J. B.

Institute of Engineering and Technology

(UGC Autonomous)

LECTURE NOTES [Link] & II-SEM

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

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 Module 1:
Unit-I: Ecosystem And Natural Resources:
Concept, Classification of Resources: Water resources, Land resources, land
degradation, Forest resources, Mineral resources, Energy resources. Concept of
ecosystem, Classification of ecosystem, Functions of ecosystem. Biodiversity, Level,
values, hotspots of biodiversity, Threats to Biodiversity, Conservation of Biodiversity.

Module 2:
Unit-I: Global Environmental Problems and Global Efforts:
Deforestation, Greenhouse effect, Global Warming, Sea level rise, Ozone depletion.
International conventions/protocols: green-belt-development, Concept of Green
Building, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
Unit-2: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) And Environmental
Management Plan: Definition of Impact, classification of impacts, methods of baseline
data acquisition. Impacts on different components: such as human health resources, air,
water, flora, fauna and society, impact assessment methodologies. Environmental
management plan (EMP).

Module 3:
Unit-1: Environmental Policy, Legislation, Rules and Regulations:

Environmental Protection Act: Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act-1981,

Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act-1974, Forest Conservation Act.
Unit-2: Towards Sustainable Future:
Concept of Sustainable Development, Threats to Sustainability, Strategies for achieving
Sustainable development, Environmental Ethics, Environmental Economics, Concept of
Green Computing

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 Module 1:

Unit-I: Ecosystem And Natural Resources

INTRODUCTION ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means to
‘encircle or surround’
SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT:
Environment consists of four segments.
1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.
3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the
environment.
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- -
Concept, Classification of Resources:

[Link] RESOURCES:
The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water; air,
soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples.
All the resources are classified based on quantity, quality, re-usability, men’s activity
and availability. Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered
valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource’s value rests in
the amount of the material available and the demand for it. The term was introduced to a
broad audience by E.F. Schumacher in his 1970s book Small is Beautiful.

a) Renewable resource or inexhaustible resources:

Resources that are capable of being regenerated by ecological processes within a
reasonable time period are called renewable resources. They have the potential to renew
themselves.
The renewable resources can maintain themselves or can be replaced if managed wisely.
These resources are constantly renewed in nature. The renewable resources are therefore
not likely to be lost due to excessive and unwise use. These resources are able to
increase their abundance through reproduction and utilization of simple substances.

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 Examples: Soil, water, air, wildlife, natural vegetation. Plants (crops and forests) and
animals.
The renewable resources are further sub classified into two types.
1. Continuous resources
These resources are continuously renewed.
Examples- Solar energy, wind, tidal energy.

2. Extrinsic resources
These resources are prone to breakdown or degradation, yet are available continuously
if well managed.

Types of renewable energy resources :

1. Solar energy: Nuclear fusion reaction of sun produces enormous amount of energy.
Several techniques are available for collecting, storing and using solar energy.
a. Solar cell (or) Photovoltaic cell (or) PV cell, b. Solar battery, c. Solar water heater.
2. Wind energy: Moving air is called wind. The energy recovered from the force of the
wind is called wind energy It’s speed is high.
3. Ocean energy: Tidal energy (or) Tidal power:
Ocean tides are due to gravitational force of sun and moon which produce enormous
amount of energy. High tides – rise of water in the ocean. Low tides – fall of water in
the ocean. Tidal energy can be used by constructing a tidal barrage. During high tides
sea water enters into the reservoirs and rotates the turbine, produce electricity. During
low tides water from reservoir enters into the sea rotate the turbine produce electricity.

Merits of renewable energy resources

1. Unlimited supply
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
5. Decentralized energy production
Disadvantages:
1. Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive.
2. Safe handling is required.
3. Difficult to store and transport.

