STORAGE OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE

AFS-322
By: Dr. Deep Lata

Introduction

The moment a crop is detached from its parent plant, the natural support system that supplied
water, nutrients, and protective compounds is abruptly lost. From that point onward,
harvested fruits and vegetables remain biologically active living entity, without any
replenishment. They continue to respire, consuming stored sugars and oxygen while releasing
carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat. These on-going metabolic activities accelerate the
breakdown of cellular structures, leading to softening, loss of flavour, nutrient degradation,
and eventually lead to spoilage.

Temperature plays a critical role in this process. For horticultural commodities, the rate of
respiration approximately doubles with every 10°C increase in temperature which
significantly shortens the shelf life under warm conditions. Simultaneously, transpiration
causes moisture loss, resulting in wilting, shrivelling, and weight loss, while mechanical
injuries during handling create entry points for microbial infection.

Therefore, storage is not a stage that begins after transport or packaging, it starts
immediately at harvest. Every delay in cooling or proper handling directly leads into quality
loss. The fundamental objectives of storage are: to slow metabolic activities (respiration,
ethylene production, transpiration loss, etc.), minimize water loss, reduce physical
damage, and inhibit microbial growth. Effective postharvest management is thus essential
to preserve quality, extend shelf life, and reduce postharvest losses throughout the supply
chain.

NEED OF STORAGE IN HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE

1. Reduce post-harvest losses: Prevents spoilage, rotting, and damage after harvesting.
Proper storage minimizes rotting, wilting, shrivelling, and physiological disorders.

For example, potatoes stored under ventilated cold conditions-reduced sprouting and decay,
onions stored in dry and well-aerated structures-less fungal infection and weight loss. Cold
storage of tomatoes and grapes-reduce bruising and spoilage during transportation and
marketing.

2. Extends shelf life: Slow down the respiration and ripening processes of fruits and
vegetables.

For example- Apple stored in cold storage at 0–4°C with 90–95% RH can remain fresh up to
8 months. Under controlled atmosphere (CA) storage, varieties such as Red Delicious and
Granny Smith can be stored up to 10–12 months.

Banana: Mature green bananas stored at 13°C with 85–95% RH can be stored for about 2–4
weeks.

Mango: ripe mangoes stored at 10–13°C and 85–90% RH can maintain good quality up to
2–3 weeks depending on variety and maturity stage.

Grapes: Table grapes stored at 0–1°C with 90–95% RH can be preserved for 2–4 months.
Cold storage combined with sulphur dioxide treatment helps reduce fungal decay.

Potato: Potatoes for table use are stored at 4–7°C and 90–95% RH, up to 4–9 months.
Onion: Dry onions are stored at 0–2°C with 65–70% RH or under well-ventilated ambient
conditions for 4–6 months with minimal sprouting and rotting.

Tomato: Mature green tomatoes stored at 12–15°C can remain marketable for about 2–4
weeks.

Leafy Vegetables (Spinach and Coriander): Leafy greens are stored at 0–5°C with 95–
98% RH, for about 7–14 days, whereas at room temperature they may wilt within 1–2 days.

Carrot: Carrots stored at 0°C with 95–98% RH can maintain crispness and nutritional
quality for 4–6 months.

