaneous (happening at the same time) for one
observer may NOT be simultaneous for another observer in a different inertial frame.
This is because time is not absolute — it depends on the observer's state of motion. This
concept is called relativity of simultaneity.

Q5. Define the relativistic Doppler effect.

Ans: When a light source moves toward an observer, the observed frequency increases
(blue shift). When it moves away, observed frequency decreases (red shift). Formula: f =
f■√((1 + v/c)/(1 − v/c)) for approach. This is used in astronomy to detect motion of stars.

Q6. What is relativistic mass? How does it vary with velocity?

Ans: Relativistic mass is the effective mass of a moving object. It increases as the
object's speed increases. Formula: m = m■ / √(1 − v²/c²), where m■ is rest mass. As v →
c, mass m → ∞, meaning more and more energy is needed to accelerate it further.

Q7. What is the significance of E = mc²?

 Ans: This equation by Einstein shows that mass and energy are equivalent and
interchangeable. Even a tiny amount of mass contains an enormous amount of energy.
For example, 1 kg of mass corresponds to 9 × 10¹■ joules. This is the basis of nuclear
power and atomic bombs.

Q8. Distinguish between Galilean and Lorentz transformations.

Ans: Galilean transformations apply at low speeds (v << c): x' = x − vt, t' = t (time is
absolute). Lorentz transformations apply at relativistic speeds: x' = γ(x − vt), t' = γ(t −
vx/c²). Galilean ones fail near the speed of light; Lorentz transformations are always
correct.

Q9. What is the relativistic kinetic energy of a particle?

Ans: Relativistic kinetic energy: KE = (m − m■)c² = m■c²(γ − 1). At low speeds this
reduces to the classical ½m■v². Total energy is E = mc² = γm■c², which includes rest
energy m■c² plus kinetic energy.

Q10. What is the Michelson-Morley experiment and its conclusion?

Ans: It was an experiment designed to detect the luminiferous ether by measuring

differences in light speed in perpendicular directions. Using an interferometer, they found
zero difference in light speed regardless of direction or Earth's motion. Conclusion: Ether
does not exist, and the speed of light is constant — a key foundation for Einstein's theory.

Q11. What is a Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction?

Ans: This is another name for length contraction, proposed by Lorentz and Fitzgerald
before Einstein. They suggested moving objects physically contract in the direction of
motion relative to ether. Einstein later gave the correct explanation — it is a consequence
of the nature of space-time, not a physical compression.

Q12. What do you mean by 'relativistic addition of velocities'?

Ans: When two speeds are close to c, simple addition (u = v + u') fails. Einstein's
formula: u = (v + u') / (1 + vu'/c²). This ensures the combined velocity never exceeds c,
consistent with the second postulate.

Q13. What is the relation between relativistic momentum and energy?

Ans: The relativistic energy-momentum relation is: E² = (pc)² + (m■c²)², where p =

relativistic momentum = γm■v. For a photon (m■ = 0): E = pc. This relation connects a
particle's energy with its momentum in all cases.

Q14. What is the principle of equivalence of mass and energy?

 Ans: Einstein's principle states that mass and energy are different forms of the same
thing. A body at rest has energy E■ = m■c² (rest energy). When mass is converted to
energy (as in nuclear reactions), enormous amounts of energy are released.

Q15. Why is ether unnecessary in Special Relativity?

Ans: The ether was proposed as the medium for light propagation. But Einstein's 2nd
postulate — that light speed is constant for all observers — removes the need for any
medium. Light (electromagnetic wave) can travel through vacuum. The Michelson-Morley
experiment's null result also confirmed ether has no physical reality.
 ■ Section C — 3-Mark Questions (×15)
■ Tip: Write a short paragraph with concept + explanation + formula (if needed). 5-8
sentences works well!

Q1. Describe the Michelson-Morley experiment and its significance.

Ans: The Michelson-Morley experiment (1887) aimed to detect the ether — a

hypothetical medium in which light was supposed to propagate. The apparatus used a
half-silvered mirror to split a light beam into two perpendicular paths, then recombined
them to form an interference pattern. If ether existed, the path along Earth's motion would
take longer, shifting the fringes. However, no fringe shift was observed even after rotating
the apparatus. This null result meant the speed of light is constant in all directions,
dealing a fatal blow to the ether concept. It directly inspired Einstein to propose the
Special Theory of Relativity. Its significance: it established that there is no preferred
frame of reference for light propagation.