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b) Non-renewable resources or exhaustible resources:
Resources that are not capable of being regenerated by ecological processes are called
non-renewable resources. Minerals, coal, oil, natural gas, ground water.
These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored. They include
metallic minerals and fossil fuels. At current rates of usage, all the industrial metals may
lose for less than a century and those of petroleum and natural gas may exhaust in 15-20
years.
Energy which cannot be regenerated is called as non-renewable.
Example:
1. Coal: It is a solid fossil fuel.
These are available in limited amounts, which cannot be increased. These resources
include fossil fuels (petrol, coal etc.), metals (iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc etc.),
minerals and salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates etc.).Once a non-renewable resource
is consumed, it is gone forever.
2. Petroleum: Crude oil is a liquid consists of more than hundreds of hydrocarbons and
small amount of impurities. The petroleum can be refined by fractional distillation. In
the world level 25% of oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. At present rate of usage, the
world crude oil reserves are expected to get exhausted in just 40 years.
3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): Petroleum gases obtained during FD and cracking
can be easily converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG. It is colorless and
odorless gas, but during cylindering mercaptans are added to detect leakage.
4. Natural gas: These are found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of methane and
other hydrocarbons. Calorific value is high. There are two types. Dry-gas and wet-gas.
5. Nuclear energy: [Link] is a father of nuclear power development in India.
10nuclear reactors are present in India. It produces 2% of India’s electricity. Nuclear
energy can be produced by two types of reactions. Nuclear-fission and nuclear- fusion.
Nuclear fission; It is a nuclear change in which heavier nucleus split into lighter nuclei
on bombardment of fast moving neutrons. Large amount of energy is released through
chain reaction.
Ex: Uranium with fast moving neutron gives barium and krypton in addition to three
neutrons; in the second stage it gives nine neutrons and so on. This process of
propagation of the reaction by multiplication is called chain reaction.
Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear change in which lighter nucleus is combined together at
extremely high temperature (1 billion 0C) to form heavier nucleus and a large amount of
energy is released.
Ex: Isotopes of hydrogen combine to form helium molecule.

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 WATER RESOURCES:
Water is an important component of all the living beings. Nearly 80% of earth's surface
is covered with water. All organisms are made up of mostly by water.
Example
1. A tree is made up of 60% by weight of water.
2. Animals are made up of 50-65% of water.
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our countryis for
irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic
consumption
Forms of water: It is circulated in accordance with the hydrological Water exists in
three phases, solid, liquid and gas.

Types of Fresh Water Resources

Fresh water resources may be broadly classified into two types. 1. Surface water.
(a) Standing water bodies: Lakes, reservoirs, estuaries.
(b) Flowing water bodies: Streams, rivers.

USES:
It is essential for all forms of life. Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial,
household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually, all of these human uses,
require fresh water. No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in
our body drops by1%we feel thirst.
It drops by 10%we face death.
97% of the water on the Earth is salt water. Only three percent is fresh water; slightly
over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice. The remaining unfrozen fresh
water is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground
or in the air

Distribution of water resources

Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms
1. Ground water and
2. Surface water
- Groundwater: About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of
groundwater and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplied

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 USES OF WATER:
1. DOMESTIC USE: Water used in the houses for the purposes of drinking, bathing,
washing Clothes, cooking, sanitary & other needs. The recommended value according to
Indian standard specification for domestic use is 135 liters/day
[Link] is also used for commercial purposes like hotels, theatres, educational
institutions, offices, etc.,
3. INDUSTRIAL USE: Water is required for various industries such as cement, mining,
textile, leather industries.
[Link]: Another important use of water is for irrigation, like agriculture.
Almost 60-70% of the fresh water is used for irrigation.
5.20-30% of the total fresh water is used for so many industrial operations like
refineries, iron and steel, paper and pulp industries.
6. PUBLIC USE: This includes water used for public utility purpose such as watering
parks, Flushing streets, jails etc.
7.. FIRE USE: Water is used in case of accidents and to prevent the fire issues.
8. OTHER USES: Hydro electric power generation requires water.

(A)Over utilization of water:

The rapid increase in population and industrial growth have increased the demand for water [Link] to
increase of ground water usage,the annual extraction of ground water is in far excess than the natural recharge.

Effects of over utilization of ground water:

[Link] of ground water: Due to increased usage of ground water,the ground water level decreases.
Reasons: (a) The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage of water in reservoirs.
(c) The building constructionconstruction activities are sealing the permeable soil zone, reducing the area
for percolation of rain water and increase in surface runoff.

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 [Link] subsidence: When the ground water withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the
aquifer get compacted,which results in sinking of overlying land surface. This process is known as ground
subsidence.
Problems: i structural damage in building,
ii Facture in pipes,
iii Reversing the flow of canal and tidal flooding.

3. Loweing of water table: Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi arid regions for agriculture disturbs
the state of equilibrium of the reservoir in region.
Problems: (i)lowering of water table,
(ii) Decresed pressure in the aquifers and changes in the speed and direction of water flow.

4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal areas,over exploitation of ground water would lead to rapd intrusion of salt
water from sea.
Problem: Water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture.

