UNIT OPERATIONS - II

FOR
THIRD YEAR DIPLOMA COURSE IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/TECHNOLOGY
PETROCHEMICAL AND POLYMER ENGINEERING

K. A. GAVHANE
Vice Principal & Head of Chemical Engg. Dept.
S.E. Society's Satara Polytechnic,
Satara.

N0901
UNIT OPERATIONS - II ISBN 978-81-96396-12-1
Twenty Ninth Edition : August 2015
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 PREFACE TO THE TWENTY NINTH EDITION

I am very happy to present this Twenty-ninth edition of the book –

Unit Operations – II in SI units to students of diploma in chemical engineering and
chemical technology.

The subject matter is divided into twelve chapters and sufficient number of
illustrative examples are given on each chapter. The entire matter is revised, arranged
in a proper order with simplified diagrams, checked thoroughly for corrections and put in
a simple language so that the students of diploma in chemical engineering will grasp
it very easily.

A lot of additional matter is incorporated wherever necessary so as to make the book

more complete.

The topic-Try yourself with answers is included as Appendix – I in this edition which
will positively help students to judge the depth of the subject matter. This book is also
very much useful for degree students of chemical and petrochemical engineering.

I am very thankful to staff members of chemical engineering departments located

throughout the Maharashtra for recommending this book right from the first edition.

I hope positively that students as well as the staff members will appreciate the
content of the book.

I would welcome and appreciate suggestions and comments from students and staff
members for improving the quality of the book.

PUNE K. A. GAVHANE
November 2014 kagavhane @ [Link]
Mobile : 9850242440
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1.1 – 1.8

2. Conduction 2.1 – 2.60

3. Convection 3.1 – 3.78

4. Radiation 4.1 – 4.18

5. Heat Exchange Equipments 5.1 – 5.24

6. Evaporation 6.1 – 6.38

7. Diffusion 7.1 – 7.36

8. Distillation 8.1 – 8.80

9. Gas Absorption 9.1 – 9.30

10. Liquid-Liquid Extraction 10.1 – 10.24

11. Crystallisation 11.1 – 11.28

12. Drying 12.1 – 12.32

APPENDICES :

Appendix – I : Try Yourself A.1 – A.7

Appendix – II : Thermal Conductivity Data A.8 – A.8

Appendix – III : Steam Tables A.9 – A.15

•••
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Chemical Engineering is the branch of engineering which is concerned with the design
and operation of industrial chemical plants. A chemical plant is required to carry out
transformation of raw materials into desired products efficiently, economically and safely.
Chemical Engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with the production of
bulk materials from basic raw materials in a most economical and safe way by chemical
means.
The profession of chemical engineering deals with the industrial processes in which raw
materials are converted or separated into useful products. The treatment of raw materials,
chemical transformation of the raw materials and separation of the desired product from a
product mixture are the usual stages of any chemical manufacturing activity. A chemical
engineer converts raw materials into useful finished products of a greater value in an optimal
way through processes involving physical and/or chemical (or biochemical) changes.
A chemical engineer is the one who is skilled in development, design, construction,
operation and control of industrial plants in which matter undergoes a change. He must
choose proper raw materials and must see that the products manufactured by him meet the
specifications set by the customers. Chemical engineers work in four main segments of the
chemical process industries : research and development, design, manufacturing/production
and sales.
The traditional roles of chemical engineers include teaching, research and development,
design, production, plant maintenance and trouble shooting, plant management, marketing,
entrepreneurship, and consultancy. Chemical engineers play a vital role in the development
and production of various essential needs of mankind like food, clothing, housing, health,
communication, energy, utilisation of natural resources, and protection of the environment.
Chemical engineers are engaged in the production of fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides,
food products, drugs and pharmaceuticals, plastics, synthetic fibers, dyes and dye
intermediates, paints and lacquers, synthetic fuels, paper, nuclear energy, synthetic rubber,
etc.
Chemical process : Every industrial chemical process is designed to produce
economically a desired product from given raw materials through a series of steps involving

(1.1)
Unit Operations - II 1.2 Introduction

physical or chemical change in the material under consideration. The steps involving certain
physical changes are known as the unit operations; whereas the step(s) involving chemical
changes in the material under consideration (i.e., chemical reactions) are known as the unit
process(es). Fig. 1.1 shows a typical chemical process.

Raw materials Physical Chemical Physical Product(s)

treatment treatment treatment
step(s) step(s) step(s)

Recycle
Fig. 1.1 : Typical chemical process
The raw materials undergo physical treatment steps so as to put them in the form in
which they can be very easily reacted. Then, they pass through the reactor in which chemical
transformation of some or all of the raw materials takes place by one or more chemical
reactions. The product mixture comprising of the products produced and unreacted raw
materials undergo further physical treatments - separation, purification to obtain the desired
product. So, any chemical process carried out on a commercial scale, can be thought of as a
series of the unit operations and unit process(es) performed on the raw materials in a correct
sequence from the feed to the product end.
UNIT OPERATIONS
The concept of unit operations was introduced by A.D. Little in 1905.
The operations carried out in the process industries involving physical changes in the
system under consideration are regarded as the unit operations.
Features :
1. These are physical in nature, i.e., changes involved in them are primarily physical.
2. These are common to all types of diverse industries.
3. Individual operations have common techniques and are based on the same scientific
principles regardless of the material being processed.
4. They are independent of industries in which they are carried out.
5. Practical methods of carrying them out may be more or less different in different
industries.
Hence, the concentration of solutions by evaporation is a unit operation (involving a
change in the concentration of the solution) that can be carried out in all types of diverse
industries. This operation is basically similar in the handling of sugar or salt, or fruit juices
with some differences in the most suitable arrangements.
They are basically used to conduct the physical steps of preparing the reactants,
separating and purifying the products, recycling the unconverted reactants and controlling the
energy transfer in and out of the chemical reactor.
A physical change resulting in a change in any property of matter occurs by the action of
some sort of driving force. The normal driving force in heat transfer is a temperature
difference.
Unit Operations - II 1.3 Introduction

Broadly, unit operations are Mechanical Operations, e.g., size reduction (crushing and
grinding), filtration, size separation, etc. Fluid Flow Operations in which the pressure
difference acts as a driving force, Heat Transfer (Operations) in which the temperature
difference acts as a driving force and Mass Transfer Operations in which the concentration
difference/ gradient acts as a driving force, e.g., distillation, gas absorption, drying, etc.
The theory of unit operations is based on the fundamental laws of physical sciences such
as law of conservation of mass, law of conservation of energy, Newton's laws of motion,
Ideal gas law, Dalton's law of partial pressure, Newton's law of cooling, Raoult's law, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF UNIT OPERATIONS
1. Fluid flow : It is concerned with the principles that determine the flow or
transportation of any fluid from one location to another.
2. Mechanical operations : These involve size reduction of solids by crushing,
grinding and pulverising, mixing, conveying and mechanical separations such as decantation,
filtration, settling and sedimentation, screening, flotation, etc.
3. Heat transfer : It deals with a study of the rate of heat energy transfer from one
place to another owing to the existence of a temperature difference. It deals with the
determination of rates of heat transfer. Heat transfer occurs in heating, cooling, phase
change, evaporation, drying, distillation, etc. The modes/mechanisms by which heat transfer
may occur are conduction, convection and radiation.
4. Mass transfer : It is concerned with the transfer of mass from one phase to another
distinct phase. Mass transfer operations depend on molecules diffusing or vaporising from
one distinct phase to another and are based on (or they utilise) differences in vapour pressure,
solubility, or diffusivity. Molecular diffusion and turbulent/eddy diffusion are the
mechanisms of mass transfer. Mass transfer operations include separation techniques like
distillation, gas absorption, drying, extraction, crystallisation, etc.
This text covers heat and mass transfer operations - a part portion of the unit operations
of chemical engineering.
Unit Systems :
Various systems of units and the basic / fundamental quantities associated with them are
given below.
Fundamental Unit Systems Dimension
Quantity SI MKS CGS FPS
Length Meter (m) Meter (m) Centimeter (cm) Foot (ft) L
Mass Kilogram (kg) Kilogram (kg) Gram (g) Pound (lb) M
Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s) Second (s) θ
Temperature Kelvin (K) Celsius (oC) Celsius (oC) Fahrenheit (oF) T
oC= degrees Celsius
K = Kelvin
Symbolic abbreviations of the units are given in bracket.
The International System of Units abbreviated as SI has now been adopted throughout
the world, in particular, in the field of science and technology.
Unit Operations - II 1.4 Introduction

BASIC SI UNITS
Mass : kilogram (kg)
Length : meter (m)
Time : second (s)
Temperature : kelvin (K)
Mole : kilogram mole (kmol)
Force : newton (N)
Pressure : newton / (meter)2 [N/m2 = Pa (pascal)]
Energy : newton · meter (N.m) = J (joule)
Power : newton · meter / second ((N.m)/s = J/s = W)
1. Pressure : The units of pressure in SI, MKS and FPS systems are N/m2 (known as
pascal, symbol Pa), kgf/cm2 and lbf / in2 (known as psi) respectively.
1 atm = 760 torr (or mm Hg) = 101325 N/m2 or Pa
= 101.325 kPa = 1.033 kgf/cm2
2. Work / Energy : The units of work (energy) in SI, MKS, CGS and FPS systems are
joule (J), [Link], erg and [Link] respectively.
3. Heat : The units of heat in SI, MKS, CGS and FPS systems are joule (J), kilocalorie
(kcal), calorie (cal) and British thermal unit (Btu) respectively.
1 cal = 4.187 J,
1 Btu = 1055.056 J
In the SI system, heat flow/heat flux is usually expressed in watts (W).
Some of the prefixes for SI units :
(i) giga (G) – multiply by 109
(ii) mega (M) – multiply by 106
(iii) kilo (k) – multiply by 103
(iv) milli (m) – multiply by 10–3
(v) micro (µ) – multiply by 10–6
(vi) nano (n) – multiply by10–9
Unit Operations - II 1.5 Introduction

CONVERSION FACTORS TO SI UNITS

To convert from To Multiply by
1. Length, L :
ft m 0.3048
cm m 0.01
in mm 25.4
in m 0.0254
2. Area, L2 :
ft2 m2 0.0929
cm2 m2 10–4
3. Volume, L3 :
ft3 m3 0.02832
cm3 m3 10–6
l m3 10–3
4. Velocity, L/θ :
ft/s m/s 0.3048
ft/h m/s 8.467 × 10–5
5. Volumetric flow rate, L3/θ
ft2/s m3/s 0.02832
ft3/h m3/s 7.867 × 10–6
l/h m3/s 2 × 10–7
l/s m3/s 10–3
6. Mass, M :
lb kg 0.4536
t kg 1000
g kg 10–3
7. Density, M/L3 :
lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.019
g/cm3 kg/m3 = g/l 1000
8. Mass flow rate, M/θ :
lb/s kg/s 0.4536
lb/h kg/s 1.26 × 10–4
9. Mass flux, mass velocity,
M/L2θ :
lb/(ft2·h) kg/(m2·s) 1.356 × 10–3
g/(cm2·s) kg/(m·s) 10
… Contd.
Unit Operations - II 1.6 Introduction

10. Molar flux, molar mass

velocity, mole / L2θ :
lbmol / (ft2 · h) kmol / (m2 · s) 1.336 × 10–3
gmol / (cm2 · s) kmol / (m2 · s) 10
11. Force, F :
lbf N 4.448
kgf N 9.807
dyn N 10–5
12. Pressure, F/L2 :
lbf/ft2 N/m2 = Pa 47.88
std. atm N/m2 = Pa 1.0325 × 105
std. atm kPa 101.325
in Hg N/m = Pa
2 3.386
in H2O N/m2 = Pa 249.1
dyn/cm 2 N/m = Pa
2 10–1
mmHg N/m2 = Pa 133.3
torr N/m = Pa
2 133.3
bar N/m2 = Pa 105
kgf/cm2 N/m2 = Pa 9.808 × 104
13. Energy, work, heat, FL :
cal N·m = J 4.187
Btu N·m = J 1055
kcal N·m = J 4187
erg N·m = J 10–7
kW·h N·m = J 3.6 × 106
14. Enthalpy, FL/M :
Btu/lb (N.m)/kg = J/kg 2326
cal/g (N.m)/kg = J/kg 4187
kcal/kg (N.m)/kg = J/kg 4187
15. Molar enthalpy, FL/mole
Btu/lbmol (N.m)/mol = J/mol 2326
cal/gmol (N.m)/mol = J/mol 4187
… Contd.
Unit Operations - II 1.7 Introduction

16. Heat capacity, specific

heat, FL/MT :
Btu/(lb · oF) N.m/(kg·K) = J/(kg·K) 4187
cal/(g · oC) N.m/(kg·K) = J/(kg·K) 4187
17. Molar heat capacity,
FL/mole T :
Btu/(lbmol · oF) N.m/(kmol·K) = J/(kmol·K) 4187
cal/(gmol · oC) N.m/(kmol·K) = J/(kmol·K) 4187
18. Energy flux, FL/L2θ :
Btu/(ft2 · h) N.m/(m2 · s) = W/m2 3.155
cal/(cm2 · s) N.m/(m2 · s) = W/m2 4.187 × 104
19. Thermal conductivity, FL2/L2θT = FL/L2θ (T/L) :
Btu·ft / (ft2 · h · oF) N.m/(m·s·K) = W/(m·K) 1.7307
kcal·m/(m2·h· oC) N.m/(m·s·K) = W/(m·K) 1.163
cal·cm/(cm2 · s · oC) N.m/(m·s·K) = W/(m·K) 418.7
20. Heat transfer coefficient, FL/L2θT :
Btu/(ft2 · h · oF) N.m/(m2 · s · K) = W/(m2·K) 5.679
cal/(cm2 · s · oC) N.m/(m2 · s · K) = W/(m2·K) 4.187 × 104
kcal/(m2 · h · oC) N.m/(m2 · s · K) = W/(m2·K) 1.163
21. Power, FL/θ
(ft·lbf)/s (N.m)/s = W 1.356
hp (N.m)/s = W 745.7
Btu/h (N.m)/s = W 0.2931
kcal/h (N.m)/s = W 1.163
22. Viscosity, M/Lθ
P (poise ≡ g/(cm.s) kg/(m.s) = (N.s)/m2 0.10
cP kg/(m.s) = (N.s)/m2 0.001
= Pa·s
lb/(ft.s) kg/(m.s) 1.488
Unit Operations - II 1.8 Introduction

While writing the units of fundamental or derived quantity, please remember the
following :
1. Correct : 10 kgf.m incorrect : 10 kgfm
2. Correct : 10 kg incorrect : 10 kgs … no plural form of the unit symbol.
3. Correct : 10 cm incorrect : 10 cm.
… no period (full stop) at the end of the unit symbol.
4. Correct : 10000 W/(m2.K) incorrect : 10000 W/m2·K
5. Correct : 10 kW incorrect : 10 k W
Temperature intervals or differences are related by :
1 deg C = 1.8 deg F = 1 K
20 deg C = 20 K
❐❐❐
 CHAPTER TWO

CONDUCTION

Heat transfer deals with the study of rates at which exchange of heat takes place between
a hot source and a cold receiver. In process industries there are many operations which
involve transfer of energy in the form of heat, e.g., evaporation, distillation, drying, etc. and
also chemical reactions carried on a commercial scale take place with evolution or
absorption of heat. It is also necessary to prevent the loss of heat from a hot vessel or a pipe
system to the ambient air. In all these cases, the major problem is that of transfer of heat at
the desired rate. The knowledge of laws of heat transfer, mechanisms of heat transfer and
process heat transfer equipments is of great importance from a stand point of controlling the
flow of heat in the desired manner.
It is well established fact that if two bodies at different temperatures are brought into
thermal contact, heat flows from a hot body to a relatively cold body (second law of
thermodynamics). The net flow of heat is always in the direction of decrease in the
temperature. Thus, heat is defined as a form of energy which is in transit between a hot
source and a cold receiver. The transfer of heat solely depends upon the temperatures of the
two bodies/substances/parts of a system. In other words, temperature can be termed as the
level of thermal (heat) energy, i.e., high temperature of a body is the indication of high level
of heat energy content of the body.
Heat may flow by any one or more of the three basic mechanisms, namely, conduction,
convection, and radiation. We will first see these three modes of heat transfer in brief and
then we will consider heat conduction through solids in detail.
Conduction : It is the transfer of heat from one part of a body to the another part of the
same body or from one body to another which is in physical contact with it, without
appreciable displacement of particles of a body. Conduction is restricted to the flow of heat
in solids. Examples of conduction : Heat flow through the brick wall of a furnace, the metal
sheet of a boiler and the metal wall of a heat exchanger tube.
Convection : It is the transfer of heat from one point to another point within a fluid
(gas or liquid) by mixing of hot and cold portions of the fluid. It is attributed to the
macroscopic motion of fluid. Convection is restricted to the flow of heat in fluids and is
closely associated with fluid mechanics. In natural convection, the fluid motion results from
the difference in densities of the warmer and cooler fluid arising from the temperature
difference in the fluid mass. In forced convection, the fluid motion is produced by
mechanical means such as an agitator, a fan or pump. Examples of heat transfer mainly by
convection are : heating of room by means of a steam radiator, heating of water in cooking
pans, heat flow to a fluid pumped through a heated pipe.