Dragon Fruit: Dragon Fruit stored at 6–10°C and 85–90% RH can maintain acceptable
quality for 2–4 weeks, helping reduce postharvest deterioration during transport and
marketing.
3. Maintain produce quality: Preserves freshness, texture, flavour, colour, and nutritional
value. Proper storage preserves important quality attributes such as colour, flavour,
texture, aroma, and nutrient content. Mangoes stored at recommended temperatures
maintain better taste and firmness, while carrots stored under high humidity conditions
retain their crispness and carotene content. Citrus fruits maintain juice quality and
vitamin C during refrigerated storage. In vegetables like peas and broccoli, low-
temperature storage helps preserve chlorophyll and prevents yellowing.
4. Ensures regular market supply: Allows produce to be available in the market even
during off-season. Storage enables year-round availability of seasonal produce by
balancing supply during peak harvest and lean periods. For example, cold-stored apples,
pears, potatoes, and onions are supplied to markets throughout the year even after the
harvesting season ends. This stabilizes consumer availability and supports processing
industries that require continuous raw material supply.
5. Better price for farmers: help to avoid glut situation. Farmers can store produce and
sell when market prices are favourable. During peak harvesting periods, excessive
market arrival often causes a sharp decline in prices. Storage allows farmers to avoid
distress sales and sell produce when market demand and prices improve. For example:
cold storage and CA storage of apple, pear, and strawberry help to fetch higher prices
throughout the year. Potato growers commonly use cold storage facilities to sell produce
gradually over several months. Onion storage structures help farmers wait for favourable
market conditions and reduce economic losses.
6. Prevent microbial growth: Proper storage conditions (temperature, humidity, and
ventilation) reduce the growth of pathogens and delay decay. Grapes stored under
sulphur dioxide-treated cold storage show minimal fungal spoilage caused by moulds.
Cold storage reduces grey mould in strawberry, bacterial soft rot in vegetables such as
cabbage and cauliflower. Proper storage also minimizes contamination during
transportation and handling.
7. Facilitate Long-Distance Transport and Export: Storage technologies such as
refrigerated storage, controlled atmosphere storage, and modified atmosphere packaging
help maintain produce quality during long transportation and export. Grapes,
pomegranates, kiwi, and dragon fruit are often stored under controlled conditions before
export to maintain freshness and consumer acceptability in international markets.
8. Support Food Processing Industries: Many processing industries require a continuous
supply of raw materials throughout the year. Storage helps maintain the availability of
 fruits and vegetables for processing into juice, jam, puree, frozen products, and
dehydrated products. For example: tomatoes for ketchup production and mangoes for
pulp processing

9. Reduce Wastage and Improve Food Security: Efficient storage systems reduce food
wastage and improve the utilization of horticultural produce. By minimizing quantitative and
qualitative losses, storage contributes to food and nutritional security, better nutrition, and
increased profitability across the supply chain.

FACTORS AFFECTING STORAGE OF PRODUCE

1. Temperature

Temperature is the most critical factor influencing storage life of produce. Lower
temperatures slow down the respiration, ripening, and microbial growth. Every 10°C
increase doubles the respiration rate and reduces shelf life. Extremely low temperatures
may cause chilling injury or freezing injury in sensitive crops.

Examples: Apple: 0–1°C (long storage), freezing injury below 0°C, Banana, mango, papaya,
guava: chilling injury below 13°C (green mature stage), Ripe Mango: 8–10°C (optimum
storage temp.)

2. Relative Humidity (RH): Humidity controls water loss (transpiration): High RH (85–
95%) prevents wilting and shrivelling. Too high RH leads to fungal growth and decay

Examples: Leafy vegetables: 95–98% RH, fresh fruits and vegetablesz-85-95% RH,
Onion/garlic: 65–75% RH (low humidity needed)

3. Atmospheric Composition (O₂, CO₂, Ethylene): Low O₂ & high CO₂ slow down the
respiration and other metabolic activitires (CA storage). Ethylene accelerates ripening and
senescence in fruits and vegetables

Examples: Apples stored in controlled atmosphere, Bananas ripened using exogenous

ethylene, Leafy vegetables damaged by ethylene exposure
4. Type and Nature of Commodity: Climacteric fruits: Continue ripening (banana,
mango), Non-climacteric fruits: Do not ripen further (grapes, citrus), Structure (peel
thickness, natural wax, trichomes, etc.), and water content affect the storage life.

Examples: Tomato-moderate storage life, Strawberry, leafy vegetables-highly perishable,

potato, onion-longer shelf life

5. Maturity Stage at Harvest: Immature produce have poor quality, higher moisture loss,
shrivelling, etc., overripe produce have rapid spoilage and faster senescence.