5. Earthquakes and Land slides: Over utilization of ground water causes earthquakes,landslides and famine.

6. Drying of wellsand bore wells.

7. Pollution of water: Water becomes unsuitable for potable use by infants,when nitrate concentration exceeds
45mg/lt.

(B)Drought. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in
its water supply whether surface or underground water. Generally, this occurs when a region receives
consistently below average precipitation.
We can define drought in four main ways:
a) Meteorological drought: related to rainfall amounts
b) Hydrological drought: determined by water levels in reservoirs
c) Agricultural drought: related to the availability of water for crops
d) Socioeconomic Drought: related to demand and supply of
economic goods
a)Meteorological Drought: Meteorological drought is generally defined by comparing the rainfall in a
particular place and at a particular time with the average rainfall for that Place. The definition is,
therefore, specific to a particular location. Meteorological drought leads to a depletion of soil moisture
and this almost always has an impact on crop production.

b)Hydrological Drought: Hydrological drought is associated with the effect of low rainfall on
water levels in rivers, reservoirs, lakes and aquifers. Hydrological droughts usually are noticed
some time after meteorological droughts. First precipitation decreases and, Sometime after that,
water levels in rivers and lakes drop.

c) Agricultural Drought: Agricultural drought mainly effects food production and

farming. Agricultural drought and precipitation shortages bring soil water deficits, reduced
ground water or reservoir levels, and so on. Deficient topsoil moisture at planting may stop
germination, leading to low plant populations.
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d) Socioeconomic Drought: Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an
economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply. The
supply of many economic goods, such as water, forage, food grains, fish, and hydroelectric
power, depends on weather. Due to variability of climate, water supply is sufficient in some
years but not satisfactory to meet human and environmental needs in other year

(C)FLOODS

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is normally dry. The European
Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally
covered by water. Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a
river or lake, in which the water overtops or breaks, resulting in some of that water escaping
its usual boundaries, or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated
ground in an area flood. Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the
capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends in the waterway. Floods often cause
damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers.

CONFLICTS OVER WATER

Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over an
access to water resources. The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from
opposing interests of water users, public or private.

A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though rarely are traditional wars
waged over water alone. Instead, water has historically been a source of tension and a factor
in conflicts that start for other reasons. However, water conflicts arise for several reasons,
including territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage.

These conflicts occur over both freshwater and saltwater, and between international
boundaries. However, conflicts occur mostly over freshwater; because freshwater resources
are necessary, yet limited, they are the center of water disputes arising out of need for
potable water. As freshwater is a vital, yet unevenly distributed natural resource, its
availability often impacts the living and economic conditions of a country or region. The
lack of cost-effective water desalination techniques in areas like the Middle East, among
other elements of water crises can put severe pressures on all water users

According to the 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment, Water is a
vital element for human life, and any human activity relates somehow to water.
Unfortunately, it is not a renewable resource and in the future it "might get worse with
climate change

Water conflicts occur because the demand for water resources and potable water extend far
beyond the amount of water actually available. Elements of a water crisis may put pressures
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on affected parties to obtain more of a shared water resource, causing diplomatic tension or
outright conflict.

The Cauvery water dispute: Out of Indias 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between different
states. In all these cases, there are intense conflicts over these resources which badly seem to
resolve. The Cauvery river water is a born of contention between tamilnadu and Karnataka
and the problem is almost hundred years old. Tamilnadu occupying the downstream region
of the river wants water-use regulated in the upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and
claims its privacy over the river as upstream user. The river water is almost fully
utilized and both the states and the problem is almost hundred years old. Tamilnadu
occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-use regulated in the upstream
state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its privacy over the river as upstream user.
The river water is almost fully utilized and both the states having increasing demands for
agriculture and industry. The consumption is more in Tamilnadu than Karnataka where the
catchment area is rockier. On June 2, 1990, the Cavery Water dispute tribunal was set up
which through an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was
made available in Tamilnadus mettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached. In 1991-
92 due to good monsoon, there was no disputr as there was good stock of water in Mettur ,
but in 1995, the situation turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert committee
was set up to look into the matter which found there was a complex cropping pattern in
Cauvery basin. Sambra paddy in winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash crops
demanded intensive water, thus aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop
varieties, optimum use of water, better rationing and rational sharing patterns, and pricing of
water are suggested as some measures to solve the problem.
DAMS-BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important
role in communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic
development. Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on
dams. Hydropower, another contender for the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of
the world’s total electric power supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s two
most populous countries – China and India – have built around 57% of the world’s large
dams.