(2.1)
Unit Operations – II 2.2 Conduction

Radiation : Radiation refers to the transfer of heat energy from one body to another
through space, not in contact with it, by electromagnetic waves. Examples of heat transfer by
radiation mode are : the transfer of heat from the sun to the earth and the loss of heat from an
unlagged steam pipe to the ambient air.
Conduction as well as convection occurs only in the presence of material medium
whereas radiation can occur even in vacuum and no material medium is required for heat
flow by radiation. It is observed that heat flow by conduction is slow, faster by convection
and the fastest by radiation mode.
CONDUCTION :
It is our common observation that when some material object is heated at one of its
locations, then in a short while its remaining parts also get heated. This shows that heat flows
through the material object from a high temperature region to a low temperature region. The
flow of heat in this manner is called as heat conduction or simply conduction, wherein the
particles of object participate in the process but they do not move bodily from the hot or high
temperature region to the cold or low temperature region.
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which a material medium transporting the heat
remains at rest. The heat conduction occurs by the migration of molecules and more
effectively by the collision of the molecules vibrating around relatively fixed positions. In
liquids and solids where little or no migration occurs, heat is transferred by the collision of
vibrating molecules. [The molecules of a substance are always in a state of vibration. When
the substance is heated at one of its locations, the molecules of that location receive energy
and they begin to vibrate with larger amplitudes and as a result of increase in their amplitude,
they will collide with the neighbouring molecules and in the process they transfer a part of
their energy to the neighbouring molecules. This process occurs repeatedly and thus results
in heat flow from one molecule to another along the heat flow path i.e. through the
substance.]
Conduction refers to the mode of heat transfer in which the heat flow through the
material medium occurs without actual migration of particles of the medium from a region of
higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
It is a fact that conduction occurs in solids, liquids and gases but pure conduction is
found to present only in solids, with gases and liquids it is present with convection, so we
will consider here heat conduction in solids for better understanding of conduction
mechanism as convection is not present in solids.
In this chapter, we restrict our discussion to steady state unidirectional heat
conduction in solids.
By steady state heat flow we mean that the situation of heat flow in which the
temperature at any location along the heat flow path does not vary with time and the rate of
heat transfer does not vary with time. In other words, it is the heat flow under conditions of
constant temperature distribution-temperature is a function of location only, i.e., temperature
varies with location but not with time. Hence, steady state heat conduction is the heat transfer
by conduction under conditions of constant temperature distribution.
Unit Operations – II 2.3 Conduction

By unidirectional or one dimensional heat flow we mean that the flow of heat occurring
only in one direction, i.e., along one of the axes of the respective coordinate system used.
(For example, say along the x-direction in case of a Cartesian co-ordinate system).
Fourier's Law :
The physical law governing the transfer of heat through a uniform material (whenever a
temperature difference exists) by a conduction mode was given by the French scientist :
Joseph Fourier.
Fourier's law states that the rate of heat flow by conduction through a uniform (fixed)
material is directly proportional to the area normal to the direction of the heat flow and the
temperature gradient in the direction of the heat flow.
Mathematically, the Fourier's law of heat conduction for steady state heat flow is given
by
Q ∝ A [– dT/dn] … (2.1)
Q = – kA [dT/dn] … (2.2)
where Q is the rate of heat flow/transfer in watts (W), A is the area normal to the direction of
heat flow in m2, T is the temperature in K, n is the distance measured normal to the surface,
i.e., the length of conduction path along the heat flow in m, dT/dn is the rate of change of
temperature with distance measured in the direction of heat flow (called as temperature
gradient) in K/m. k is a constant of proportionality and is called the thermal conductivity. It
is the characteristic property of a material through which heat flows.
The negative sign is incorporated in equation (2.2) because the temperature gradient is
negative (since with an increase in n there is a decrease in T, i.e., temperature decreases in
the direction of heat flow) and it makes the heat flow positive in the direction of temperature
decrease.
The Fourier's law for a steady state unidirectional (say in the x-direction) heat conduction
then becomes
Q = – kA [dT/dx] … (2.3)
q = Q/A = – k [dT/dx] … (2.4)
where Q is the rate of heat flow, i.e., heat flow per unit time in W, and q is the heat flux,
i.e., the rate of heat flow per unit area in W/m2 (in the x-direction). In further discussion
we will make use of Equation (2.3). The Fourier's law [equation (2.3)] is a fundamental
differential equation of heat transfer by conduction. It is simply a definition of k.
[The heat flux is defined as the amount of heat transfer per unit area per unit time or the
rate of heat transfer per unit area, Q/A.]
One Dimensional Steady State conduction :
Steady state heat conduction is a simpler case in the sense that the temperature does not
vary with time. T is independent of time and is a function of position in the conducting solid.
Unit Operations – II 2.4 Conduction

One dimensional heat conduction implies that the temperature gradient exists only in one
direction which makes the heat flow unidirectional. The cases of heat flow through a slab
(plane wall), a circular cylinder, a sphere and long fins can be analysed by a one dimensional
steady state conduction. In the discussion to follow we will treat heat flow to be in
x-direction only.
In discussion to follow we assume that k does not vary with temperature.
Plane wall (slab) of uniform thickness :
The heat flow through the wall of a stirred tank containing a hot or cold fluid or the wall
of a large furnace can be examples of one dimensional heat flow. Consider a plane/flat wall
as shown in Fig. 2.1.

Hot face Cold face

Wall
T1

Heat
flow

dx T2

x=0 x=x
x

Fig. 2.1 : Conduction through a plane wall

Consider that the wall is made of a material of thermal conductivity k and is of uniform
thickness (x) and constant cross-sectional area (A). Assume that k is independent of
temperature and the area of wall is very large in comparison with the thickness so that the
heat losses from the edges are negligible. A hot face is at temperature T1 and a cold face is at
temperature T2 and both are isothermal surfaces. The direction of heat flow is perpendicular
to the wall and T varies in the direction of x-axis.
As in steady state, there can be neither accumulation nor depletion of heat within the
plane wall, Q is constant along the path of heat flow. The usual use of Fourier's law requires
that the differential equation (2.3) be integrated over the entire path from x = 0 to x = x (total
thickness of the wall) as we normally know temperatures only at the faces.

Q = – kA  dx 
dT
 
Q dx = – k · A dT … (2.5)
The variables in Equation (2.5) are x and T.
x T2

Q⌠
⌡ dx = – k·A ⌠
⌡ dT … (2.6)
0 T1

Q · x = – kA (T2 – T1) … (2.7)

Unit Operations – II 2.5 Conduction

Rearranging, we get
kA (T1 – T2)
Q = x … (2.8)
k·A
Q = x · ∆T … (2.9)
where ∆T = (T1 – T2)
∆T ∆T
Q = x/kA = R … (2.10)
where R (= x/kA) is the thermal resistance (of the wall material of thickness x), Q is the rate
of heat flow (rate of heat transfer) and ∆T is the driving force for heat flow.
Equation (2.10) equates the rate of heat flow to the ratio of driving force to thermal
resistance.
The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance, which for heat conduction is :
Conductance = 1/R = 1/(x/kA) = k.A/x … (2.11)
Both the resistance and conductance depend upon the dimensions of a solid as well as on
the thermal conductivity, a property of the material.
When k varies linearly with T (Equation 2.12), Equation (2.10) can be used rigorously by
– –
taking an average value k for k. k may be obtained either by using the arithmetic average of
–
the individual values of k at surface temperatures T1 and T2 [k = (k1 + k2)/2] or by calculating
the arithmetic average of temperatures [(T1 + T2)/2] and using the value of k at that
temperature. One can take linear variation of k with T under integration sign and integrate
the equation.
Thermal Conductivity :
The proportionality constant 'k' given in Equation (2.2) is called as the thermal
conductivity. It is a characteristic property of the material through which heat is flowing and
varies with temperature. It is one of the so called transport properties of the material (like
viscosity, µ).
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct heat. Larger
the value of k, higher will be the amount of heat conducted by that substance.
Thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat passing through a quantity of material of
unit thickness with unit heat flow area in unit time when a unit temperature difference is
maintained across the opposite faces of material.
If Q is measured in watts (W ≡ J/s), A in m2, x in m and T in K, then the unit of k
(thermal conductivity) in the SI system is W/(m.K).
Q = – kA (dT/dx)
– Q · dx W · m
k = A · dT , (m2 · K)

– Q · dx
= A · dT , W/(m · K) ≡ J/(s.m.K)
Unit Operations – II 2.6 Conduction

Thermal conductivity depends upon the nature of material and its temperature. Thermal
conductivities of solids are higher than that of liquids and liquids are having higher thermal
conductivities than for gases.
In general, thermal conductivity of gases ranges from 0.006 to 0.6 W/(m·K) while that of
liquids ranges from 0.09 to 0.7 W/(m·K). Thermal conductivity of metals varies from
2.3 to 420 W/(m·K). The materials having higher values of thermal conductivity are referred
to as good conductors of heat, e.g., metals. The best conductor of heat is silver
[k = 420 W/(m·K)] followed by red copper [k = 395 W/(m·K)], gold [k = 302 W/(m·K)] and
aluminium [k = 210 W/(m·K)]. The materials having low values of thermal conductivity
[less than 0.20 W/(m·K)] are called as and used as heat insulators to minimise the rate of
heat flow. e.g. asbestos, glass wool, cork, etc.
For small temperature ranges, thermal conductivity may be taken as constant but for
large temperature ranges, it varies linearly with temperature and the variation of the thermal
conductivity with temperature is given by the relationship
k = a + bT … (2.12)
where a and b are empirical constants and T is the temperature in K.
Compound resistances in series / Heat conduction through a composite plane wall :
When a wall is formed out of a series of layers of different materials, it is called as a
composite wall.
Consider a flat wall constructed of a series of layers of three different materials as shown
in Fig. 2.2. Let k1, k2 and k3 be the thermal conductivities of the materials of which layers are
made. Let thicknesses of the layers be x1, x2 and x3 respectively.
Let ∆T1 be the temperature drop across the first layer, ∆T2 that across the second layer
and ∆T3 that across/over the third layer. Let ∆T be the temperature drop across the entire
composite wall.
DT
DT1 DT2 DT3

R1 R2 R3
T1
T1 > T' > T" > T2
Heat flow T'
(T' and T" are interface
temperatures)
Q T''
Heat flow
T2
k1 k2 k3

x1 x2 x3

Fig. 2.2 : Conduction through resistances in series

Let T1, T', T" and T2 be the temperatures at the faces of the wall as shown in Fig. 2.2.
T1 is the temperature of the hot face and T2 is the temperature of the cold face.
Assume further that the layers are in excellent thermal contact.
Unit Operations – II 2.7 Conduction

Furthermore, let the area of the composite wall, at right angles to the plane of illustration,
be A.
Overall temperature drop is related to individual temperature drops over the layers by
equation :
∆T = ∆T1 + ∆T2 + ∆T3 … (2.13)
It is desired to derive an equation / formula giving the rate of heat flow through a series
of resistances.
Rate of heat flow through the layer-1, i.e., through the material of thermal conductivity k1
is given by
k 1A
Q1 = x (T1 – T') … (2.14)
1
Q1
(T1 – T') = (k A/x ) … (2.15)
1 1

∆T1 = T1 – T' … (2.16)

Q1
∴ ∆T1 = (k A/x ) … (2.17)
1 1
Similarly for layer-2
Q2
∆T2 = (T' – T") = (k A/x ) … (2.18)
2 2
and for layer-3 :
Q3
∆T3 = (T" – T2) = (k A/x ) … (2.19)
3 3
Adding Equations (2.17), (2.18) and (2.19), we get
Q1 Q2 Q3
∆T1 + ∆T2 + ∆T3 = (k A/x ) + (k A/x ) + (k A/x ) = ∆T … (2.20)
1 1 2 2 3 3

Under steady state conditions of heat flow, all the heat passing through the layer-1 (first
resistance) must pass through the layer-2 (second resistance) and in turn pass through the
layer-3 (third resistance), therefore Q1, Q2 and Q3 must be equal and can be denoted by Q.
Thus, using this fact, Equation (2.20) becomes
Q Q Q
(k1A/x1) + (k2A/x2) + (k3A/x3) = ∆T … (2.21)

Q (k A/x ) + (k A/x ) + (k A/x ) = ∆T

1 1 1
… (2.22)
 1 1 2 2 3 3 

∆T
∴ Q = … (2.23)
 1 1 1 
k A/x + k A/x + k A/x 
 1 1 2 2 3 3

∆T
Q = … (2.24)
 1
x x2 x3 
k A + k A + k A
 1 2 3 
Unit Operations – II 2.8 Conduction

Let R1, R2 and R3 be the thermal resistances offered by the layer-1, 2 and 3 respectively.
R1, R2 and R3 are given as :
R1 = x1/k1A … (2.25)
R2 = x2/k2A … (2.26)
and R3 = x3/k3A … (2.27)
With this Equation (2.24) becomes
∆T
Q = R +R +R … (2.28)
1 2 3

If R is the overall resistance, then for resistances in series, we have :

R = R1 + R2 + R3 … (2.29)
Equation (2.28) becomes :
∆T
Q = R … (2.30)

Equation (2.30) is used to calculate the rate of heat flow/heat transfer. It is the ratio of the
overall temperature drop (driving force) to the overall resistance of the composite wall.
Equation (2.30) is the same as the equation for the rate of any process :
Driving force
Rate of transfer process = Resistance

One can calculate the temperatures at the interfaces of layers of which the wall is made
by making use of the following relation :

∆T ∆T1 ∆T2 ∆T3

R = R1 = R2 = R3 … (2.31)

Based upon the thickness and thermal conductivity of a layer, temperature drop in that
layer may be large or small fraction of the total temperature drop. A thin layer with a low
thermal conductivity value may cause a much larger temperature drop and a steeper thermal
gradient than a thick layer having a high thermal conductivity.