Q2. Derive an expression for time dilation.

Ans: Consider a light clock on a moving spaceship. A light pulse travels between two
mirrors separated by distance d. In the rest frame of the clock, the time for one tick: t■ =
2d/c (proper time). For a stationary observer, the clock moves horizontally, so light
travels a longer diagonal path. Using the Pythagorean theorem: (ct/2)² = d² + (vt/2)².
Solving: t² (c² − v²) = 4d² = c²t■². Therefore: t = t■ / √(1 − v²/c²). Since √(1−v²/c²) < 1, t >
t■ — the moving clock runs slower. This is time dilation. The factor γ = 1/√(1−v²/c²) is
called the Lorentz factor.

Q3. Explain length contraction. Show that L = L■√(1 − v²/c²).

Ans: Length contraction is the reduction in the measured length of an object moving at
relativistic speed. Consider a rod of rest length L■ moving with velocity v. A stationary
observer measures the time ∆t for the rod to pass a fixed point: ∆t = L/v. In the rod's
frame, this time is proper time: ∆t■ = ∆t/γ (due to time dilation). The length seen by the
stationary observer: L = v·∆t■ = v·∆t/γ = L■/γ = L■√(1−v²/c²). Since √(1−v²/c²) < 1, L < L■
— the rod appears shorter. Contraction only occurs along the direction of motion;
transverse dimensions remain unchanged.

Q4. Write the Lorentz transformation equations and explain their meaning.

Ans: The Lorentz transformations relate space and time coordinates between two inertial
frames S and S', where S' moves with velocity v along the x-axis: x' = γ(x − vt), y' = y, z' =
z, t' = γ(t − vx/c²), where γ = 1/√(1−v²/c²). Meaning: x' gives the position in the moving
frame — it depends on both x and t (space and time mix). t' shows that time is not
absolute — it depends on position x too. At v << c, γ ≈ 1, and these reduce to the
classical Galilean: x' = x − vt, t' = t. Inverse transform: x = γ(x' + vt'), t = γ(t' + vx'/c²). These
equations are the mathematical backbone of Special Relativity.
Q5. Explain the relativistic addition of velocities with derivation.

Ans: In classical mechanics, if frame S' moves at v relative to S, and an object moves at
u' in S', then u = v + u'. But this can give speeds > c, which violates Relativity. Using
Lorentz transformations: dx' = γ(dx − v·dt), dt' = γ(dt − v·dx/c²). Dividing: u' = dx'/dt' =
(dx/dt − v) / (1 − v(dx/dt)/c²) = (u − v)/(1 − uv/c²). So the relativistic addition (forward): u =
(v + u') / (1 + vu'/c²). Even if v = c and u' = c: u = 2c/(1+1) = c. Speed never exceeds c!
This perfectly satisfies the second postulate of relativity.

Q6. Derive the expression for relativistic variation of mass with velocity.

Ans: In relativistic mechanics, momentum must be conserved in all frames. Consider two
identical particles colliding. Using Lorentz transformation of velocities and applying
conservation of momentum, we find that the classical momentum (m■v) is not conserved
unless we redefine mass as: m = m■ / √(1 − v²/c²) = γm■, where m■ is rest mass and v
is the particle's speed. Relativistic momentum: p = mv = γm■v. As v → c: m → ∞, so
infinite force would be needed to accelerate further. Therefore, no massive object can
reach or exceed the speed of light. This has been verified in particle accelerators where
electrons become much heavier at high speeds.

Q7. Derive Einstein's mass-energy relation E = mc².

Ans: Starting from the work-energy theorem: the kinetic energy gained equals work done
on the particle. dKE = F·dx = d(mv)/dt · dx = v · d(mv). With m = m■/√(1−v²/c²): after
integration from rest to velocity v, KE = mc² − m■c². Total energy E = KE + rest energy =
mc² − m■c² + m■c² = mc². So E = mc². At rest (v=0, m=m■): rest energy E■ = m■c².
This is the most famous equation in physics — it tells us mass IS energy in another form.
Nuclear reactions release this energy when a tiny bit of mass is converted.