BENEFITS:

River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to play a key role in the
development process due to their multiple uses. India has the distinction of having the
largest number of river valley projects. The tribal’s living in the area pin big hopes on these
projects as they aim at providing employment and raising the standard and quality of life.
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 The dams have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth. They can help in
checking floods and famines, generate electricity and reduce water and power shortage,
provide irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas and promote
navigation, fishery etc

PROBLEMS:

• Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers.

• Serious impacts on riverine ecosystems.
• Social consequences of large dams due to displacement of people.
• Water logging and Stalinization of surrounding lands.
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging their habitat and cutting off their migration routes.
• Fishing and travel by boat disrupted.
Large dams have had serious impacts on the lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual
existence of indigenous and tribal peoples. They have suffered disproportionately from the
negative Impacts of dams and often been excluded from sharing the benefits. In India, of the
16 to 18 million people displaced by dams, 40 to 50% were tribal people, who account for
only 8% of our nation’s one billion people.
.
LAND RESOURSE:
Land as a resource:
Land is the most important and valuable resources for mankind as it provides food,
fiber, wood, medicine and other biological materials needed for food. Soil is the mixture
of inorganic materials (rocks and minerals) and organic materials (dead animals and
plants).
Top soil is classified as renewable resources, because it is continuously regenerated by
natural process at a very slow rate. But, if the rate of erosion is faster than the rate of
renewal, then the soil becomes a non-renewable.

Uses of land resource:

1. Land provides food, wood, minerals, etc., for us.
2. Land nurtures the plants and animals that provide our food and shelter.
3. Land is used as watershed or reservoir.
4. Land acts as a dust bin for most of the wastes, created by the modern society.
5. Land is used for construction of buildings, industries
6. Landforms such as hills, valleys, plains, river basins and wetlands include different
resource generating areas that the people living in them depend on.
7. Many traditional farming societies had ways of preserving areas from which they
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used

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 resources. If land is utilized carefully it can be considered a renewable resource.
-Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial and
nuclear wastes are dumped on it.

LAND DEGRADATION AND CONTROL OF LAND DEGRADATION

Land degradation can be defined as any change in the land that alter its conditions
or reduces its quality. Land degradation occurs due to both natural disasters like
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, heavy rains, fire etc or human induced activities. The
other causes of land degradation consist of wind blow, salinity of water, water logging,
soil acidity, loss of flora and fauna.
Desertification is land degradation occurring in the arid, semi-arid regions of the world.
These dry lands cover about 40% of the earth’s surface and puts at risk more than 1
billion people who are dependent on these lands for survival.
Land clearing and deforestation; Mining activity in forest areas; urban conversion;
bringing more land under cultivation; soil pollution ; loss of organic matter in the soils;
alkalinization of soils; salinity of water etc leads to land degradation. Severe land
degradation affects in decreasing the mineral wealth and economic development of
nations.
The methods that are followed for the prevention of land degradation are called soil
conservation methods. Some of the popular methods are;
(a) Contour farming: The land is prepared with alternate furrows (a long narrow cut in
the Ground) and ridges at the same level. The water is caught and held in furrows and
stores which reduces run off and erosion.
(b) Mulching: Stems of maize, cotton, tobacco etc are used as a mulch (decay of
leaves) to reduce soil moisture, evaporation.
(c) Crop rotation: Growing same crop year after year depletes the nutrients and land
becomes Unproductive. This is overcome by changing the crops and cultivating legumes
(plants like peas, beans) after a regular crop.
(d) Strip cropping: It consists of planting crops in rows or strips along contours to
check flow of water.
LANDSLIDES AND MAN INDUCED LAND SLIDES: Landslides always exist on
this planet and the term land slide is used to describe a wide variety of process that
result a downward movement of rocks under gravitational forces. In other words, mass
movement of rocks, debris and soil down a slope of land.

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Building excavations collapses in mining (e.g.: coal mine) causes landslides. However,
landslides can be triggered by the human beings by induced changes in the environment.
Simply landslides can be explained in three ways:
(a) Inherent of rocks (weakness in the structure of a rock )
(b) Due to heavy seismic or volcanic activity and
(c) Due to various environmental conditions.