Heat flow through a cylinder :

Consider a thick walled hollow cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.3 of inside radius r1, outside
radius r2 and length L. Let k be the thermal conductivity of the material of cylinder.
Let the temperature of the inside surface be T1 and that of the outside surface be T2.
Assume that T1 > T2, therefore heat flows from the inside of the cylinder to the outside. It is
desired to calculate the rate of heat flow for this case.
Unit Operations – II 2.9 Conduction
dr

r1
T1 r
T2 r2

Fig. 2.3 : Heat flow through thick walled cylinder

Consider a very thin cylinder (cylindrical element), concentric with the main cylinder,
of radius r, where r is in between r1 and r2. The thickness of wall of this cylindrical element is
dr.
The rate of heat flow at any radius r is given by
Q = – k 2πrL  dr 
dT
… (2.32)
 
Equation (2.32) is similar to Equation (2.3). Here the area perpendicular to the heat flow
is 2πrL and dx of Equation (2.3) is equal to dr.
Rearranging Equation (2.32), we get
dr – k (2πL)
r = Q dT … (2.33)
the only variables in Equation (2.33) are r and T (assuming k to be constant).
Integrating Equation (2.33) between the limits
when r = r1 , T = T1
and when r = r2 , T = T2 gives
r2 T2

⌠ dr – k (2πL) ⌠
⌡ r = Q ⌡ dT … (2.34)
r1 T1

– k (2πL) (T2 – T1)

ln r2 – ln r1 = Q … (2.35)
k (2πL) (T1 – T2)
ln (r2/r1) = Q … (2.36)
The rate of heat flow through a thick walled cylinder is
k (2πL) (T1 – T2)
∴ Q = ln (r2/r1) … (2.37)
Equation (2.3) can be used to calculate the flow of heat through a thick walled cylinder.
It can be put into a more convenient form by expressing the rate of heat flow as :
k (2πrmL) (T1 – T2)
Q = (r2 – r1) … (2.38)
Unit Operations – II 2.10 Conduction

where rm is the logarithmic mean radius and is given by

(r2 – r1) (r2 – r1)
rm = ln (r /r ) = 2.303 log (r /r ) … (2.39)
2 1 2 1

Am = 2πrmL … (2.40)
Am is called the logarithmic mean area.
Equation (2.38) becomes :
k Am (T1 – T2)
Q = (r2 – r1) … (2.41)

(T1 – T2) ∆T
Q = (r – r ) / k A = R
2 1 m
where R = (r2 – r1) / kAm
The RHS of Equation (2.39) is known as the logarithmic mean and in the particular case
of Equation (2.39), rm is known as the logarithmic mean radius. It is the radius which when
applied to the integrated equation for a flat wall, will give the correct rate of heat flow
through a thick-walled cylinder.
In case of thin-walled cylinders, the logarithmic mean is less convenient than the
arithmetic mean, and the arithmetic mean is used without an appreciable error.
1.0
0.95
0.9
rm/ra

0.85
0.8
0.75
0.70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
r2/r1
Fig. 2.4 : Relation between logarithmic and arithmetic means
Heat flow through a sphere :
Consider a hollow sphere of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2. Let T1 be the temperature
at the inner surface and T2 be the temperature at the outer surface. Assume that T1 > T2,
so that heat will flow from inside to outside.
Consider a spherical element at any radius r (between r1 and r2) of thickness dr.
Then rate of heat flow according to Fourier's law is given by
dT
Q = – k (4πr2) dr … (2.42)

where A = 4πr2 = area of heat transfer

k = thermal conductivity of a material of which sphere is made
Unit Operations – II 2.11 Conduction

Rearranging Equation (2.42), we get

dr – 4πk
r2 = Q dT … (2.43)

Integrating Equation (2.43) between the limits :

when r = r1 , T = T 1
and r = r2 , T = T2
r2 T2

⌠ dr – 4πk
⌡ r2 = Q ⌠ ⌡ dT … (2.44)
r1 T1

r2
– 1 – 4πk
= Q (T1 – T2) … (2.45)
 r  r1

 1 – 1  = 4πk (T – T )
r r  … (2.46)
 1 2 Q 1 2

Rearranging, we get
4πk (T1 – T2)
Q = … (2.47)
1 – 1
r r 
 1 2
4π r1 r2 k (T1 – T2)
Q = (r2 – r1) … (2.48)

rm = r1 r2 = mean radius which is geometric mean for sphere.

∴ Equation (2.48) becomes :
2
4π rm k (T1 – T2)
Q = (r2 – r1) … (2.49)

Thermal Insulation :
Process equipments such as a reaction vessel, reboiler, distillation column, evaporator,
etc. or a steam pipe will lose heat to the atmosphere by conduction, convection and radiation.
In such cases, the conservation of heat that is usually of steam and coal is an economic
necessity and therefore some form of lagging should be applied to the hot surfaces. In
furnaces, the surface temperature is reduced substantially by making use of a series of
insulating bricks that are poor conductors of heat.
Insulation is necessary (i) to prevent an excessive flow of heat to the surroundings from
process units and pipelines in which heat is generated, stored or conveyed at temperatures
above the surrounding temperature, (ii) to prevent an excessive flow of heat from the outside
to materials which must be kept at temperatures below that of the surroundings, (iii) to
Unit Operations – II 2.12 Conduction

provide for protection of personnel from skin damage through contact with very hot and very
cold surfaces (to provide a safe work environment) and (iv) to provide
comfortable/acceptable working environment. The working environment in the viscinity of
process units and pipelines carrying hot or cold streams can become uncomfortable and
unacceptable, if insulation is not provided. In a chemical plant, steam is transported to
process equipments, as per requirement, through steam lines. If the steam lines are not
insulated, then the loss of heat from these lines to the ambient air may result in the
condensation of steam, thus lowering the quality of steam and creating operational problems
in the equipments in which the steam is admitted.
The important requirements of an insulating material are as follows :
(i) It should have a low thermal conductivity.
(ii) It should withstand working temperature range.
(iii) It should have a sufficient durability and an adequate mechanical strength. This
includes resistance to moisture and the chemical environment.
(iv) It should be easy to apply, non-toxic, readily available, inexpensive (low basic
material cost, installation cost and maintenance cost).
(v) It should not create a fire hazard.
Cork [k = 0.025 W/(m·K)], asbestos (k = 0.10), glass wool (k = 0.024), 85 percent
magnesia (k = 0.04) are commonly employed lagging materials in industry. Cork is common
in refrigeration plants. 85% magnesia with asbestos, glass wool are widely used for lagging
steam pipes. Thin aluminium sheeting is often used to protect the lagging.
The optimum thickness of insulation :
The optimum thickness of an insulation is obtained by a purely economic approach. The
greater the thickness, the lower the heat loss and the greater the initial cost of insulation and
the greater the annual fixed charges (maintenance and depreciation).
It is obtained by a purely economic approach. Increasing the thickness of an insulation
reduces the loss of heat and thus gives saving in operating costs; but at the same time, cost of
insulation will increase with thickness. The optimum thickness of an insulation is the one at
which the total annual cost (the sum of the cost of heat lost and annual fixed charges) of the
insulation is minimum.

Total cost
Total annual cost

Va
l
ue

s
rg e
of

cha
e d heat
Fix lost

Optimum

Thickness of insulation
Fig. 2.5 : Optimum thickness of insulation
Note : Discussion on systems with variable k and critical radius of insulation is given
at the end of this chapter.
Unit Operations – II 2.13 Conduction

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 2.1 : Calculate the rate of heat loss Q, through a wall of red brick
[k = 0.70 W/(m·K)] 5 m in length, 4 m in height and 250 mm in thickness, if the wall surfaces
are maintained at 373 K (100o C) and 303 K (30o C) respectively.
Solution : Mean area of heat transfer = A = 5 × 4 = 20 m2
Thickness of brick wall = x = 250 mm = 0.25 m
Temperature difference = ∆T = 373 – 303 = 70 K
Thermal conductivity of red brick = k = 0.70 W/(m·K)
The rate of heat loss is
∆T
Q = k·A  x  = 0.70 × 20 × 0.25 = 3920 W
70
… Ans.
   
Example 2.2 : Estimate the heat loss per m2 of the surface through a brick wall 0.5 m
thick when the inner surface is at 400 K (127o C) and the outside surface is at 310 K (37o C).
The thermal conductivity of the brick may be taken as 0.7 W/(m·K).
Solution : Let the area of heat transfer be 1 m2.
k·A (T1 – T2)
We have : Q = x
where k = 0.7 W/(m·K)
A = 1 m2
T1 = 400 K, T2 = 310 K, x = 0.5 m
The rate of heat loss per 1 m2 area is
0.7 × 1.0 × (400 – 310)
Q = 0.5 = 126 W/m2 … Ans.
Example 2.3 : It is necessary to insulate a flat surface so that the rate of heat loss per
unit area of this surface does not exceed 450 W/m2. The temperature difference across the
insulating layers is 400 K (127oC). Evaluate the thickness of insulation if (a) the insulation is
made of asbestos cement having thermal conductivity of 0.11 W/(m·K), and (b) the insulation
is made of fire clay having thermal conductivity of 0.84 W/(m·K).
Solution : (a) Area of heat transfer = 1 m2 since the heat loss is given per 1 m2 of area.
Given : Q/A = 450 W/m2, ∆T = 400 K
With A = 1 m2, Q = 450 W
k for asbestos = 0.11 W/(m·K)
The rate of heat loss is given by
k·A ∆T
Q = x
kA ∆T
∴ x = Q
0.11 × 1 × 400
x = 450 = 0.098 m
= 98 mm
Thickness of asbestos cement insulation = 98 mm … Ans. (a)
Unit Operations – II 2.14 Conduction

(b) Area of heat transfer = A = 1 m2

k for fire clay insulation = 0.84 W/(m·K)
∆T = 400 K
k·A ∆T
Q = x
0.84 × 1 × 400
x = 450
= 0.747 m
= 747 mm
Thickness of fire clay insulation = 747 mm … Ans. (b)
Example 2.4 : A steam pipeline, 150/160 mm in diameter, carries steam. The pipeline is
lagged with a layer of heat insulating material [k = 0.08 W/(m·K)] of thickness 100 mm. The
temperature drops from 392.8 K (119.8 oC) to 313 K (40 oC) across the insulating surface.
Determine the rate of heat loss per 1 m length of pipe line.
Solution : Consider 1 m of the pipeline.
k · Am (T1 – T2)
Q = (r2 – r1)
r1 = inside radius of insulation
= 160/2 = 80 mm = 0.08 m
r2 = outside radius of insulation
= 80 + 100 = 180 mm = 0.18 m
L = length of pipeline = 1 m, since the heat loss is to be calculated
per meter of pipe.
Am = log mean area = 2π rm L
2π (r2 – r1) L 2π (0.18 – 0.08) × 1
= ln (r /r ) = ln (0.18/0.08) = 0.775 m2
2 1
k = 0.08 W/(m·K)
T1 = 392.8 K , T2 = 313 K
The rate of heat loss per unit length of the pipeline is
0.08 × 0.775 × (392.8 – 313)
Q = (0.18 – 0.08)
= 49.5 W/m … Ans.
Example 2.5 : A wall is made of brick of thermal conductivity 1.0 W/(m·K), 230 mm
thick. It is lined on the inner face with plaster of thermal conductivity 0.4 W/(m·K) and of
thickness 10 mm. If a temperature difference of 30 K is maintained between the two faces,
what is the heat flow per unit area of wall ?
Solution : Let the area of heat transfer be 1 m2.
Thermal resistance of brick = x1/k1A
0.230
R1 = = 0.230 K/W
1.0 × 1.0
Unit Operations – II 2.15 Conduction

x2
Thermal resistance of plaster = R2 = k A
2

0.010
= = 0.025 K/W
0.4 × 1.0
The rate of heat flow per 1 m2 area is
∆T ∆T
Q = R = R +R
1 2

30
= 0.230 + 0.025

= 117.6 W/m2 … Ans.

Example 2.6 : A steam pipeline, 150/160 mm in diameter, is covered with a layer
of insulating material of thickness 50 mm. The temperature inside the pipeline is
393 K (120 oC) and that of the outside surface of insulation is 313 K (40 oC). Calculate the
rate of heat loss per 1 m length of pipeline.
Data : k for pipe is 50 W/(m·K) and k for insulating material is 0.08 W/(m·K).
Solution : Consider 1 m of the pipeline.
r2 – r1
Thermal resistance offered by the pipe wall = R1 = k A
1 m1

where r1 = 150/2 = 75 mm = 0.075 m

r2 = 160/2 = 80 mm = 0.08 m
Am1 = 2π rm1 L
where Am1 is the log mean area and rm1 is the log mean radius of the steam pipe.
2π (r2 – r1)
Am1 = ln (r2/r1) L
2π (0.08 – 0.075)
= ln (0.08/0.075) × 1 = 0.487 m
2

k1 = 50 W/(m·K)
0.08 – 0.075
∴ R1 = = 0.000205 K/W
50 × 0.487
= 2.05 × 10–4 K/W
r3 – r2
Thermal resistance offered by the insulation = R2 = k A .
2 m2

Am2 = 2π rm2 L
2π (r3 – r2) L
= ln (r3/r2)
Unit Operations – II 2.16 Conduction

where r3 = r2 + 50 mm
= 80 + 50 = 130 mm = 0.13 m
2π (0.13 – 0.08)
Am2 = ln (0.13/0.08) × 1
Am2 = 0.647 m2
k2 = 0.08 W/(m·K)
(0.13 – 0.08)
∴ R2 = = 0.966 K/W
0.08 × 0.647
Total thermal resistance = R = R1 + R2
= 2.05 × 10–4 + 0.966 = 0.9662 K/W
The rate of heat loss per 1 m of the pipeline is
∆T 393 – 313
Q = R = 0.9662
= 82.8 W/m … Ans.
Example 2.7 : A furnace is constructed with 225 mm thick of fire brick, 120 mm
of insulating brick and 225 mm of the building brick. The inside temperature is
1200 K (927 oC) and the outside temperature is 330 K (57 oC). Find the heat loss per unit
area and the temperature at the junction of the fire brick and insulating brick.
Data : k for fire brick = 1.4 W/(m·K)
k for insulating brick = 0.2 W/(m·K)
k for building brick = 0.7 W/(m·K)
Solution : Let the area of heat transfer be 1 m2. Therefore, A = 1 m2.