Examples: Mango harvested mature but unripe for transport, Tomato harvested at breaker
stage for distant market, fully red colour stage for local market.

6. Microbial Activity: Fungi and bacteria cause decay and spoilage, especially under warm
and humid conditions.

Examples: Anthracnose in mango, banana, papaya, guava (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides),

Soft rot in vegetables (Erwinia crotovora), Grey mould in strawberry (Botrytis cinerea)

7. Mechanical Damage: Bruising, cuts, and injury during harvesting/handling of produce

causes secondary infection, higher moisture loss and spoilage. These injuries increase
respiration and microbial infection.

Examples: Bruised apples spoil faster, Cracked tomatoes decay quickly

8. Packaging and Handling: Proper packaging reduces damage and moisture loss, Poor
ventilation leads to heat build-up and spoilage

Examples: Use of ventilated crates/bags instead of gunny bags for potato, onion and garlic,
MAP (modified atmosphere packaging) packaging for fresh produce, shrink wrap packaging
for capsicum, pomegranate, oranges, kiwi.
9. Pre-cooling and Cold Chain: Rapid removal of field heat improves storage life. Improper
cold chain leads to more load on cold storage and rapid deterioration (moisture loss,
shrivelling, spoilage).

Examples: Hydro-cooling and vacuum cooling for leafy vegetables, Refrigerated

transportation for exporting fruits.

10. Storage Duration: Longer storage increases risk of quality loss even under ideal
conditions, shelf life is limited. Always follow first in first out (FIFO) or first expiry first out
(FEFO) rule.
PRINCIPLES OF STORAGE
1. Control respiration rate:
2. Control transpiration loss:
3. Slowdown the metabolic activities
4. Control of spoilage

TYPES OF STORAGE
A. Traditional / low cost storage technologies
B. Improved storage methods/ high cost storage technology
A. Traditional / low cost storage technologies

i. In situ storage

The simplest natural storage method is leaving the crop in the ground – known as in situ
storage. Root crops such as carrots, parsnips, turnips, and beets are well-suited to this
approach. Vegetables like carrots and parsnips can even be left in the garden under a layer of
insulating mulch and harvested as needed through the winter months. The soil acts as a
natural temperature buffer, protecting produce from the extremes of ambient air. However,
this method requires careful monitoring of weather conditions (unexpected hard
frosts, waterlogging, or pest infestation) can compromise an entire crop quickly. Farmers
using in situ storage need contingency plans for emergency harvesting if conditions
deteriorate.

ii. Pit and trench storage

Pit and trench storage takes advantage of the earth’s natural insulating properties. For in-
ground pit storage, the soil is excavated 6 to 12 inches deep and lined with straw or other
insulating material; produce is placed inside and then covered with additional insulation, a
layer of soil, and a tarp to repel water. These underground structures maintain relatively
stable temperatures through seasonal variations, making them suitable for root vegetables and
certain fruits like apples and pears. The main limitations are restricted access – particularly in
regions where the soil freezes – and the risk of rodent damage if the pit is not properly
secured with wire mesh or similar protection.

iii. Clamp storage

Clamp storage is an above-ground variation of pit storage. Crops such as potatoes, beets,
carrots, turnips, cabbage, and other hardy root vegetables are mounded on a base layer of
straw, covered with successive layers of straw, and then capped with compacted
soil. Ventilation is provided by leaving a tuft of straw protruding from the top and sides of the
clamp to allow excess moisture and gases to escape, preventing anaerobic conditions and rot.
Clamps require no energy input and minimal materials, making them a practical low-cost
option for larger quantities of root produce. One important management note: it is possible to
open one end of a clamp to remove vegetables and then reseal it, though careful attention is
needed to avoid introducing moisture or pests into the remaining stock.

Evaporative cooling structures

It requires minimal investment but deliver meaningfully better conditions than field-side
storage. These are particularly important in tropical and subtropical climates where ambient
temperatures accelerate deterioration.