Q8. Explain the relativistic Doppler effect for light.

Ans: The Doppler effect for light differs from sound because light needs no medium.
When source moves toward observer: f_obs = f■ √((1+v/c)/(1−v/c)) — frequency
increases (blue shift). When source moves away: f_obs = f■ √((1−v/c)/(1+v/c)) —
frequency decreases (red shift). Unlike sound, the Doppler effect for light is symmetric —
it doesn't matter if the source moves or the observer moves (only relative motion
matters). Application: Astronomers use the red shift of distant galaxies to confirm the
universe is expanding (Hubble's law). Also used in radar speed guns and satellite
systems.

Q9. What is simultaneity? Show that it is relative.

 Ans: Simultaneity means two events happen at the same time. In classical physics, if two
events are simultaneous for one observer, they're simultaneous for all. But in Special
Relativity, this is NOT true. Thought experiment: A light flash at the center of a moving
train reaches both ends simultaneously for the train passenger. But for a platform
observer, the train's back wall moves toward the flash and the front wall moves away. So
light reaches the back before the front — the events are NOT simultaneous for the
platform observer. Mathematically: ∆t' = γ(∆t − v∆x/c²). If ∆t = 0 but ∆x ≠ 0, then ∆t' ≠ 0.
Conclusion: Simultaneity depends on the frame of reference — it is relative, not absolute.

Q10. What are massless particles? Explain their properties.

Ans: Massless particles are particles with zero rest mass (m■ = 0). Examples: photon
(light), graviton (hypothetical). Properties: They always travel at exactly the speed of light
c — never slower. They carry energy: E = hf (where h is Planck's constant, f is frequency)
and momentum: p = E/c. From the energy-momentum relation E² = (pc)² + (m■c²)²: for
m■=0, E = pc. Although massless at rest, photons carry relativistic momentum, which is
why light can exert radiation pressure. They are never at rest — a photon at rest would
mean E = 0, i.e., it wouldn't exist.

Q11. Explain the concept of space-time in Special Relativity.

Ans: In classical physics, space (3D) and time are completely separate and independent.
Einstein's Relativity showed that space and time are interconnected — together forming
a 4-dimensional 'space-time'. An event is described by four coordinates: (x, y, z, t). The
space-time interval: s² = c²t² − x² − y² − z² is invariant (same for all inertial observers).
This means what one observer sees as pure spatial separation, another moving observer
sees as a mix of space and time. The Lorentz transformations are essentially rotations in
space-time. Minkowski first formulated this geometric view, so it is also called Minkowski
space-time.

Q12. State and explain the first postulate of Special Relativity with examples.

Ans: First Postulate (Principle of Relativity): All laws of physics (mechanics,

electromagnetism, etc.) have the same form in all inertial frames of reference. No inertial
frame is special or preferred. Example 1: If you throw a ball inside a smoothly moving
train, it behaves exactly as it would on the ground — you cannot tell you are moving from
this experiment alone. Example 2: Electromagnetic induction laws give the same results
whether the magnet or the coil moves. This postulate means absolute rest is
meaningless — only relative motion has physical meaning. It is an extension of Galileo's
principle of relativity (which applied only to mechanics) to all of physics.

Q13. What is the energy-momentum relation in Special Relativity?

 Ans: In relativistic mechanics, the relation connecting a particle's energy E and
momentum p is: E² = (pc)² + (m■c²)², where m■ is rest mass and c is speed of light. This
is derived from E = γm■c² and p = γm■v. Special cases: (a) For a particle at rest (p=0): E
= m■c² (rest energy). (b) For a massless particle (m■=0): E = pc (photons). (c) For slow
particles (v << c): reduces to classical KE = p²/2m■ plus rest energy. This relation is
fundamental in particle physics — used in colliders to find particle masses from
measured energies and momenta.

Q14. Write a short note on Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction.

Ans: Before Einstein, Lorentz and Fitzgerald proposed that objects physically contract
when moving through ether. Their formula was the same as length contraction: L = L■√(1
− v²/c²). However, they interpreted it as a physical compression of matter by the ether
pressure. Einstein showed the correct interpretation: length contraction is NOT a physical
compression but a consequence of the nature of space and time itself. A moving rod is
measured to be shorter because the front and back of the rod are measured at different
times by the stationary observer — a pure relativistic effect. The rod itself is undistorted in
its own rest frame. Hence the contraction is called apparent or observational.