F.B. I.B. B.B.

225 mm 225 mm
T1 = 1200 K x1 x3 T2 = 330 K

120 mm
x2
k1 = 1.4 k2 = 0.2 k3 = 0.7

Fig. Ex. 2.7

Let T1 and T2 be the temperatures at the fire brick / insulating brick and the insulating
brick/building brick junctions respectively.
x1
Thermal resistance of the fire brick = k A
1

0.225
R1 = = 0.1607 K/W
1.4 × 1
Unit Operations – II 2.17 Conduction

x2
Thermal resistance of the insulating brick = k A
2

0.120
R2 = = 0.60 K/W
0.2 × 1
x3
Thermal resistance of the building brick = k A
3

0.225
R3 = = 0.322 K/W
0.7 × 1
The heat loss per unit area is
∆T
Q = R

where R = R1 + R2 + R3 and ∆T = T1 – T2
1200 – 330
Q = 0.1607 + 0.60 + 0.322

= 803.5 W/m2 … Ans.

Let us calculate the temperature at the junction between fire brick and insulating brick.
For steady state heat transfer, Q1 = Q. Therefore,
∆T1 ∆T
R1 = R
∆T1 R1
= R
∆T
1200 – T1 0.1607
1200 – 330 = 0.1607 + 0.60 + 0.322
T1 = 1071 K (798 oC) … Ans.
Similarly, for the junction between insulating brick and building brick, we can write :
∆T2/R2 = ∆T/R
(1071 – T2) 0.60
∴ 1200 – 330 = 0.1607 + 0.6 + 0.322
T2 = 589 K (316 oC) … Ans.
Example 2.8 : A 50 mm diameter pipe of circular cross-section and with walls 3 mm
thick is covered with two concentric layers of lagging, the inner layer having a thickness of
25 mm and a thermal conductivity of 0.08 W/(m·K), and the outer layer having a thickness of
40 mm and a thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/(m·K). Estimate the rate of heat loss per metre
length of pipe if the temperature inside the pipe is 550 K (277 oC) and the outside surface
temperature is 330 K (57 oC). k for pipe is 45 W/(m·K).
Unit Operations – II 2.18 Conduction

Solution : Consider 1 m of the pipe. Therefore, L = 1 m.

r2 – r1
Thermal resistance of the wall of pipe = R1 =
k1 (2πrm1L)
r1 = (50/2) mm = 25 mm = 0.025 m
r2 = 25 mm + 3 mm = 0.028 m
rm = (0.028 – 0.025) / ln (0.028/0.025) = 0.0265 m
1

k1 = 45 W/(m·K), L = 1 m
∴ R1 = (0.028 – 0.025)/(45 × 2π × 0.0265 × 1)
= 0.00040 K/W
For the inner lagging :
r2 = 0.028 m
r3 = 0.028 + 0.025 = 0.053 m
The log mean radius of the inner lagging is
rm = (r3 – r2)/ln (r3/r2) = (0.053 – 0.028) / ln (0.053/0.028) = 0.0392 m
2

r3 – r2
Thermal resistance of the inner lagging = R2 =
k2 (2π rm L)
2

0.053 – 0.028
R2 = = 1.2688 K/W
0.08 × 2 × π × 0.0392 × 1.0
For the outer lagging :
r3 = 0.053 m
r4 = 0.053 + 0.040 = 0.093 m
rm = (r4 – r3)/ln (r4/r3)
3

= (0.093 – 0.053) / ln (0.093/0.053) = 0.0711 m

r4 – r3
Thermal resistance of the outer lagging = R3 =
k3 2π rm L
3

0.093 – 0.053
R3 = = 2.2385 K/W
0.04 × 2π × 0.0711 × 1
We have : ∆T = T1 – T2
T1 = 550 K and T2 = 330 K
The rate of heat loss per metre of the pipe is
∆T
Q = R
Unit Operations – II 2.19 Conduction

550 – 330
= 0.0004 + 1.2688 + 2.2385
= 62.7 W/m … Ans.
Example 2.9 : A wall of 0.5 m thickness is constructed using a material having a
thermal conductivity of 1.4 W/(m·K). The wall is insulated with a material having thermal
conductivity of 0.35 W/(m·K) so that heat loss per m2 is 1500 W. The inner and outer
temperatures are 1273 K (1000 oC) and 373 K (100 oC) respectively. Calculate the thickness
of insulation required and temperature of the interface between two layers.
Solution : Let the thickness of insulation required be x2 metres.
Given : T1 = 1273 K, T2 = 373 K, k1 = 1.4 W/(m·K), k2 = 0.35 W/(m·K), x1 = 0.5 m
The rate of heat transfer per unit area is given by
Q (T1 – T2)
A = x1/k1 + x2/k2
(1273 – 373)
1500 = 0.5/1.4 + x /0.35
2

Solving, we get
x2 = 0.085 m = 85 mm
Thickness of insulation required = 85 mm … Ans.
Let T' be the temperature at the interface.
Q
A = T1 – T'/(x1/k1)
1500 = (1273 – T')/(0.5/1.4)
T' = 737.3 K (464.3 oC) … Ans.
Example 2.10 : A cylindrical tube has inner diameter of 20 mm and outer diameter of
30 mm. Find out the rate of heat flow from tube of length 5 m if inner surface is at
373 K (100o C) and outer surface is at 308 K (35o C). Take the thermal conductivity of tube
material as 0.291 W/(m·K).
Solution : Basis : Tube of length 5 metres.
The equation to be used for calculating the rate of heat flow through the tube (cylinder) is
k · 2π rm L (T1 – T2)
Q = (r2 – r1) ... (Α)

where, Thermal conductivity = k = 0.291W/(m·K)

Length = L = 5 metres
Inner radius = r1 = 10 mm = 0.01 m
Unit Operations – II 2.20 Conduction

Outside radius = r2 = 15 mm = 0.015 m

Inside temperature = T1 = 373 K

Outside temperature = T2 = 308 K

r2 – r1
rm = log mean radius =
r2
ln r 
 1
0.015 – 0.01
= 0.015 = 0.0123 m

ln 0.01
 
Putting the values of the terms involved in Equation (A), we get
0.291 × 2π (0.0123) × 5 (373 – 308)
Q = (0.015 – 0.01)

= 1460.8 W ≡ 1460.8 J/s … Ans.

Example 2.11 : 88 mm O.D. pipe is insulated with a 50 mm thickness of an insulation

having a mean thermal conductivity of 0.087 W/(m·K) and 30 mm thickness of an insulation,
having mean thermal conductivity of 0.064 W/(m·K). If the temperature of the outer surface
of the pipe is 623 K (350 oC) and the temperature of the outer surface of insulation is
313 K (40 oC), calculate the heat loss per metre of pipe.
Solution : Basis : One metre length of pipe.
Pipe wall Layer - 2
k1 k2
r1
r2

T2

r3 T3 = 313 K

T1 = 623 K Layer - 1

Fig. Ex. 2.11

Refer to Fig. Ex. 2.11
88
r1 = 2 = 44 mm = 0.044 m

r2 = 44 + 50 = 94 mm = 0.094 m
r3 = 44 + 50 + 30 = 124 mm = 0.124 m
Unit Operations – II 2.21 Conduction

Rate of heat flow through a thick-walled cylinder of radii r1 and r2 is given by

k1 (2π rm1 L) (T1 – T2)
Q = (r2 – r1)
T1 – T2
∴ Q = r2 – r1 … general equation for cylinder.
k1 (2π rm1 L)

Similarly, the heat loss through the combined insulation layers is given by
T1 – T3
Q = r2 – r1 r3 – r2 … (A)
+
k1 (2π rm1 L) k2 (2π rm2 L)

[Q1 = ∆T1/R1
Q2 = ∆T2/R2
∆T1 = Q1R1 and ∆T2 = Q2R2
∆T = ∆T1 + ∆T2
∆T = Q1R1 + Q2R2
But Q1 = Q2 = Q
∴ ∆T = Q [R1 + R2]
∆T T1 – T3
Q = R +R =R +R ]
1 2 1 2

As T1 – T3 = ∆T = (T1 – T2) + (T2 – T3)

where, ∆T = overall temperature drop
T1 = temperature at the outer surface of the wall = 623 K
T3 = temperature at the outer surface of the outer insulation = 313 K
k1 = thermal conductivity of insulation-1 = 0.087 W/(m·K)
k2 = thermal conductivity of insulation-2 = 0.064 W/(m·K)
L = Length of pipe = 1 metre
rm1 = log mean radius of insulation layer-1
r2 – r1
∴ rm1 =
r2
ln r 
 1
(0.094 – 0.044)
= = 0.066 m
ln 0.044
0.094
 
Unit Operations – II 2.22 Conduction

rm2 = log mean radius of insulation layer - 2

r3 – r2 0.124 – 0.094
rm2 = = 0.124 = 0.1083 m
r3 
ln r  ln 0.094
 
 2
Substituting the values of all terms involved in Equation (A), we get
The heat loss per metre of pipe is
(623 – 313)
Q =
 0.05   0.03 
0.087 × 2π × 0.066 × 1 + 0.064 × 2π × 0.1083
   
Q = 149.4 W/m … Ans.
Example 2.12 : A furnace is constructed with 229 mm thick of fire brick, 115 mm
of insulation brick and again 229 mm of building brick. The inside temperature is
1223 K (950 oC) and the temperature at the outermost wall is 323 K (50oC). The thermal
conductivities of fire brick, insulating brick and building brick are 6.05, 0.581 and
2.33 W/(m·K). Find the heat lost per unit area and temperatures at the interfaces.
Solution :
115 mm

T1 = 1223 K T2 = 323 K

FB IB BB

229 mm 229 mm FB – IB – BB

Fig. Ex. 2.12

Assume :
Heat transfer area = A = 1 m2
229
Given : x1 = thickness of fire brick = 1000 = 0.229 m

115
x2 = thickness of insulating brick = 1000 = 0.115 m

229
x3 = thickness of building brick = 1000 = 0.229 m

k1 = thermal conductivity of fire brick = 6.05 W/(m·K)

k2 = thermal conductivity of insulating brick = 0.581 W/(m·K)
k3 = thermal conductivity of building brick = 2.33 W/(m·K)
Unit Operations – II 2.23 Conduction

TA = temperature at the interface between fire brick and insulating brick (K)
TB = temperature at the interface between insulating brick and building brick
(K)
T1 = 1223 K, inside temperature
T2 = 323 K, outside temperature
Overall temperature drop is
∆T = 1223 – 323 = 900 K
Let us calculate Q (heat loss/m2).
The rate of heat lost per unit area is given by
∆T 900
Q = R +R +R = x
1 2 3    x2   x3 
1
k A + k A + k A
 1   2   3 
900
= 0.229 = 2694 W/m
2
0.229 0.115
+ +
6.05 × 1 0.581 × 1 2.33 × 1
Let us calculate TA.
The rate of heat transfer through the fire brick layer is given by
T1 – TA
Q1 = x1
k 1A
But under steady state heat transfer conditions, Q1 = Q. Therefore,
1223 – TA
Q1 = Q = 2694 = 0.229
6.05 × 1
∴ 1223 – TA = 102
∴ TA = 1121 K (848o C)
Let us calculate TB.
For steady state heat transfer,
TB – T2 TB – 323
Q3 = Q = x /k A = x /k A
3 3 3 3

TB – 323
2694 = 0.229
2.33 × 1
∴ TB = 587.8 K (314.8o C)
Q based on 1 m2 heat transfer surface = 2694 W
Unit Operations – II 2.24 Conduction

Interface temperatures :
(i) Between FB – IB = 1121 K (848oC) … Ans.
(ii) Between IB – PB = 587.8 K (314.8oC) … Ans.
Example 2.13 : A furnace is constructed with 230 mm thick of fire brick, 115 mm of
insulating brick and then 230 mm of building brick. The inside temperature of the furnace is
1213 K (940oC) and the outside temperature is 318 K (45oC). The thermal conductivities of
fire brick, insulating brick and building brick are 6.047, 0.581 and 2.33 W/(m·K). Find the
heat lost per unit area and the temperature at the interfaces.
Solution :
1 2 3

T1 = 1213 K T2 = 318 K

x1 x2 x3

Fig. Ex. 2.13

x1 = thickness of the fire brick layer
= 230 mm = 0.23 m
x2 = thickness of the insulating brick
= 115 mm = 0.115 m
x3 = thickness of the building brick
= 230 mm = 0.23 m
Let TA and TB be the temperatures at the interfaces between the fire brick and insulating
brick and the insulating brick and building brick, respectively.
The heat lost per unit area through the composite wall is given by
Heat lost per = Q = ∆T
unit area  A x1/k1 + x2/k2 + x3/k3
where, ∆T = 1213 – 318 = 895 K
k1 = 6.047 W/(m·K) (fire brick)
k2 = 0.581 W/(m·K) (insulating brick)
k3 = 2.33 W/(m·K) (building brick)
Unit Operations – II 2.25 Conduction

Heat lost per = 895

unit area   0.23  + 0.115 + 0.23
6.047 0.581 2.33
= 2674.2 W ≡ 2674.2 J/s … Ans.
For steady state heat transfer, Q = Q1. Therefore,
∆T ∆T1
R = R1
∆T ∆TA
∴ x1/k1A + x2/k2A + x3/k3A = x1/k1A … for fire brick layer

T1 – T2 T1 – TA
x1/k1 + x2/k2 + x3/k3 = x1/k1
1213 – 318 (1213 – TA)
=
 0.23  + 0.115 + 0.23  0.23 
6.047 0.581 2.33 6.047
∴ TA = 1108.5 K (835.5 oC) = temperature at the interface between fire brick and
insulating brick. … Ans.
Let us calculate the temperature at the interface between insulating brick and building
brick.
For steady state heat transfer, Q = Q3. Therefore,
∆T ∆T3
R = R3 … for building brick.
(T1 – T2) TB – T2
x1/k1A + x2/k2A + x3/k3A = x3/k3A
(T1 – T2) TB – T2
x1/k1 + x2/k2 + x3/k3 = x3/k3
1213 – 318 TB – 318
=
 0.23  + 0.115 + 0.23 0.23
6.047  0.581 2.33 2.33
∴ TB = 565 K (292 oC) = temperature at the interface between the insulating brick and
building brick. … Ans.
Example 2.14 : A flat furnace wall is constructed of 45 mm layer of sil-o-cel brick, with a
thermal conductivity of 0.138W/(m·K) backed by a 90 mm layer of common brick of
conductivity 1.38 W/(m·K). Calculate the total thermal resistance considering the area of the
wall as 1m2.
Solution : Basis : Heat transfer area = 1 m2.
Unit Operations – II 2.26 Conduction

x1 = thickness of sil-o-cel brick = 45 mm = 0.045 m

x2 = thickness of common brick = 90 mm = 0.09 m
k1 = thermal conductivity of sil-o-cel brick = 0.138 W/(m·K)
k2 = thermal conductivity of common brick = 1.38 W/(m·K)
A = area of heat transfer = 1 m2
x1
R1 = thermal resistance of the sil-o-cel brick = k A
1

x2
R2 = thermal resistance of the common brick = k A
2

Total resistance = R = R1 + R2
x1 x2 0.045 0.09
R = kA + kA = + = 0.391 K/W … Ans.
1 2 0.138 × 1 1.38 ×1
Example 2.15 : A cylindrical tube of inside radius r1 and outside radius r2 is lagged by
insulating material with r3 as the outer radius of insulation. Derive the expression for rate of
heat flow.
Solution : Consider a cylindrical tube of length 'L' with inside radius r1 and outside
radius r2. Let thermal conductivity of wall material of the tube be k1. Assume that the tube is
surrounded by an insulation layer so that the radius of the outer layer of insulation be r3. Let
k2 be the thermal conductivity of insulation. Let T1, T', T2 be the temperatures inside the tube,
at the interface between the tube and insulation, and at the outer edge of the insulation
respectively. Assume that T1 > T2.