Example: Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC)

The Zero Energy Cool Chamber (ZECC) is one of the most significant post-harvest
innovations for smallholder farmers in warm climates. It is an eco-friendly, low-cost
technology built from locally available materials like bricks, sand, bamboo, rice straw,
and jute cloth – and it requires no electricity to operate. The ZECC was first developed by
S.K. Roy and S.R. Khurdiya at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi,
working on the principle of evaporative cooling, where water evaporating from wet sand in
the double-walled structure absorbs latent heat and lowers the internal temperature.

The structure consists of a double-walled brick chamber with the cavity between the walls
packed with riverbed sand kept continuously moist. A bamboo-framed cover of jute cloth
or vetiver grass tops the chamber, and a thatched shed protects it from direct sun and
rain. Research has shown that a ZECC can maintain internal temperatures 5-8°C below
ambient and keep relative humidity above 90%. In practical terms, the technology extended
the marketable storage life of crops including potato, tomato, brinjal, mango, banana, and
spinach by 3 to 15 days compared to ambient conditions. For marginal farmers who cannot
afford refrigeration, this extension can be the difference between selling produce at a fair
price and absorbing a total loss.
Storage life (days) Vegetables Months Storage life (days)
Vegetables Months
Ambient ZECC Ambient ZECC
Bitter May-June 2 6 Green May- June 3 6
gourd chillies
Carrot Feb-Mar 5 12 Ladies May- June 1 6
finger
Cauliflower Feb-Mar 7 12 Peas Feb-Mar 5 10
Cucumber May- June 3 8 Spinach Feb-Mar 3 8

COLD STORAGE
Cold storage is a system with thermal insulation and refrigeration in which perishables
commodities can be stored for a set period of time under controlled conditions of temperature
and humidity
Adequate airflow is needed to distribute refrigerated air throughout the facility to maintain
uniform air temperatures. Most cold storage is designed to have an air flow capacity of 0.3
m3/min/ tonne of product (100 ft3/ min/ton). In long-term storage, the product will reach a set-
point temperature within a few days to about 1 week after the cold room is filled. Airflow can
then be reduced to about 20 to 40% of the design capacity and still maintain adequate
temperature uniformity. This can be done by intermittent operation of fans or by keeping the
fans constantly on but reducing their speed with an electronic speed control system. Slow air
speeds reduce moisture loss from the product (Kroca and Hellickson 1993).
Refrigeration system in cold storage: A refrigeration system is the mechanism or
technology used to produce and maintain low temperatures by removing heat from a space or
substance.
There are five basic components of a refrigeration system, these are:
1. Evaporator : The purpose of the evaporator is to remove unwanted heat from the
product, via the liquid refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the
evaporator is boiling at a low-pressure. To enable the transfer of heat, the temperature
of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the temperature of the product being
cooled.
2. Compressor: The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-temperature, low
pressure vapour from the evaporator via the suction line. Once drawn, the vapour is
compressed. When vapour is compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the
compressor transforms the vapour from a low-temperature vapour to a high-
temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure. The vapour is then released from
the compressor in to the discharge line
3. Condenser: The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the refrigerant to the
outside air. The condenser is usually installed on the reinforced roof of the building,
which enables the transfer of heat. The high-pressure vapour within the condenser is
then cooled to the point where it becomes a liquid refrigerant once more, whilst
retaining some heat. The liquid refrigerant then flows from the condenser in to the
refrigerant line.
4. Expansion Valve: Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at
the end of the refrigerant line, before the evaporator. The high-pressure refrigerant
reaches the expansion valve, having come from the condenser. The valve then reduces
the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the orifice, which is located inside
the valve.
5. Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product. example: liquid nitrogen
Refrigeration cycle: The refrigeration cycle (shown in Diagram) begins with the refrigerant
in the evaporator.
 At this stage the refrigerant in the evaporator is in liquid form and is used to absorb
heat from the product. When leaving the evaporator, the refrigerant has absorbed a
quantity of heat from the product and is a low-pressure, low-temperature vapour.
 This low-pressure, low-temperature vapour is then drawn from the evaporator by the
compressor. When vapour is compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the
compressor transforms the vapour from a low-temperature vapour to a high-
temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure.
 This high-temperature, high-pressure vapour is pumped from the compressor to the
condenser; where it is cooled by the surrounding air, or in some cases by fan
assistance. The vapour within the condenser is cooled only to the point where it
becomes a liquid once more. The heat, which has been absorbed, is then conducted to
the outside air. At this stage the liquid refrigerant is passed through the expansion
valve.
• The expansion valve reduces the pressure of the liquid refrigerant and therefore
reduces the temperature. The cycle is complete when the refrigerant flows into the
evaporator, from the expansion valve, as a low-pressure, low-temperature liquid.