Q15. Distinguish between classical (Newtonian) mechanics and relativistic

mechanics.

Ans: Classical mechanics: Valid at low speeds (v << c). Mass is constant. Time is
absolute — same for all observers. Length is absolute. Uses simple velocity addition u =
v + u'. Relativistic mechanics: Required at high speeds (v ~ c). Mass increases with
speed: m = γm■. Time is relative — moving clocks run slow. Length contracts in direction
of motion. Uses relativistic velocity addition: u = (v+u')/(1+vu'/c²). At low speeds (v → 0),
all relativistic formulas reduce to classical ones — this is called the correspondence
principle. Relativistic mechanics is the more complete, general theory.
 ■ Section D — 5-Mark Questions (×8)
■ Tip: Write neatly with headings. Cover: definition → explanation → derivation/formula
→ diagram if simple → conclusion. 10-12 sentences.

Q1. Describe the Michelson-Morley experiment in detail. What was its outcome
and significance?

■ Background

• Scientists in the 19th century believed light needed a medium called 'ether' to travel —
like sound needs air.

• The Michelson-Morley experiment (1887) was designed to detect Earth's motion

through this ether.

■■ Setup

• A light beam is split into two perpendicular beams using a half-silvered mirror.

• One beam travels along Earth's motion (ether wind direction), the other perpendicular
to it.

• After reflecting off mirrors, both beams recombine and form interference fringes.

■ Expected vs Actual Result

• Expected: The beam against the ether wind should be slower → fringe shift when
apparatus is rotated 90°.

• Actual Result: NO fringe shift was observed at all — even after many repetitions and
seasons.

■ Conclusion & Significance

• Speed of light is constant in all directions — ether does NOT exist.

• This null result proved there is no absolute rest frame.

• It directly inspired Einstein's 2nd postulate and became the experimental foundation of
Special Relativity.

Q2. Derive expressions for time dilation and length contraction. What do they
imply?

■■ Time Dilation

• Setup: A light clock has a pulse bouncing between two mirrors (height = d). Rest frame
time: t■ = 2d/c (proper time).

• For a moving observer, the clock moves sideways → light travels a longer diagonal
path.

• By Pythagoras: (ct/2)² = d² + (vt/2)² → t²(c²−v²) = c²t■²

→ t = t■ / √(1−v²/c²) = γt■. Since γ > 1, t > t■ ✓ Moving clock runs SLOW.

■ Length Contraction
 • A rod of rest length L■ moves at velocity v. Stationary observer measures time: ∆t =
L/v.

• Using Lorentz transformation: L = L■√(1−v²/c²) = L■/γ.

• Since L < L■ — the moving rod appears SHORTER in the direction of motion.

• Contraction only happens along the direction of motion — height/width unchanged.

■ Implications

• Time and length are NOT absolute — they depend on the observer's motion.

• Both effects vanish when v << c (we get back classical physics).

• Real evidence: Fast-moving muons reach Earth's surface because time dilation makes
them 'live longer'.

Q3. State and derive the Lorentz transformation equations.

■ Why Needed?

• Galilean transformation (x' = x−vt, t' = t) fails at high speeds — it allows speeds > c.

• We need new equations that keep speed of light = c in all frames.

■ Derivation

• Let S be at rest, S' move at v along x-axis. Assume: x' = γ(x − vt) ...(i)

• By symmetry, inverse: x = γ(x' + vt') ...(ii)

• For a light pulse: x = ct in S, x' = ct' in S'.

• Substituting and multiplying both equations: c²tt' = γ²tt'(c²−v²)

→ γ² = 1/(1−v²/c²) → γ = 1/√(1−v²/c²)

• Solving for t': t' = γ(t − vx/c²)

■ Final Equations

• x' = γ(x−vt), y' = y, z' = z, t' = γ(t−vx/c²)

• Inverse: x = γ(x'+vt'), t = γ(t'+vx'/c²)

• At v << c: γ → 1 and we recover Galilean transforms ✓

• These are the mathematical backbone of ALL of Special Relativity.