Metal Insulation
wall

r3 T2
r1 T1
O T'
r2

k1 k2

Fig. Ex. 2.15

Consider a small cylindrical element of thickness 'dr' of radius 'r'. The rate of heat
transfer through the element is given by
Q = – k·2πr L (dT/dr) … (1)
Unit Operations – II 2.27 Conduction

dr – k (2π L)
r = Q dT … (2)

To obtain the rate of heat transfer (Q1) through the tube, the above equation can be
integrated between limits : r = r1, T = T1 and r = r2, T = T'
r2 T
dr – k1 (2πL) 1
⌠
⌡ r = ⌠
⌡ dT … (3)
Q1
r1
T '
r2 k1 (2πL)
ln r  = (T1 – T') … (4)
 1 Q1
Similarly, for the insulation we can write
k2 (2πL)
ln (r3/r2) ≈ Q2 (T' – T2) … (5)

Rearranging Equations (4) and (5), we get

ln (r2/r1)
(T1 – T') = Q1   … (6)
k1 (2πL)
ln (r3/r2)
(T' – T2) = Q2   … (7)
k2 (2πL)
Overall temperature drop = ∆T = T1 – T2
(T1 – T2) = (T1 – T') – (T' – T2) … (8)
Substituting for (T1 – T') and (T' – T2) from Equations (6) and (7) into Equation (8), we
get
ln (r2/r1) ln (r3/r2)
(T1 – T2) = Q1   + Q2  k (2πL)  … (9)
k1 (2πL)  2 
At steady state, Q1 = Q2 = Q, i.e., whatever the heat passes through the tube must pass
through the insulation.
ln (r2/r1) ln (r3/r2)
(T1 – T2) = Q 
k2 (2πL)
∴ + … (10)
k1 (2πL)
(T1 – T2)
Q = ln (r /r ) … (11)
 2 1 ln (r3/r2)
k (2πL) + k (2πL)
 1 2 
Let rm1 be the log mean radius of the tube.
r2 – r1
rm1 = ln (r – r ) … (12)
2 1
Unit Operations – II 2.28 Conduction

r2 – r1
∴ ln (r2/r1) = rm1 … (13)

Let rm2 be the log mean radius of the insulation layer.

r3 – r2
∴ rm2 = ln (r /r ) … (14)
3 2

r3 – r2
∴ ln (r3 /r2) = rm2 … (15)

Substituting for ln (r2/r1) and ln (r3/r2) from Equations (13) and (15), Equation (11)
becomes
T1 – T2
Q = (r – r ) (r3 – r2)
2 1
+
k1 2π rm1 L k2 2π rm2 L
Example 2.16 : A flat furnace wall is constructed of 114 mm layer of Sil-o-cel brick,
with a thermal conductivity of 0.138 W/(m·K) backed by 229 mm layer of common brick, of
conductivity 1.38 W/(m·K). The temperature of inner face of wall is 1033 K (760 oC) and that
of the outer face is 349 K (76 oC).
(a) What is the heat loss through the wall ?
(b) Supposing that the contact between two brick layers is poor and that a 'contact
resistance' of 0.09 K/W is present what would be the heat loss ?
Solution : Consider the heat transfer area of the wall be 1 m2.
Thermal resistance of the Sil-o-cel brick layer is : R1 = x1/k1A
Given : x1 = 114 mm = 0.114 m, k1 = 0.138 W/(m·K)
0.114
∴ R1 = = 0.826 K/W
0.138 × 1
Given : x2 = 229 mm = 0.229 m, k2 = 1.38 W/(m·K)
0.229
Thermal resistance of the common brick = R2 = x2/k2A = = 0.166 K/W
1.38 × 1
We have : ∆T = T1 – T2 = 1033 – 349 = 684 K
The rate of heat loss per 1 m2 of the wall is
Q = ∆T/(R1 + R2) = 684 / (0.826 + 0.166)
= 689.5 W … Ans. (a)
Given : Contact resistance = 0.09 K/W. Therefore,
Total resistance = R = R1 + R2 + Contact resistance
= 0.826 + 0.166 + 0.09
= 1.082 K/W
Unit Operations – II 2.29 Conduction

The rate of heat loss from 1 m2 heat transfer area considering the contact resistance is
Q = ∆T / R = 684 / 1.082
= 632.2 W … Ans. (b)
Example 2.17 : An ice box has walls constructed of a 10 mm layer of cork-board
contained between two wooden walls, each of 20 mm thick. Find the rate of heat removed
per unit area if the inner wall surface is kept at 263 K (– 10 oC), while the outer surface
temperature is 303 K (30 oC). Find out the zone in the wall where the temperature is
293 K (20 oC).
Data : Thermal conductivities of cork-board and wood respectively are 0.041 and
0.105 W/(m·K).
Solution : The rate of heat transfer is given by
∆T
Q = ∑ x/kA
Q ∆T ∆T
A = ∑ x/k = x1 x2 x3
k1 + k2 + k3
Cork

T1 = 303 K T2 = 263 K

Wood

Fig. Ex. 2.17

We have : ∆T = T1 – T2 = 303 – 263 = 40 K
x1 = 20 mm = 0.02 m (wood wall)
x2 = 10 mm = 0.01 m (cork-board)
x3 = 20 mm = 0.02 m (wood wall)
k1 = k3 = 0.105 W/(m·K) (thermal conductivity of wood)
k2 = 0.041 W/(m·K) (thermal conductivity of cork-board)
The rate of heat removal per unit area is
Q 40
A =  0.02   0.01  0.02  = 64 W/m
2

+ + 
0.105 0.041 0.105
Trial-I : Let x be the distance from the outside of the outer wooden wall where
T = 293 K.
Unit Operations – II 2.30 Conduction

For steady state heat transfer,

Q = Qx. Therefore,
∆T ∆T upto x
R = R upto x
Temperature drop upto a distance x Rx
Total temperature drop = R
where Rx = resistance upto a distance x
R = total resistance
Let A = 1 m2
x x
Rx = = = 0.9524 x K/W
k1 ⋅ A 0.105 × 1
0.02 0.010 0.02
R = + + = 0.625 K/W
0.105 × 1 0.041 × 1 0.105 × 1
303 – 293 0.9524 x
40 = 0.625
Solving, we get
x = 0.0164 m = 16.4 mm … Ans.
∴ Temperature of 293 K (20 oC) will be reached at a point 16.4 mm from the
outermost wall surface of the ice-box.
Example 2.18 : A pipe 65 mm outside diameter is lagged with a 50 mm layer of asbestos
(conductivity = 0.14) and a 40 mm layer of cork [conductivity = 0.035 W/(m·K)]. If the
temperature of the outer surface of the pipe is 423 K (150 oC) and the temperature of the
outer surface of the cork is 308 K (35 oC), calculate the heat loss per metre of pipe.
Solution :

r1
r2
T1 T2
r3
T1 = 423 K
T2 = 308 K

Fig. Ex. 2.18

r1 = 65/2 = 32.5 mm
r2 = 32.5 + 50 = 82.5 mm
r3 = 32.5 + 50 + 40 = 122.5 mm
Let rm1 and rm2 be the log mean radii of asbestos and cork layers, respectively.
Unit Operations – II 2.31 Conduction

r2 – r1 82.5 – 32.5
rm1 = = = 53.7 mm = 0.537 m
 2
r 82.5
ln r  ln
32.5
 1
r3 – r2 122.5 – 82.5
rm2 = = = 101.2 mm = 0.1012 m
 3
r 122.5
ln r  ln
 82.5 
 2
r2 – r1 = 82.5 – 32.5 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
r3 – r2 = 122.5 – 82.5 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
∆T = T1 – T2 = 423 – 308 = 115 K
k1 = 0.14 W/(m·K)
k2 = 0.035 W/(m·K)
The rate of heat loss is given by
∆T
Q = ∑ x/kA

∆T
Q = r2 – r1 r3 – r2
+
k1 2π rm1 L k2 2π rm2 L
Consider 1 m of the pipe. Therefore,
L = 1m
The rate of heat loss per meter is
115
Q = 1
 0.05 0.04 

2π 0.14 × 0.0537 × 1
+
0.035 × 0.1012 × 1

= 40.3 W/m … Ans.

Example 2.19 : A hollow sphere has an inside surface temperature 573 K (300 oC) and
the outside surface temperature 303 K (30 oC). Find the heat loss by conduction for an inside
diameter of 50 mm and outside diameter of 150 mm.
Data : The thermal conductivity of material is 17.45 W/(m·K).
Solution : I.D. of the sphere = 50 mm
50
∴ r1 = 2 = 25 mm = 0.025 m

O.D. of the sphere = 150 mm

r2 = 75 mm = 0.075 m
Unit Operations – II 2.32 Conduction

The rate of heat loss is given by

∆T ⋅ A
Q = (r – r )/k
2 1

2 2
A = A1 A2 = 4π r1 × 4π r2
A = 4π r1 r2
4π r1 r2 k ∆T 4π k ∆T
Q = (r2 – r1) = 1 1
r1 – r2

4 × π × 17.45 (573 – 303)

= 1 1 = 2220 W
–
0.025 0.075
∴ Rae of heat loss = Q = 2220 W … Ans.
Example 2.20 : A furnace wall is made up of 230 mm of fire brick, 75 mm of
insulating brick and 89 mm of red brick. The temperature at the inner surface of the wall is
1073 K (800oC) and that of the outer surface is 333 K (60oC). Average thermal conductivity
values of the three types of bricks, i.e., fire brick, insulating brick and the red brick are 1.21,
0.121 and 0.865 W/(m·K), respectively. Calculate the temperatures at the interface between
different kinds of bricks.
Solution :

T1 = 1073 K T2 = 333 K

230 mm 75 mm 89 mm

Fig. Ex. 2.20

x1 = thickness of fire brick = 230 mm = 0.23 m
x2 = thickness of insulating brick = 75 mm = 0.075 m
x3 = thickness of red brick = 89 mm = 0.089 m
k1 = 1.21 W/(m·K)
k2 = 0.121 W/(m·K)
k3 = 0.865 W/(m·K)
Let A = 1 m2
Unit Operations – II 2.33 Conduction

∑ R = ∑ x/kA
x1 x2 x3
= kA + kA +kA
1 2 3

0.23 0.075 0.089

= + +
1.21 × 1 0.121 × 1 0.865 × 1
= 0.19 + 0.62 + 0.103 = 0.913 K/W
∆T1 = temperature drop over the fire brick layer
0.23
R1 = x1/k1A = = 0.19 K/W
1.21 × 1
Let us calculate the temperature at the interface between fire brick and insulating brick.
For steady state heat transfer,
Q = Q1. Therefore,
∆T ∆T1
= R
∑R 1

∆T1 R1
= ∑R
∆T
R1 0.19
∆T1 = ∆T × ∑ R = (1073 – 333) × 0.913 = 154 K
Temperature at the interface between fire brick and insulating brick (T') is
T' = T1 – ∆T1 = 1073 – 154 = 919 K (646oC) … Ans.
Let us calculate the temperature at the interface between insulating brick and red brick.
For steady state heat transfer, Q = Q2. Therefore, ∆T/∑ R = ∆T2/T2.
∆T2 R2
= ∑R
∆T
0.075
R2 = x2/k2A = = 0.62 … Ans.
0.121 × 1
R2 0.62
∆T2 = ∆T × ∑ R = (1073 – 333) × 0.913 = 502.50 K

Temperature at the interface between insulating brick and red brick (T") is
T" = T' – ∆T2 = 919 – 502.5 = 416.5 K (143.5oC) … Ans.
So the temperatures at the two interfaces are 919 K and 416.5 K.
Example 2.21 : A furnace wall made up of steel plate 10 mm thick lined on the inside
with silica brick 150 mm thick on the outside with magnesite brick 150 mm thick. The
temperature on inside edge of the wall is 973 K (700oC) and on the outside is 288 K (15oC).
Calculate the quantity of heat passed in watts per m2.
It is required to reduce the heat flow to 1163 W/m2 by means of an air gap between steel
plate and magnesite brick. Estimate the width of this gap. Thermal conductivities in W/(m·K)
are 16.86, 1.75, 5.23 and 0.033 respectively for steel, silica brick, magnesite brick and air.
Unit Operations – II 2.34 Conduction

Solution :
Silica Metal Air gap Magnesite

150 mm 10 mm w 150 mm

Fig. Ex. 2.21

w = proposed air gap, m
The rate of heat transfer is given by
∆T
Q = ∑R

Let the heat transfer area (A) be 1 m2.

Let us calculate the total resistance to heat flow.
0.15 0.01 0.15
∑ R = ∑ x/kA = + + = 0.1153 K/W
1.75 × 1 16.86 × 1 5.23 × 1
… (in the absence of air gap)
2
Heat flow per 1 m area is
∆T 973 – 288
Q = ∑ R = 0.1153 = 5941 W/m2 … (in the absence of air gap)

Let the new resistance be ∑ R' when the heat flow is 1163 W/m2. Therefore,
∆T
1163 =
∑ R'
973 – 288
∑ R' = 1163 = 0.589 K/W

Let w be the width of the air gap.

The total resistance in the presence of air gap is
w
∑ R' = ∑ R +
kair × A
= Original resistance + Resistance of air gap
w
0.589 = 0.1153 +
0.033 × 1
w = (0.589 – 0.1153) × 0.033 = 0.0156 m = 15.6 mm
Width of the air gap = 15.6 mm … Ans.
Unit Operations – II 2.35 Conduction

Example 2.22 : A 300 mm O.D. pipe is covered with two layers of insulation
[k1 = 0.105 W/(m·K) and k2 = 0.07 W/(m·K)]. The better insulating material is on the outside
and is 40 mm thick. The other insulating material is of 50 mm thickness. The inner and outer
surface temperatures of the insulation are 623 K (350o C) and 323 K (50o C). Estimate :
(a) Heat loss per metre length.
(b) Heat loss per square metre of outer insulation surface.
(c) Temperature of the surface between the two layers of insulation.
Solution : O.D. of pipe = 300 mm
r1 = 300/2 = 150 mm = 0.15 m
r2 = 150 + 50 = 200 mm = 0.20 m
r3 = 200 + 40 = 240 mm = 0.24 m
x1 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
x2 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
The log mean radius of the other insulating material is
r2 – r1 0.2 – 0.15
rm1 = = 0.2 = 0.1738 m = 0.174 m
 2
r
ln 0.15
ln r   
 1
The log mean radius of the better insulating material is
r3 – r2 (0.24 – 0.20)
rm2 = = ~
 3
r  0.24 = 0.2194 m – 0.22 m
ln r  ln 0.20
 
 2
The respective thermal resistances are :
x1 0.05 0.827
R1 = k A = = L
1 0.105 × π × 0.174 × L
x2 0.04 0.827
R2 = k A = = L
2 0.07 × π × 0.22 × L
(a) The rate of heat loss per unit length is
∆T ∆T
Q = R + R = 0.871 0.827
1 2
L + L
Q ∆T 623 – 323
L = 0.871 + 0.827 = 1.698 = 176.7 W/m
Q
L = 176.7 W/m … Ans. (a)
Unit Operations – II 2.36 Conduction

(b) Perimeter of outer insulation :

= 2π  2 + x1 + x2
O.D.
 