Modified atmosphere (MA) storage and packaging

Modified atmosphere (MA) storage takes a less precise but more accessible approach. Rather
than continuously controlling gas composition in a sealed room, MA storage uses packaging
materials (MAP) that allow the natural respiration of the produce to gradually shift the
internal atmosphere toward lower oxygen and higher carbon dioxide. The gas composition
within a modified atmosphere will change over time due to the respiration rate of the produce
and the permeability of the surrounding packaging. This makes it less precise than CA
storage, but far more accessible and cost-effective for small and medium operations, and it is
widely used for fresh-cut vegetables and retail packaging.

Controlled atmosphere (CA)

Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage involves maintaining an atmospheric composition that is
different from air composition (about 78% N 2, 21% O2, and 0.03% CO2); generally, O2 below
8% and CO2 above 1% are used.
Biological Basis of CA Effects: Exposure of fresh horticultural crops to low O2 and/or
elevated CO2 atmospheres within the range tolerated by each commodity reduces their
respiration and ethylene production rates; however, outside this range respiration and
ethylene production rates can be stimulated, indicating a stress response. This stress can
contribute to incidence of physiological disorders and increased susceptibility to decay. The
shift from aerobic to anaerobic respiration depends on fruit maturity and ripeness stage (gas
diffusion characteristics), temperature, and duration of exposure to stress-inducing
Note: N2 is an inert component of CA. Replacing N 2 with argon or helium may increase
diffusivity of O2, CO2, and C2 H4, but they have no direct effect on plant tissues and are more
expensive than N2 as a CA component.
Beneficial Effects of CA (Optimum Composition for the Commodity)—
1. Retardation of senescence (including ripening) and associated biochemical and
physiological changes, particularly slowing down rates of respiration, ethylene
production, softening, and compositional changes.
2. Reduction of sensitivity to ethylene action at O2 levels 1%.
3. Alleviation of certain physiological disorders such as chilling injury of avocado and
some storage disorders, including scald of apples.
4. CA can have a direct or indirect effect on postharvest pathogens (bacteria and fungi) and
consequently decay incidence and severity. For example, CO 2 at 10 to 15% significantly
inhibits development of botrytis rot on strawberries, cherries, and other perishables.
5. Low O2 (<1%)and/or elevated CO2 (40 to 60%) can be a useful tool for insect control in
some fresh and dried fruits, flowers, and vegetables and in dried nuts and grains.
Detrimental Effects of CA (Above or Below Optimum Composition for the Commodity)
1. Initiation and/or aggravation of certain physiological disorders such as internal browning
in apples and pears, brown stain of lettuce, and chilling injury of some commodities.
2. Irregular ripening of fruits, such as banana, mango, pear, and tomato, can result from
exposure to O2 levels below 2% and/or CO2 levels above 5%.
3. Development of off flavours and off odours at very low O2 concentrations (as a result of
anaerobic respiration) and very high CO2 levels (as a result of fermentative metabolism).
4. Increased susceptibility to decay when the fruit is physiologically injured by too low O 2
or too high CO2 concentrations.
Applications of CA to cut flowers are very limited because decay caused by Botrytis cinerea
is often a limiting factor to postharvest life, and fungistatic CO 2 levels damage flower petals
and/or associated stem and leaves. Also, it is less expensive to treat flowers with anti-
ethylene chemicals than use of CA to minimize ethylene action.
Commercial use of CA storage is greatest on apples and pears worldwide, less on cabbages,
sweet onions, kiwifruits, avocados, persimmons, pomegranates, and nuts and dried fruits and
vegetables (table 1). Atmospheric modification during long-distance transport is used with
apples, asparagus, avocados, bananas, broccoli, cane berries, cherries, figs, kiwifruits,
mangos, melons, nectarines, peaches, pears, plums, and strawberries. Continued
technological developments in the future to provide CA during transport and storage at a
reasonable cost (positive benefit/cost ratio) are essential to greater applications on fresh
horticultural commodities and their products.
Table 1. Classification of horticultural crops according to their CA storage potential at
optimum temperatures and RH.
Storage Commodities
(Months)
>12 Almond, Brazil nut, cashew, filbert, macadamia, pecan, pistachio, walnut, dried
fruits and vegetables
6 to 12 Some cultivars of apples and European pears
3 to 6 Cabbage, Chinese cabbage, kiwifruit, persimmon, pomegranate, some cultivars
of Asian pears
1 to 3 Avocado, banana, cherry, grape (no SO2 ), mango, olive, onion (sweet
cultivars), some cultivars of nectarine, peach and plum, tomato (mature-green)
Difference between MA and CA storage
S.N. MA storage CA storage
1. Modified Atmosphere (MA) storage Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storage
refers to altering the composition of involves precise and continuous
gases (O₂, CO₂, N₂) inside a package regulation of atmospheric gases along with
or storage environment, usually without temperature and humidity in a sealed
continuous control. storage chamber.
Examples: Fresh-cut vegetables in Examples: Apples stored for 9-12 months,
sealed trays, Salad leaves in plastic Pears and kiwifruit storage for 6–9 months
films, Packaged fruits in supermarkets
2. Gas composition changes passively Cylinders and filters are used to maintain
(due to respiration) or actively (gas the required gaseous composition precisely
flushing), No strict monitoring after
sealing
3. Poor texture, flavour and nutritional Maintains texture, flavour, and nutritional
quality. development of physiological quality, Reduces physiological disorders
disorders due to poor control on gases
e.g. black heart in potato,
4. Short- to medium-term storage Significantly extends shelf life up to 11-12
months. E.g. Apple
5. Simple and low cost, Easy to High cost and technical complexity,
implement, Suitable for retail and Requires skilled management, Suitable for
transport bulk storage and export
6. Risk of anaerobic respiration if gases No risk as gases are precisely maintained
are not optimal and regulated.