Q4. Derive the relativistic formula for addition of velocities.

■ Problem with Classical Addition

• Classical: u = v + u' can give results > c — which violates Relativity.

• We need a new formula that ensures combined speed never exceeds c.

■ Derivation

• Let S' move at v relative to S. A particle moves at u' in S'.

• From Lorentz: dx' = γ(dx − v·dt), dt' = γ(dt − v·dx/c²)

 • Velocity in S: u' = dx'/dt' = (dx − v·dt) / (dt − v·dx/c²)

• Dividing top and bottom by dt: u' = (u − v) / (1 − uv/c²)

• Rearranging for u: u = (v + u') / (1 + vu'/c²) ← Relativistic velocity addition

■ Verification

• Case 1: If u' = c → u = (v+c)/(1+v/c) = c. Speed of light stays c ✓

• Case 2: If v << c and u' << c → u ≈ v + u'. Recovers classical result ✓

• Conclusion: No combination of velocities can ever exceed c.

Q5. Derive Einstein's mass-energy relation E = mc². Explain its significance.

■ Derivation

• From work-energy theorem: KE = work done = ∫F·dx = ∫v·d(mv)

• With relativistic mass m = m■/√(1−v²/c²), after integrating from v=0 to v:

• KE = mc² − m■c²

• Total energy = KE + rest energy: E = mc² − m■c² + m■c²

→ E = mc² ✓

• Rest energy (at v=0): E■ = m■c² — energy exists even when the object is still!

■ Significance

1. Mass and energy are two forms of the same thing — they can convert into each
other.

2. Even 1 gram of mass = 9×10¹³ joules — enormously powerful.

3. Nuclear fission/fusion: tiny mass defect → huge energy release (nuclear reactors,
Sun).

4. Pair production: a photon can create matter (electron + positron) from pure energy.

5. Most famous equation in all of physics — verified countless times.

Q6. Explain relativistic variation of mass with velocity. What are its
consequences?

■ Concept

• Classical mechanics assumes mass is constant — but this breaks momentum

conservation at high speeds.

• Einstein showed: for momentum to be conserved in all frames, mass must increase
with velocity.

■ Formula

• m = m■ / √(1−v²/c²) = γm■, where m■ = rest mass, γ = Lorentz factor

• Relativistic momentum: p = mv = γm■v

■ How Mass Changes with Speed

 • v = 0: m = m■ (rest mass)

• v = 0.866c: m = 2m■ (doubles!)

• v = 0.99c: m ≈ 7.1m■

• v → c: m → ∞ (impossible to reach c)

■ Consequences

1. Infinite energy needed to reach c — no massive object can ever reach speed of light.

2. In particle accelerators (CERN), protons become hundreds of times heavier —

experimentally confirmed.

3. Only massless particles (photons) can travel at exactly c.

4. Relativistic KE = (m − m■)c² = m■c²(γ − 1). At low speeds, reduces to ½m■v².

Q7. Explain the relativistic Doppler effect. Derive expressions for observed
frequency.

■ What is it?

• When a light source moves, the observed frequency changes — this is the relativistic
Doppler effect.

• Unlike sound, light needs no medium, so only relative motion between source and
observer matters.

■ Formulas

• Source APPROACHING: f_obs = f■ √((1 + v/c) / (1 − v/c)) → f increases = BLUE

SHIFT

• Source RECEDING: f_obs = f■ √((1 − v/c) / (1 + v/c)) → f decreases = RED SHIFT

• Transverse (perpendicular): f_obs = f■/γ = f■√(1−v²/c²) → always red shift (no

classical equivalent!)

■ Applications

1. Astronomy: Red shift of distant galaxies proves the universe is expanding (Hubble's
Law).

2. Radar/Speed guns: Police radar measures car speeds using Doppler shift.

3. Medical: Doppler ultrasound detects blood flow speed inside the body.

4. GPS satellites: Relativistic Doppler corrections applied for accurate positioning.

Q8. Write an essay on Special Theory of Relativity — its postulates, predictions,

and experimental verifications.