= 2π (0.15 + 0.05 + 0.04) = 1.508 m
The rate of heat loss per m2 of outer insulation surface is :
Q/L Q 176.7
Perimeter = L ⋅ perimeter = 1.508 = 117.2 W/m … Ans. (b)
2

∆T1 = temperature drop over the first insulation

R1 = resistance of the first insulation
x1 0.871
= kA = L
1

Similarly, the overall resistance is

0.871 0.827 1.698
∑R = L + L = L
For steady state heat transfer, Q = Q1. Therefore, ∆T/R = ∆T1/R1.
∆T1 R1
∴ = ∑R
∆T
∆T1 = ∆T × R1 / ∑ R
(623 – 323) × 0.871
∆T1 = 1.698 = 153.9 K
L× L

Temperature of the surface between the two layers of insulations (T') is

T' = T1 – ∆T1 = 623 – 153.9 = 469.1 K (196.1o C) … Ans.
Example 2.23 : Estimate the heat loss per m2 of surface area for a furnace wall, 300 mm
thick. The inner and outer surface temperatures are 593 K (320o C) and 311 K (38o C)
respectively. The variation in thermal conductivity (W/(m·K)) with temperature in K is given
by the following relation :
Solution : k = 0.003 T – 10–6 T2
The rate of heat transfer, i.e., the rate of heat loss is given by
Q = – kA dT/dx
Given : k = 0.003 T – 1 × 10–6 T2
x T2

Q⌠
⌡ dx = – A ⌠
⌡ (0.003 T – 10–6 T2) dT
0 T1
Unit Operations – II 2.37 Conduction
T1

Q·x = A ⌠
⌡ (0.003 T – 10–6 T2) dT
T2

Q = x  2 ( T 1 – T 2) – 3 ( T 1 – T 2) 
A 0.003 2 2 10–6 3 3
 
2
Assuming area of heat transfer to be 1 m .
A = 1 m2
x = 30 cm = 0.3 m
T1 = 593 K
T2 = 311 K
The rate of heat loss per 1 m2 area is

Q = 0.3  2 ((593)2 – (311)2) – 3 ((593)3 – (311)3)

1 0.003 10–6
 
= 1274.4 W/m2 … Ans.
Example 2.24 : Calculate the rate of increment of the thickness of an ice layer on the
lake when the thickness of ice is 200 mm and air temperature 263 K. Thermal conductivity of
ice is 1.675 W/(m·K) and density of ice is 900 kg/m3. Take the latent heat of ice as 335 kJ/kg.
Calculate also the time to double the thickness of ice.
Solution : Considering conduction through 1 m2 area of the slab of ice, heat required to
be conducted through the ice to increase the layer thickness by x mm is given by
A⋅x x
Q = mλ = 1000 × λ = 1 × 1000 × 900 × 335 = 301.5 x kJ
Thus, 301.5 x kJ is required to be conducted through 1 m2 area of ice of the average
x
thickness of 0.20 + = (0.20 + 0.0005 x) m in say t hours.
1000 × 2
The rate of heat conducted is
heat to be conducted – kAdT
t = dx
heat to be conducted = 301.5 x kJ = 301.5 x × 103 J
(–dT) = – (263 – 273) = 10 K
– kA dT
∴ 301.5 x × 103 = 0.20 + 0.0005x m × t

1.675 × 1 × 10
= 0.20 + 0.0005x × t
when t = 1 hr = 3600 s
1.675 × 1 × 10
We have : 301.5 x × 103 = 0.20 + 0.0005x × 3600

∴ x (0.20 + 0.0005x) = 0.20

Unit Operations – II 2.38 Conduction

If x = 1, L.H.S. becomes approximately equal to R.H.S.

 Rate of increment  = x = 1 mm = 1 mm/h
of the thickness of ice t 1h
Original thickness = 200 mm
Time required to double = original thickness = 200 mm = 200 h … Ans.
 the thickness of ice  rate of increase 1 mm/h
Example 2.25 : The inside and outside temperature of a furnace wall 300 mm thick of
refractory brick [k = 1.57 W/(m·K)] are at 1923 K (1650 oC) and 593 K (320 oC)
respectively. Find the reduction in heat loss through the wall to be obtained by adding
300 mm thickness of insulating bricks having k = 0.35 W/(m·K) assuming the inside surface
temperature of the refractory bricks to remain fixed at 1923 K (1650 oC). The temperature of
outside surface of the brick may be taken as 300 K (27 oC).
Solution : The rate of heat transfer is given by
k·A (T1 – T2)
Q = x
where k = 1.57 W/(m·K)
x = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Let the area of heat transfer to be 1 m2.
A = 1 m2
T1 = 1923 K
T2 = 593 K
Case-I : The rate of heat loss per 1 m2 area is
1.57 × 1 × (1923 – 593)
Q1 = 0.3 = 6960 W/m2
Case-II : Heat loss after adding insulating bricks layer. The rate of heat loss per 1 m2
area is
A (T1 – T'2)
Q2 = x /k + x /k
1 1 2 2

x1 = 0.3 m
x2 = 0.3 m
k1 = 1.57 W/(m·K)
k2 = 0.35 W/(m·K)
T'2
= 300 K
T1 = 1923 K
1 × (1923 – 300)
Q2 = 0.3 0.3 = 1548 W/m2
1.57 + 0.35
Reduction in heat loss per 1 m2 of heat is
Q1 – Q2 = 6960 – 1548 = 5412 W/m2 … Ans.
Unit Operations – II 2.39 Conduction

Example 2.26 : A cold room has one of the walls which measures 4.6 m × 2.3 m
constructed of bricks, 115 mm thick, insulated by cork slabbing 75 mm thick. The cork is
protected externally by wood 25 mm thick. Estimate the leakage through the wall per
24 hours if the interior temperature is 271 K and the exterior 291 K. The thermal
conductivities of brick, cork and wood are 0.113, 0.005 and 0.021 W/(m·K) respectively.
Solution : The rate of heat leakage is given by
A(T1 – T2)
Q = x /k + x /k + x /k
1 1 2 2 3 3

A = 4.6 × 2.3 = 10.58 m2

10.58 (291 – 271)
Q = 0.115 0.075 0.025 = 12.72 W
0.113 + 0.005 + 0.021
The heat leakage per 24 hours is
Q' = Q × time = 12.27 × 3600 × 24 × 10–3
= 1060 kJ … Ans.
Example 2.27 : A furnace wall is made up of a steel plate 10 mm thick, lined on the
inside with silica bricks 150 mm thick, and on the outside with magnesite bricks 150 mm
thick. The temperature on the inside edge of the wall is 973 K (700 oC) and on the outside is
423 K (150 oC). Calculate the quantity of heat passed in W/m2 and temperature at the
interface of steel and magnesite brick. Thermal conductivity of steel, silica brick and
magnesite brick are 16.86, 1.75 and 5.23 W/(m·K) respectively.
It is required that the heat flow be reduced to 1163 W/m2 by means of an air gap between
the steel and magnesite brick. Find the width of air gap, if k for air is 0.0337 W/(m·K).
Solution : The rate of heat flow is given by
(T1 – T2)
Q = ∑ x/kA

x1 x2 x3
where ∑ x/kA = k A + k A + k A
1 2 3

x1 = 10 mm = 0.01 m
x2 = 150 mm = 0.15 m
x3 = 150 mm = 0.15 m
k1 = 16.86 W/(m·K)
k2 = 1.75 W/(m·K)
k3 = 5.23 W/(m·K)
Unit Operations – II 2.40 Conduction

Let the heat transfer area be 1 m2.

0.010 0.15 0.15
∑ x/kA = + + = 0.115 K/W
16.86 × 1 1.75 × 1 5.23 × 1
(973 – 423)
Q = Heat flow = 0.115 = 4782.6 W/m2

At steady state, Q passing through the magnesite brick = Q.

∴ Temperature drop in the magnesite bricks
x3 ⋅ Q 0.15
= k3 = 4782.6 × 5.23 = 137.2 K
∴ Interface temperature between steel and magnesite brick (T") is
T" = T2 + ∆T" = 423 + 137.2 = 560.2 K
∑ x/k with a air gap for reducing the heat loss to 1163 W per m2 is
1 × (973 – 423)
∑ x/k = ∆T/(Q/A) = A ∆T/Q = 1163 = 0.473

∴ x/k for air = 0.473 – 0.115 = 0.358 m2⋅K/W

∴ Air gap thickness = (x/k) × k
= 0.358 × 0.0337 = 0.01206 m
= 12.06 mm … Ans.
Example 2.28 : A steam pipe 115 mm outside diameter, is covered with two layers of
different materials. The first layer is 50 mm thick and has a thermal conductivity of
0.062 W/(m·K). The second layer is 30 mm thick and has a thermal conductivity of
0.872 W/(m·K).
Outside surface temperature of the steam pipe is 508 K (235 oC) and that of the outer
surface of the lagging is 311 K (38 oC). Calculate the heat loss per metre length of the pipe
and the temperature between the two layers of insulation.
Solution : The rate of heat loss is given by
2πL (T1 – T2)
Q = ln (r /r ) ln (r /r )
2 1 3 2
k1 + k
2

where, T1 = 508 K
T2 = 311 K
r1 = 115/2 = 57.5 mm = 0.0575 m
r2 = 57.5 + 50 = 107.5 mm = 0.1075 m
r3 = 107.5 + 30 = 137.5 mm = 0.1375 m
k1 = 0.062 W/(m·K)
k2 = 0.872 W/(m·K)
Unit Operations – II 2.41 Conduction

Consider 1 m of the steam pipe.

L = 1m
The rate of heat loss per 1 m of the steam pipe is
2π × 1 (508 – 311)
Q =
ln 0.0575 ln 0.1075
0.1075 0.1375
   
0.062 + 0.872
= 119.3 W/m … Ans.
Let T be the temperature between two layers of insulation.
At steady state, the rate of heat flow through the first layer is the same as Q. Therefore,
2πL (T1 – T)
Q = ln (r /r )
2 1
k1
2π × 1 (508 – T)
119.3 =
ln 0.0575
0.1075
 
0.062
Solving for T, we get
T = 316.4 K (43.4oC) … Ans.
Example 2.29 : A steel pipe with an outside diameter of 115 mm and a wall thickness of
5 mm is covered with 50 mm thickness of 85% magnesia. The surface temperature on the
inside of the pipe is 423 K (150 oC) and that on the outside of insulation is 305 K (32 oC).
Calculate :
(i) The heat flow per metre of length.
(ii) The temperature at the outer surface of the steel pipe and
(iii) The conductance of the pipe and insulation based on its inside surface area.
k for steel = 43.03 W/(m·K)
k for insulation = 0.07 W/(m·K)
Solution : The rate of heat flow is given by
2πL (T1 – T2)
Q = ∑ ln (r2/r1)
k
2πL (T1 – T2)
= ln (r /r ) ln (r /r )
2 1 3 2
k1 + k2
Consider 1 m of the steel pipe.
L = 1 m, T1 = 423 K, T2 = 305 K, k = 43.03 W/(m⋅K)
Unit Operations – II 2.42 Conduction

115 – 2 × 5
r1 = 2 = 52.5 mm = 0.0525 m

115
r2 = 2 = 57.5 mm = 0.0575 m
115
r3 = 2 + 50 = 107.5 mm = 0.1075 m
The rate of heat loss per 1 m of the steel pipe is
2π × 1 × (423 – 305)
Q =
ln 0.0525 ln 0.0575
0.0575 0.1075
   
43.03 + 0.07
= 82.92 W/m … Ans. (a)
Let T be the temperature at the outer surface of the steel pipe.
For the steel pipe, at steady state, Q through it is the same as that through the pipe +
insulation. Therefore,
2πL (T1 – T)
Q = ln (r2/r1)
k
2π × 1 × (423 – T)
82.92 =
ln 0.0525
0.0575
 
43.03
Solving for T, we get
T = 422.97 K (149.97 oC) … Ans. (b)
This shows that there is a negligible temperature drop over the steel pipe thickness. Thus,
the resistance of the pipe material is negligible as compared with that of the insulation.
As the inside diameter is 105 mm, inside area per metre of the pipe length is
π × 0.105 × 1 = 0.335 m2
Thus, the conductance per 1 m length based on the inside area is
1 Q
C = R = A (T – T )
1 2

82.92
= 0.335 (423 – 305) = 2.1 W/K

∴ C = 2.1 W/K … Ans. (c)

Unit Operations – II 2.43 Conduction

Example 2.30 : A steam pipe 100 mm outside diameter is covered with two layers of
insulating material, each 25 mm thick, the thermal conductivity of one being three times that
of the other.
Working from first principles show that the effectivity of the two layers is 15.7% less
when the better insulating material is on the inside than when it is on the outside. Assume the
same overall temperature difference in both the cases.
Solution : Consider a thick cylinder of length L. Let k be the thermal conductivity of the
cylinder material. Further consider an element of thickness dr at a radius r concentric with
the cylinder.
The rate of heat transfer through this elementary layer of thickness dr at radius r is
Q = – k 2πrL dT/dr
Integrating between the limits : at r = r1, T = T1 and at r = r2, T = T2
r2 T2

Q⌠
⌡ dr r = – 2πL k ⌠
⌡ dT
r1 T1

Q ln (r2/r1) = 2πL k (T1 – T2)

2πL k (T1 – T2)
Q = ln (r2/r1)
2πL (T1 – T2)
Q = ln (r2/r1)
k
For a composite cylinder, we have
2πL (T1 – T2)
Q = ∑ ln (r /r )
2 1
k
Let the thermal conductivity of the better insulating material be k.
Thermal conductivity of the outer insulating material = 3 k.
Case-I : Better insulating material on the inside. For this, the rate of heat transfer is given
by
2πL (T1 – T2)
Q1 = ln (r /r ) ln (r3/r2)
2 1
k + 3k
where r1 = 100/2 = 50 mm = 0.05 mm
r2 = 50 + 25 = 75 mm = 0.075 m
r3 = 75 + 25 = 100 mm = 0.10 m
2πL (T1 – T2)
Q1 =
ln 0.050 ln 0.075
0.075 0.10
   
k + 3k
Unit Operations – II 2.44 Conduction

Case-II : Better insulating material on the outside. For this, the rate of heat transfer is
given by
2πL (T1 – T2)
Q2 = ln (r /r ) ln (r /r )
2 1 3 2
3k + k
2πL (T1 – T2)
=
ln  0.05  ln 0.075
0.075 0.10
   