Commodity O₂ (%) CO₂ (%) Remarks

Apple 1–3 1–5 Very responsive to CA; long-term storage
Banana 2–5 2–5 Avoid very low O₂ (risk of off-flavor)
Mango 3–5 5–8 Helps delay ripening
Papaya 2–5 5–8 Extends shelf life
Commodity O₂ (%) CO₂ (%) Remarks
Grapes 3–5 5–10 Often combined with SO₂ treatment
Citrus (orange,
5–10 0–5 Sensitive to high CO₂
lemon)
Strawberry 5–10 15–20 High CO₂ reduces decay
Pineapple 2–5 5–10 Chilling sensitive crop
Pear 1–3 0–3 Similar to apple
Kiwifruit 1–2 3–5 Long storage possible

Vegetables
Commodity O₂ (%) CO₂ (%) Remarks

Tomato 3–5 3–5 Depends on maturity stage

Potato 2–5 3–5 Used for sprout control

Onion 3–5 3–5 Requires low humidity also

Cabbage 2–5 2–5 Good CA response

Carrot 2–5 0–5 High CO₂ may cause off-flavor

Broccoli 1–2 5–10 Very sensitive to O₂ levels

Lettuce 1–3 0–5 Low O₂ extends freshness

Spinach 1–3 5–10 High respiration rate

Cauliflower 2–5 2–5 Moderate response

Capsicum (pepper) 2–5 3–5 Sensitive to chilling