■ Introduction

• In 1905, Einstein published Special Relativity — completely changing our

understanding of space, time, and matter.
 • Background: Michelson-Morley experiment showed light speed is constant in all
directions, contradicting classical physics.

■ Two Postulates

• 1st: Laws of physics are identical in all inertial frames — no frame is preferred.

• 2nd: Speed of light (c = 3×10■ m/s) is constant for ALL observers, regardless of
motion.

■ Key Predictions

• Time Dilation: t = γt■ — moving clocks run slow.

• Length Contraction: L = L■/γ — moving objects appear shorter.

• Mass-Energy: E = mc² — mass and energy are interchangeable.

• Relativistic Mass: m = γm■ — mass increases with speed.

• Relativity of Simultaneity — simultaneous events in one frame may not be in another.

■ Experimental Verifications

1. Muon decay: Fast muons from space survive to reach Earth due to time dilation —
confirmed.

2. Particle accelerators (CERN): Particles become heavier at high speed — confirmed.

3. Hafele-Keating (1971): Atomic clocks on aircraft ran slower — confirmed.

4. Nuclear reactors: E = mc² verified every day in operation.

5. GPS: Requires relativistic corrections to stay accurate.

■ Conclusion

• Special Relativity is the most experimentally verified theory in all of physics.

• It forms the foundation of modern science, technology, and our understanding of the
universe.
 ■ Section E — 8-Mark Questions (×3)
■ Tip: Write with bold sub-headings and clear bullet points. Cover everything —
background, derivation, formulas, examples, significance.

Q1. Describe the Michelson-Morley experiment. How did it lead to Special

Relativity? State the postulates and derive Lorentz transformations.

■ 1. Historical Background

• 19th century scientists believed light needed 'luminiferous ether' as a medium — like
sound needs air.

• Earth orbits the Sun, so it should move through the ether, creating an 'ether wind'.

• This ether wind would make light travel slower in one direction and faster
perpendicular to it.

■ 2. The Experiment (1887)

• An interferometer splits a light beam into two perpendicular paths (parallel and
perpendicular to ether wind).

• After reflecting off mirrors, the beams recombine and form interference fringes.

• If ether existed, rotating the apparatus 90° should shift the fringes.

• Result: NO fringe shift — in any direction, any season, any time of day.

■ 3. Conclusion

• Speed of light is the same in ALL directions — ether does NOT exist.

• There is no absolute rest frame in the universe.

• This directly contradicted Newtonian physics and demanded a new theory.

■ 4. Einstein's Two Postulates (1905)

• Postulate 1 (Principle of Relativity): All laws of physics are the same in all inertial
frames — no frame is special.

• Postulate 2 (Constancy of c): Speed of light (c = 3×10■ m/s) is the same for all
observers, regardless of source or observer motion.

■ 5. Derivation of Lorentz Transformations

• Let S be at rest, S' move at v along x-axis. Assume: x' = γ(x − vt) ...(i)

• Inverse by symmetry: x = γ(x' + vt') ...(ii)

• For light: x = ct in S, x' = ct' in S'.

• Substituting into (i): ct' = γt(c−v) ...(iii)

• Substituting into (ii): ct = γt'(c+v) ...(iv)

• Multiplying (iii)×(iv): c²tt' = γ²tt'(c²−v²) → γ² = 1/(1−v²/c²)

• Solving for t': t' = γ(t − vx/c²)

■ 6. Final Equations

• x' = γ(x−vt), y' = y, z' = z, t' = γ(t−vx/c²)

• Inverse: x = γ(x'+vt'), t = γ(t'+vx'/c²), γ = 1/√(1−v²/c²)

■ 7. What These Equations Predict

• Time dilation: t = γt■ — moving clocks run slow.

• Length contraction: L = L■/γ — moving objects appear shorter.

• Relativity of simultaneity — time and space are linked, not separate.

• At v << c: γ → 1 and we recover classical Galilean transforms.

Q2. Derive time dilation and length contraction. Discuss their physical
significance and experimental evidence.

■ Introduction

• Time dilation and length contraction are the two most famous predictions of Special
Relativity.

• Both come from just one requirement: the speed of light is constant for all observers.

■■ A. Time Dilation — Derivation

• Setup: A light clock in a rocket — pulse bounces vertically between mirrors (height =
d).