3k + k
Dividing Q1 by Q2 gives
Q1 1/3 ln (3/2) + ln (4/3)
Q2 = ln (3/2) + 1/3 ln (4/3)
= 0.843. It can be written as : 1 – 0.157
∴ By applying the better insulating material on the inside, the heat conducted is
reduced by 15.7% than that conducted when it is applied on the outside.
∴ Q1 = 0.843 Q2 = (1 – 0.157) Q2 … Ans.
Example 2.31 : A 165 mm external diameter pipe is lagged with a 35 mm thickness of
lagging of which thermal conductivity is 0.041 W/(m·K). The lagging outside temperature is
308 K, and brine temperature at a section inside the pipe is 252 K. Find the rise in
temperature of the brine per metre length at this section, if the brine mass flow rate is
0.32 kg/s. Specific heat of brine is 3.6 kJ/(kg.K).
Solution : Neglecting the thermal resistance of pipe, the rate of heat transfer is given by
2πL k (T1 – T2)
Q = ln (r2/r1)
T1 = 308 K
T2 = 252 K
r1 = 165 mm = 0.165 m

r2 = 165 + 2 × 35 = 235 mm = 0.235 m

Let L = 1m
2π × 1 × 0.041 × (308 – 252)
Q =
ln 0.165
0.235
 
= 40.8 W per metre length of pipe.
Unit Operations – II 2.45 Conduction

Heat gained by the brine = 40.8 W

Rise in temperature = ∆T
of the brine 
Q
∆T = .
m·Cp
40.8
= = 0.0354 K (0.0354o C)
0.32 × 3.6 × 103
∆T = 0.0354 K (0.0354o C) … Ans.
Example 2.32 : The inside and outside surface of a hollow sphere at r = r1 and r = r2
(r1 < r < r2) are maintained at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. The thermal conductivity
varies with temperature as
k = k0 (1 + αT + βT2)
Derive an expression for the heat flow rate Q through the sphere.
Solution : Fourier equation for a sphere is
dT
Q = – kA dr

Q
A dr = – k dT
For sphere : A = 4πr2
k = k0 (1 + α T + β T2)
Substituting the values of A and k we get
r2 T2
Q ⌠ dr
= – k0 ⌠
4π ⌡ r2 ⌡ (1 + αT + βT2) dT
T
r1 1

T1
r
Q  1 2
– = k0 ⌠
⌡ (1 + αT + βT2) dT
4π  r r1 T 2

–Q  1 – 1  = k (T – T ) + α (T2 – T2) + β (T3 – T3)

r r   1 2 2 
4π  2 1 0 1 2
3 1 2

Q (r2 – r1)  α β 2 2 
= k0 (T1 – T2) 1 + 2 (T1 + T2) + 3 (T1 + T1 T2 + T2)
4π r2 r1  
k0 4π
π r1 r2 (T1 – T2)  α β 2 2 
Q = 1 + 2 (T1 – T2) + 3 (T1 + T1 T2 + T2)
r2 – r1  
… Ans.
Unit Operations – II 2.46 Conduction

Example 2.33 : A plane wall with isothermal faces T1 at x = 0 and T2 at x = x has a

thermal conductivity of k = ko (1 + aT). Show that the heat conducted through the wall is
given by
ko A
Q = x 1 + 2 (T1 + T2) (T1 – T2)
a
 
Solution : Fourier's law for heat conduction is
Q = – kA dT/dx
Q dx = – kA dT
k = k0 (1 + aT)

∴ Q⌠
⌡ dx = – k0 A ⌠
⌡ (1 + aT) dT
The limits of integration are :
At x = 0, T = T1
At x = x, T = T2
x T2

Q⌠
⌡ dx = – k0 A ⌠
⌡ (1 + aT) dT
0 T1
T1

Q · x = k0 A ⌠
⌡ (1 + aT) dT
T2

Integrating, we get
k0 A  a 2 2 
Q = x  (T 1 – T 2 ) + 2 ( T 1 – T 2) 
k0 A
Q = x (T1 – T2) + 2 (T1 + T2) (T1 – T2)
a
 
k0 A
Q = x 1 + 2 (T1 + T2) [T1 – T2]
a
∴ … Ans.
 
Example 2.34 : An exterior wall of house may be approximated by a 100 mm
layer of a common brick [k = 0.70 W/(m·K)] followed by a 40 mm layer of gypsum
plaster [k = 0.48 W/(m·K)]. What thickness of loosely packed rockwool insulation
[k = 0.065 W/(m·K)] should be added to reduce the heat loss through the wall by 25% ?
Solution : Let the area of heat transfer be 1 m2.
The rate of heat loss is given by
∆T
Q = ∑ x/kA
x1 x2
∑ x/kA = k A + k A
1 2
Unit Operations – II 2.47 Conduction

where, x1 = 100 mm = 0.10 m

x2 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
k1 = 0.7 W/(m·K)
k2 = 0.48 W/(m·K) and A = 1 m2
0.10 0.04
∑ x/kA = + = 0.226 K/W
0.7 × 1 0.48 × 1
∆T
∴ Q = 0.226 = 4.42 ∆T … (1)
Given : When the rockwool insulation added, the heat loss is reduced by 25% so the heat
loss is 0.75 Q. The rate of heat loss through the new system is
Q' = 0.75 Q
This heat loss is by considering the resistance of rockwool insulation and is given by
∆T
Q' = ∑ x/kA
∆T
Q' = x /k A + x /k A + x /k A
1 1 2 2 3 3

where, x3 = thickness of rockwool insulation in m

k3 = 0.065 W/(m·K)
∆T
Q' = x3 … (2)
0.10 0.04
+ +
0.7 × 1 0.48 × 1 0.065 × 1
But Q' = 0.75 Q … (3)
Equating Equations (2) and (3) and substituting the value of Q from Equation (1) gives
∆T
0.75 × 4.42 × ∆T = x3
0.226 + 0.065

 x3 
0.75 × 4.42 0.226 + 0.065 = 1
 
0.7492 + 51 x3 = 1
x3 = 4.92 × 10–3 m = 4.92 mm … Ans.
Thickness of the rockwool insulation required = 4.92 mm. … Ans.
Example 2.35 : A steam pipe, 40 mm outside diameter, is to be insulated by two layers of
insulation each 20 mm thick. The material M-1 has thermal conductivity k and the material
M-2 has thermal conductivity 3k. Assuming that the inner and outer surface temperatures of
a composite insulation to be fixed, find which arrangement would give less heat loss rate,
M-1 near the pipe surface and M-2 as the outer layer or vice versa ? Also calculate the
percent reduction in heat loss.
Unit Operations – II 2.48 Conduction

Solution : Arrangement-1 : Let the layer of material M-1 be nearer to the surface of the
steam pipe.
The rate of heat loss is given by
T1 – T2
Q1 = ln r /r ln r3/r2
2 1
+
2π L k1 2π L k2
Here, k1 = k and k2 = 3k
r1 = 40/2 = 20 mm = 0.02 m
r2 = 20 + 20 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
r3 = 40 + 20 = 60 mm = 0.06 m
T1 and T2 be the temperatures at the inner surface of the pipe and at the outer surface
insulation.
T1 – T2
Q1 = ln (0.04/0.02) ln (0.06/0.04)
+
2π L k 2π L × 3k
T1 – T2
Q1 = ln 2 ln 1.5
+
2π k 6π k
k L (T1 – T2)
= 0.1318 = 7.59 kL (T1 – T2)

Arrangement-2 : Let the layer of material M-2 be nearer to the surface of the steam
pipe.
The rate of heat loss is given by
T1 – T2
Q2 = ln r /r ln r3/r2
2 1
+
2π L k1 2π L k2
T1 – T2
= ln (0.04/0.02) ln (0.06/0.04)
+
2π L × 3k 2π Lk
kL (T1 – T2)
= ln 2 ln 1.5
+
6π 2π
k L (T1 – T2)
= 0.1013 = 9.87 kL (T1 – T2)
Unit Operations – II 2.49 Conduction

For any values of k, T1 and T2 , Q1 is always less than Q2 since Q1 is 7.59 times
kL (T1 – T2) and Q2 is 9.87 times kL (T1 – T2)
∴ M-1 near the surface is advisable (i.e., the arrangement-1 will result in less heat loss).
% reduction in = 9.87 kL (T1 – T2) – 7.59 kL (T1 – T2) × 100
the heat loss  9.87 kL (T1 – T2)
9.87 – 7.59
= 9.87 × 100

= 23.1 % … Ans.
Example 2.36 : A steel pipe [k = 50 W/(m·K)] of 100 mm I.D. and 110 mm O.D. is to be
covered with two layers of insulation each having thickness of 50 mm. The thermal
conductivity of the first insulation material is 0.06 W/(m·K) and that of second is
0.12 W/(m·K). Estimate the heat loss per 1 m length of pipe when the temperature of the
inside tube surface is 523 K (250 oC) and that of the outer surface of insulation is
323 K (50 oC).
If the order of insulation material were reversed, i.e., the insulation with higher value of
thermal conductivity was put first, calculate the change in the heat loss with all other
conditions kept unchanged. Comment on results.
Solution : T1 = 523 K, T2 = 323 K
r1 = 100/2 = 50 mm = 0.050 m, r2 = 110/2 = 55 mm = 0.055 m
r3 = 55 + 50 = 105 mm = 0.105 m, r4 = 105 + 50 = 155 mm = 0.155 m
k1 = 50 W/(m·K), k2 = 0.06 W/(m·K)
k3 = 0.12 W/(m·K)
Case I :
First layer of insulation is of the insulation material having k = 0.06 W/(m·K), i.e., of the
material having a lower value of thermal conductivity.
Q = 2π (T1 – T2)
 L 1 ln (r2/r1) ln (r3/r2) ln (r4/r3)
k1 + k2 + k
3

2π (523 – 323)
= ln (0.055/0.05) ln (0.105/0.055) ln (0.155/0.105)
50 + 0.06 + 0.12
= 89.9 W/m … Ans.
Case II :
The insulation material of higher thermal conductivity is put first, i.e., near the pipe
surface and the insulation of lower thermal conductivity at the outer layer. In this case,
k2 = 0.12 W/(m·K) and k3 = 0.06 W/(m·K).
Unit Operations – II 2.50 Conduction

Q = 2π (523 – 323)

 2
L ln (0.055/0.05) ln (0.105/0.055) ln (0.155/0.105)
40 + 0.12 + 0.06
= 105.75 W/m … Ans.
As (Q/L)1 is less than (Q/L)2, the insulation material having a low thermal conductivity
should be put first, i.e., near the pipe surface.
With the material having a low k value, % reduction in the heat loss is
105.75 – 89.6
% reduction in the heat loss = 89.6 × 100 = 18.02 … Ans.

By comparing the results, it is seen that the loss of heat is increased by 18.02% by
applying the insulation material with a higher thermal conductivity near the pipe surface. As
the purpose of insulation is to reduce the heat loss, it is always better to provide the
insulating material with a low thermal conductivity on the surface of pipe first, i.e., near the
pipe surface.
Example 2.37 : A steam pipe 10 cm O.D. is to be insulated by two layers of insulations
each 2.5 cm thick. The material 'A' has a thermal conductivity of k and the material 'B' has
conductivity 3 k. Assuming that the inner and outer temperatures of composite insulation to
be fixed, find :
(i) Which arrangement would give less heat loss rate, 'A' near the pipe surface and
'B' as outer layer or vice versa ?
(ii) What is the percent reduction in the heat loss rate ?
Solution : Let T1 be the temperature at the outer surface of pipe and T2 be the
temperature at the outer surface of insulation. These temperatures are fixed in both the
following cases :
Case I : A near the surface.
Case II : B near the surface.
(T1 – T2)
We have Q = ln (r /r ) ln (r /r )
2 1 3 2
+
2π k1 L 2π k2 L
Consider 1 m of the pipe.
∴ L = 1m
Case I : 'A' near the pipe surface :
r1 = outer radius of pipe = 100 mm = 0.10 m
r2 = outer radius of inner insulation (A) = 100 + 25 = 125 mm = 0.125 m
r3 = outer radius of outer insulation (B) = 125 + 25 = 150 mm = 0.150 m
Unit Operations – II 2.51 Conduction

k1 = thermal conductivity of 'A' = k, W/(m·K)

k2 = thermal conductivity of 'B' = 3 k, W/(m·K)
(T1 – T2)
∴ Q1 = ln (0.125/0.10) ln (0.15/0.125)
+
2π × k × 1.0 2π × 3k × 1.0

∆T
Q1 = 0.0355 0.0097
k + k

∆T
= 0.0452/k = 22.12 k ∆T

Case II : 'B' near the pipe surface :

(T1 – T2)
Q2 = ln (0.125/0.10) ln (0.15/0.125)
+
2π × 3k × 1.0 2π × k × 1.0

∆T ∆T
Q2 = 0.012 0.029 = 0.041 = 24.39 k ∆T
k + k k

Q1 = 22.12 k ∆T and Q2 = 24.39 k ∆T ∴ Q1 is less than Q2, i.e., the arrangement :

'A' near the pipe surface (and 'B' as the outer layer) gives less heat loss. … Ans. (i)
To reduce the heat loss, 'A' near the pipe surface should be used. For reducing the heat
loss, the material having a low thermal conductivity should be always near the pipe surface.

% Reduction in the heat loss  = 24.39 k ∆T – 22.12 k ∆T × 100 = 10.26 … Ans. (ii)
(with A near the pipe surface) 22.12 k ∆T

Example 2.38 : A wall of a furnace 0.224 m thick is constructed of a material having a

thermal conductivity of 1.3 W/(m·K). This will be insulated on the outside with material
having an average k of 0.346 W/(m·K) so that the heat loss from the furnace will be equal to
or less than 1830 W/m2. The inner surface temperature is 1588 K (1315 oC) and the outer
299 K (26 oC). Calculate the thickness of insulation required.
Solution : x1 = 0.224 m, k1 = 1.3 W/(m·K)
x2 = ? k2 = 0.346 W/(m·K)
T1 = 1588 K and T2 = 299 K

Q/A = the rate of heat loss per unit area = 1830 W/m2
Unit Operations – II 2.52 Conduction

Q (T1 – T2)
We have : A = x1/k1 + x2/k2

1830 (x1/k1 + x2/k2) = (1588 – 299)

x1 x2
k1 + k2 = 0.7044
0.224 x2
1.3 + k2 = 0.7044
x2/k2 = 0.5321
x2 = 0.5321 k2 = 0.5321 × 0.346 = 0.184 m = 184 mm
Thickness of the insulation required = 184 mm … Ans.
Example 2.39 : An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 100 mm layer of
common brick followed by a 40 mm layer of gypsum plaster. What thickness of loosely
packed rock wool insulation should be added to reduce the heat loss through the wall by
80 percent ?
Data : k for common brick = 0.7 W/(m·K)
k for gypsum layer = 0.48 W/(m·K)
k for rock wool = 0.065 W/(m·K)
Solution : The rate of heat loss is given by
Q = ∆T/∑ R
Q without insulation = Q = ∆T/∑ R
Q with insulation = Q' = ∆T/∑ R'
With rock wool insulation, the heat loss is reduced by 80%.
∴ Heat loss with insulation will be 20% of the heat loss without insulation.
∆T ∆T
Q' = 0.2, Q = 0.2 ∑ R = ∑ R'
Q' ∑R
∴ Q = 0.2 = ∑ R'
Let the area of heat transfer be 1 m2.
A = 1 m2
x1 = 100 mm = 0.10 m, x2 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
x3 = thickness of rock wool insulation
k1 = 0.7 W/(m·K), k2 = 0.48 W/(m·K), k3 = 0.065 W/(m·K)
Brick : R1 = x1/k1A = 0.1/0.7 × 1 = 0.143 K/W
Plaster : R2 = x2/k2 A = 0.04 /0.48 × 1 = 0.083 K/W
∴ R = R1 + R2 = 0.143 + 0.083 = 0.226 K/W
Unit Operations – II 2.53 Conduction

Rock wool : R3 = x3/k3 A = x3/0.065 × 1 = 15.4 x3 K/W

R' = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.226 + 15.4 x3
R = Resistance without insulation
R' = Resistance with insulation
0.226
∴ 0.2 = 0.226 + 15.4 x
3
Solving for x3, we get
x3 = 0.0587 m = 58.7 mm ≈ 59 mm
Thickness of rock wool insulation = 59 mm. … Ans.
Systems with Variable Thermal Conductivity :
Now we will take into account the variation of k with temperature in deriving the heat
flow equations for a plane wall, a cylinder, etc.
Plane wall with variable k :
A plane wall of thickness x has one surface at T1 and the other surface at T2. If the
thermal conductivity of the wall varies with temperature as per the following equation :
k = ko (1 + αT), derive an expression for the heat flow rate, Q.
Solution : The Fourier's equation for heat conduction is
Q = – kA dT/dx
Q dx = kA dT
Given : k = ko (1 + αT)
∴ Q dx = – ko (1 + αT) A dT
The boundary conditions are :
at x = 0, T = T1
and at x = L, T = T2
Integrating within the limits, we get
x T2 T1

Q ⌠
⌡ dx = – ko A ⌠
⌡ (1 + αT) dT = ko A ⌠
⌡ (1 + αT) dT
0 T1 T2
T1
 α 
Qx = ko A T + 2 T2
 T2
ko A  α 2 2 
Q = x (T1 – T2) + 2 (T1 – T2)
 
ko A  α 
Q = x (T1 – T2) 1 + 2 (T1 + T2) … (2.50)
 
Hollow cylinder with variable k :
Consider a hollow cylinder. The inner and outer surfaces of the hollow cylinder are
maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. The cylinder of length L and r1
Unit Operations – II 2.54 Conduction

and r2 are its the inside and the outside radii, respectively. The thermal conductivity of the
material of cylinder is temperature dependent and given by the equation :
k = ko (1 + αT + βT2)
Derive an expression for the rate of heat flow through the cylinder.
Solution : The Fourier's law of heat conduction is
dT
Q = – kA dr

With k = ko (1 + αT + βT2) it becomes

dT
Q = – ko (1 + αT + βT2) A dr

Rearranging, we get
dr
Q r = – ko 2πL (1 + αT + βT2) dT

The boundary conditions are :

at r = r1, T = T1 and at r = r2, T = T2
Integrating within the limits, we get
r2 T2
dr
Q⌠
⌡ r = – ko · 2πL ⌠
⌡ (1 + αT + βT2) dT
r1 T1

r2 T1
dr
Q ⌠
⌡ r = 2π ko L ⌠
⌡ (1 + αT + βT2) dT
r1 T2

r2 T
 α 2 β 3 1
Q [ln r] = 2π ko L T + 2 T + 3 T 
r1  T2

 α 2 2 β
Q ln (r2/r1) = 2π ko L (T1 – T2) + 2 (T1 – T2) + 3

(T31 – T32)
 α 2 2 β
2π ko L (T1 – T2) + 2 (T1 – T2) + 3

(T31 – T32)
Q = ln (r2/r1)
2 2
2π ko L (T1 – T2) [1 + α/2 (T1 + T2) + β/3 (T1 + T1 T2 + T2)]
Q = ln (r2/r1)
… (2.51)
Equation (2.51) is the desired expression for the rate of heat flow through a hollow
cylinder.
Unit Operations – II 2.55 Conduction

Hollow sphere with variable k :

Consider a hollow sphere with boundary surfaces at r = r1 and r = r2 maintained at
uniform temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. The thermal conductivity of the material of
sphere varies with temperature, and is given by
k(T) = ko (1 + αT + βT2)
where r1 and r2 are the inner and outer radii of the sphere.
Derive an expression for the heat flow rate Q through the sphere.
dT
Solution : Q = – kA dT/dr = – k 4πr2 dr

dr
∴ Q · r2 = – 4π k dT

Limits for the integration are :

at r = r1, T = T1 and at r = r2, T = T2
k = ko (1 + αT + βT2)
r2 T2
dr
∴ Q⌠
⌡ r2 = – 4π ko ⌠
⌡ (1 + αT + βT2) dT
r1 T1

r T
1 2  α 2 β 3 1
–Q r = 4π ko T + 2 T + 3 T 
 r1  T2
 3 
– Q r – r  = 4π ko (T1 – T2) + 2 (T1 – T2) + 3 (T1 – T2)
1 1 α 2 2 β 3
 2 1  
 3 
Q r – r  = 4π ko (T1 – T2) + 2 (T1 – T2) + 3 (T1 – T2)
1 1 α 2 2 β 3
 1 2  
 3 
Q  r r  = 4π ko (T1 – T2) + 2 (T1 – T2) + 3 (T1 – T2)
r2 – r1 α 2 2 β 3
 12   
4π ko · r1r2  α 2 2 β 3 3 
∴ Q = (r – r ) (T1 – T2) + 2 (T1 – T2) + 3 (T1 – T2)
2 1  
4π ko r1r2  α β 2 2 
Q = (r – r ) (T1 – T2) 1 + 2 (T1 + T2) + 3 (T1 + T1 T2 + T2)
2 1  
… (2.52)
Equation (2.52) is the desired expression for the heat flow through a sphere.
Critical Radius of Insulation :
It is always necessary to provide insulation on the external surfaces of pipelines and
vessels to reduce the heat loss to the ambient, e.g., steam piping, piping carrying refrigerant,
etc. It is natural to expect that the greater the thickness of insulation, the less will the heat
loss. The following analysis reveals that this may not be always the case.
Unit Operations – II 2.56 Conduction

Consider a long pipe carrying steam at Ti is having inner and outer radii as r1 and r2,
respectively. It is wrapped with an insulation of thermal conductivity k2 to a radius r3. Let ho
be the heat transfer coefficient at the radius r3. The outer surface is exposed to the convective
environment (i.e., ambient) at To. Let hi be the heat transfer coefficient at the inner surface.

r2
r3
r1 h0, T0
k1 k2
hi, Ti

Fig. 2.6 : Insulated steam pipe

The rate of heat transfer is given by
2πL (Ti – To)
Q = ln (r2/r1) ln (r3/r2) … (2.53)
1 1
r1 hi + k1 + k2 + r3 ho
When Q is plotted as a function of r3, the other parameters being held constant, it will
pass through a maxima for a certain value of r3. This value is called as the critical radius.
We have
Ti – To
Q =
1  1 ln (r2/r1) ln (r3/r2) 1 

2πL  1 i
+ k + k +r h 
r h 1 2 3 o

1  1 ln (r2/r1) ln (r3/r2) 1 
∑R = 
2πL r1 hi
+ k + k +r h  … (2.54)
1 2 3 o

In Equation (2.54), all parameters except the outer radius of insulation are considered as
constant because only r3 depends upon the thickness of the insulation.
The value of critical radius (rc), that is, r3 is obtained by differentiating ∑ R with respect
to r3 and equating to zero, i.e., by minimising the denominator as the numerator is held
constant.
d∑R 1  1 1 1  1 
dr3 = 0 =
2πL  0 + 0 + k2 · r3 + ho – r23
1 1
∴ k2 r3 = ho r23
r3 = k2/ho = rc … (2.55)
where rc is critical radius of insulation.
Unit Operations – II 2.57 Conduction

It can be written as :
rc = k2/ho = k/h
k = k2 = thermal conductivity of insulating material
h = ho = convective heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of insulation
For rc = k2/ho = k/h, the heat loss is a maximum.
If the critical radius of insulation is greater than the outer radius of a pipe (or a container)
then the thickness of insulation upto rc, i.e., adding insulation upto rc will increase the heat
loss from the pipe. The addition of insulation thereafter will reduce the heat loss from the
pipe. On the other hand, when the critical radius of insulation is less than or equal to the
outer radius of the pipe or container, then the addition of insulation will immediately reduce
the heat loss from the pipe.
i.e., if the outer radius of a pipe or a container is greater than rc (critical radius), then
every layer of insulation provided will give reduction in the heat loss (and vice versa upto rc).
The rate of heat flow, Q is governed by the thermal resistance of an insulation,
ln (r3/r2)/2π Lk2 and thermal resistance, at the outer surface, 1/2πLr3 ho. The insulation
resistance increases with r3, while the resistance at the outer surface decreases.
The insulating material should be porous or fibrous so that air trapped in it reduces its
capacity tremendously by convection and radiation. It should have a low thermal
conductivity. It should have an adequate mechanical strength. It should be cheap and durable.
Critical radius of insulation : It is the outer radius of insulation at which the rate of heat
flow is maximum. It depends upon the thermal conductivity of an insulating material and
heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of insulation.
Example 2.40 : Calculate the critical radius of insulation for asbestos [k = 0.17 W/(m2·K)]
surrounding a pipe and exposed to the room air at 293 K (20oC) with h = 3.0 W/(m2·K).
Calculate the heat loss from a 473 K (200oC), 50 mm diameter pipe when covered with the
critical radius of insulation and without insulation. Would any fibre glass insulation having
a thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/(m·K) cause decrease in heat transfer ?
Solution : k = 0.17 W/(m·K) and h = ho = 3.0 W/(m2·K)
Critical radius = rc = k/h = 0.17/3.0 = 0.0567 m = 56.7 mm
Inside radius of insulation = r1 = 50/2 = 25 mm = 0.025 m
The rate of heat transfer per unit length with insulation is given by
2π (T1 – T2)
Q/L = ln (r /r )
c 1 1
k +r h
c o
2π (473 – 293)
= ln (0.0567/0.025) 1 = 105.7 W/m
0.17 +
0.0567 × 3.0
The rate of convection heat transfer, without insulation, from the outer surface of pipe is
Q/L = h (2πr) (T1 – T2)
= 3.0 (2π × 0.025) (473 – 293) = 84.8 W/m
105.7 – 84.8
Increase in rate of heat transfer = 84.8 × 100 = 24.65%
Unit Operations – II 2.58 Conduction

Therefore, addition of 56.7 – 25 = 31.7 mm of the insulation actually increases the heat
transfer by 24.65%.
Fibre glass insulation, k = 0.04 W/(m2·K)
0.04
Critical radius of insulation = rc = k/h = 3.0 = 0.0133 m … Ans.
In this case, the value of critical radius (0.0133 m) is less than the outside radius of the
pipe (0.025 m). Therefore, the addition of any fibre glass insulation would cause a decrease
in the heat transfer.
Critical radius insulation for insulated sphere :
For a sphere, we have
Q = ∆T/ ∑ R
Let r1, r2 be the inside and outside radii of sphere, respectively and r3 be the outer radius
of insulation. r2 is also the inner radius of insulation.
Let k1 and k2 be the thermal conductivities of the sphere material and insulation. Let
hi and ho be the heat transfer coefficients on the inside of the sphere and at the outer surface
of the insulation.
Total thermal resistance is given by
1 (r2 – r1) r3 – r2 1
∑R = 2 + + + 2 … (2.56)
4π r1 hi 4π k r r
1 1 2 4π k r r
2 2 3 4π r3 · ho
Differentiating ∑ R (i.e., Equation 2.56) with respect to r3 and equating to zero, we get.
In the above equation only r3 depends upon the insulation provided, so all other
parameters are taken as constant.
d∑R –1 2
dr3 = 0 = 4π k2 r23 – 4π ho r33
2 k2
∴ r3 = h = rc
o
2 k2 2k
∴ Critical radius of insulation for sphere = rc = h = h … (2.57)
o
where k = k2 = thermal conductivity of insulating material
and h = ho = heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of
insulation and ambient.
Example 2.41 : Derive a relation for the critical radius of insulation for a circular
cross-section having radius R and length L.
Solution : Consider an insulated pipe of length L with R1 and R2 as its inside and outside
radii, respectively. Let R3 be the outer radius of insulation. Let k1 and k2 be the thermal
conductivities of the pipe material and insulating material respectively. Let hi and ho be the
heat transfer coefficients on the inside surface of the pipe and at the outer surface of
insulation. Then,
(T1 – T2)
Q = ∑R
1 ln (R2/R1) ln (R3/R2) 1
∑R = + + +
2π R1 L hi 2π L k1 2π L k2 2π R3 L ho
Unit Operations – II 2.59 Conduction

Consider all parameters except r3 as constant, as only r3 depends upon the insulation
provided.
Differentiating ∑ R with respect to r3 and equating to zero, we get
d∑R 1 1 1 –1
= 0 = × + ×
dR3 2π k2 L R3 2π ho L R23
∴ 1/k2 = 1/ho R3
∴ R3 = k2/ho = Rc
∴ Critical radius of insulation = Rc = k2/ho = k/h
where k = k2 = thermal conductivity of insulating material and h = ho = convective
coefficient on the outer surface of insulation (between the outer surface and the ambient air).
Example 2.42 : A steam pipe with 100 mm I.D. and 110 mm O.D. is covered with an
insulating material having a thermal conductivity of 1.0 W/(m2·K). The steam temperature is
473 K (200oC) and the ambient temperature is 293 K (20oC). Taking the convective heat
transfer coefficient between the insulation surface and air as 8.0 W/(m2·K), find the critical
radius of insulation. For this value (rc), calculate the heat loss per metre of pipe and outer
surface temperature. Neglect the resistance of the pipe wall.
Solution : Critical radius = rc = k/h = 1.0/8 = 0.125 m = 125 mm
Neglecting the pipe wall resistance, the heat loss per 1 m with critical thickness of
insulation is given by
2π (T1 – T2)
Q/L = ln (r /r )
c 1 1
k + r h
c
where R1 = 473 K, T2 = 293 K
rc = 0.125 m, k = 1.0 W/(m·K)
h = 8.0 W/(m2·K)
and r1 = outer radius of pipe = inner radius of insulation
= 110/2 = 55 mm = 0.055 m
Q 2π (473 – 293)
L = ln (0.125/0.055) 1 = 620 W/m … Ans.
1.0 +
0.125 × 8
The outer surface temperature can be determined by the relation
Q 2π (T – T2)
L = 1/rc h
where T is the outer surface temperature
2π (T – 293)
620 =
1/(0.125 × 8)
Solving for T, we get
T = 391.72 K (118.72oC) … Ans.