• Rest frame: time for one tick = t■ = 2d/c (this is the proper time).

• For ground observer: rocket moves sideways at v, so light travels a longer diagonal
path.

• By Pythagoras: (ct/2)² = d² + (vt/2)²

→ c²t² − v²t² = 4d² = c²t■²

→ t = t■ / √(1−v²/c²) = γt■

• Since γ > 1: t > t■ → The MOVING CLOCK RUNS SLOW ✓

■ B. Length Contraction — Derivation

• A rod of rest length L■ moves at v. Ground observer measures time ∆t = L/v for rod to
pass.

• In rod's frame, this is proper time: ∆t■ = ∆t/γ (time dilation).

• Using Lorentz transformation directly: L = L■√(1−v²/c²) = L■/γ

• Since L < L■: The MOVING ROD APPEARS SHORTER ✓

• Contraction is only along direction of motion — height and width stay the same.

■ C. Physical Significance

1. Time and length are NOT absolute — they depend on the observer's state of motion.

2. These are real, measurable effects — not illusions or tricks.

3. Both effects become noticeable only when v is close to c.

 4. At v → 0: both formulas reduce to classical (t = t■, L = L■).

■ D. Experimental Evidence

• Muon Decay: Muons at ~0.98c have half-life 2.2 µs at rest. Should decay in 660 m —
but reach Earth from 10 km up!

• Why? Time dilation makes their internal clock run slow — they 'live longer' from Earth's
view. Confirmed!

• Hafele-Keating (1971): Atomic clocks on aircraft ran slower than ground clocks —
exactly as predicted.

• Particle accelerators: Unstable particles live much longer at high speed — matches
γt■ perfectly.

■ Conclusion

• Time dilation and length contraction are among the most precisely tested results in all
of physics.

• They prove that space and time are flexible — not fixed — and depend on relative
motion.

Q3. Derive E = mc². Explain variation of mass with velocity and discuss its
applications.

■ Introduction

• Einstein's Special Relativity revealed two connected truths: mass increases with
speed, and mass and energy are equivalent.

• These two results together explain some of the most powerful phenomena in the
universe.

■■ A. Variation of Mass with Velocity

• Classical mechanics: mass is constant. But this breaks momentum conservation at

relativistic speeds.

• For momentum to be conserved in all inertial frames (after Lorentz transformation):

• m = m■ / √(1−v²/c²) = γm■, where m■ = rest mass

• Relativistic momentum: p = mv = γm■v

■ How Mass Grows with Speed

• v = 0: m = m■

• v = 0.6c: m = 1.25m■

• v = 0.866c: m = 2m■

• v = 0.99c: m ≈ 7.1m■

• v → c: m → ∞ (impossible — infinite energy needed)

■ B. Derivation of E = mc²

• Work-energy theorem: KE = ∫F·dx = ∫v·d(mv)

 • With m = γm■, integrating from v=0 to v gives: KE = mc² − m■c²

• Total energy = KE + rest energy:

• E = (mc² − m■c²) + m■c² = mc²

• Rest energy (v=0): E■ = m■c² — energy exists even when fully at rest!

• Energy-Momentum relation: E² = (m■c²)² + (pc)²

• For massless particles (m■=0): E = pc (e.g. photons)

■ C. Applications of E = mc²

1. Nuclear Fission: U-235 splits → small mass defect ∆m → huge energy E = ∆mc².
Powers nuclear reactors.

2. Nuclear Fusion: Sun fuses H → He, releases ∆mc² — powers stars for billions of
years.

3. Pair Production: High-energy photon → electron + positron. Energy converts to mass.

4. Particle Accelerators: Colliding particles create new particles from kinetic energy via
E = mc².

5. PET Scans: Positron annihilation produces gamma rays — energy = m■c². Used in
medical imaging.

■ Conclusion

• E = mc² is the most famous and powerful equation in physics.

• It tells us: mass IS energy — just stored in a different form.

• Even 1 gram of mass = 9×10¹³ joules — enough to power a city.

• This equation underpins nuclear energy, astrophysics, particle physics, and our
understanding of the cosmos.
■ You've reached the end! Good luck for your exams! ■ You're
going to do great — just read this guide calmly before the exam.
Believe in yourself! ■