SOIL EROSION AND CAUSES FOR SOIL EROSION:

The top layer of the earth is called as soil. Soil erosion occurs due to deforestation,
overgrazing, industrialization; desertification etc.
a. Deforestation: Mining, industrial, urban development etc causes deforestation and
leads to exposure of the land to wind and rains causing soil erosion. Cutting trees leads
to deforestation which in turn loss of organic matter in the soils.
b. Overgrazing: When sufficient amount of grass is available for the organisms
usually the entire land /area may be subjected to exhaust and the land is exposed without
grass and ultimately the land expose to wind/rain causing soil erosion. .
c. Industrialization: Different processes carried out by industries and mining
operations cause soil pollution which leads to degradation of land.

MINERAL RESOURCES :

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and

identifiable physical properties.
An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful substance, such as a
metal, can be extracted and used to manufacture a useful product.
Mineral resources are non renewable and the mineral /ore is extracted by the process of
mining.
Formation of mineral deposits;
Concentration of minerals at a particular spot, which can be extracted profitably, gives
rise to a mineral deposit. Formation of these deposits is a very slow biological process,
even it takes millions of years to develop as a mineral deposit.
Various biological Processes
1. Mineral deposits are formed due to the biological decomposition of dead animals and
organic matters.
2. Mineral deposits are also formed due to the concentration of minerals during cooling
of molten rock (lava from volcano)
3. Mineral deposits are also formed due to evaporation of sea water
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 4. Mineral deposits are formed due to oxidation-reduction reaction inside the earth
5. Formation of mineral deposits due to concentration of minerals during weathering,
transport and sedimentation.

Classification of Mineral Resources;

U.S. Geological Survey divides non-renewable mineral resources into 3 catogories

1. Identified resources 2. Undiscovered resources 3. Reserves

1. Identified resources: The location, existence, quantity and quality of these mineral
resources are known by the direct geological evidence and measurements.
2. Undiscovered resources: These mineral resources are assumed to exist on the basis of
geological knowledge and theory but their specific locations, quality and quantity are
unknown.
3. Reserves: These mineral resources are identified resources, from which a usable
minerals can be extracted profitably.
Uses and exploitation of minerals;
Minerals are used in a large number of ways in everyday in domestic, agricultural,
industrial and commercial sectors.
Economy and political power of the country is determined from the number of reserves
of minerals and technical know how to extract the elements.
Uses;
Minerals are used in a large number of ways for domestic, industrial, commercial Sectors
etc…
The important raw materials uses of minerals are as follows.
1. Development of industrial plants and machinery
Examples; Iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese and copper, etc.,
Important non-metal resources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica
2. Construction, housing, settlements.
Examples; Iron, aluminum, nickel, etc.,
3. Generation of energy Examples; Coal, lignite, uranium, etc.,
4. Designing defense equipments like weapons and ornaments.
5. Agriculture purposes, as fertilizers and fungicides – Zn & Mn
6. Jewellery-Zineb - containing zinc; maneb- containing manganese.
Examples; Gold, silver, platinum and diamond.
7. Making of alloys for various purposes. Example; Phosphorites.
8. Communication purposes.

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Example Telephone wires, cables, electronic devices.
9. Medicinal purposes, particularly in Ayurvedic system.

Environmental effects:
Mineral extraction and processing in mines involves a negative impact on environment.
Much risk is involved in mining process because of high temperature, pressure Variations,
fire hazards and lack of ventilation in mines.

 Mining process involves removal of over burden of soil, ore extraction &
transportation, crushing & grinding of ore, water treatment of ore, storage of waste
material. As a result of these activities cause air pollution, noise pollution, water
pollution, loss of habitat of wildlife, concentration of toxic substances in tailing ponds
and spreading of dust.
 People working in mines often suffer from serious respiratory system and skin diseases.
 Mining often causes ground subsidence which results in tilting of buildings, cracks in
houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks etc.
 Exploration process before a mining involves, geochemical, geophysical
surveys Drilling activities which causes for air pollution, noise pollution etc...
 In addition, disturbance of all vegetation (flora) and fauna (animals) from that a region.
 Acid mine drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD): The outflow of acidic
water from (usually abandoned) metal mines or coal mines. However, other areas where
the earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites, subdivisions, transportation
corridors, etc.) may also contribute acid rock drainage to the environment

FOREST RESOURCES:

Forests are one of the most important renewable natural resources on this earth.
About one-third of the world's land surface is covered with forest.
Forests are important components of our environment. Besides economy, forests
provide fuel wood coal, furniture, checks air pollution, soil erosion, saves the hill-slopes
from landslides
Forests are one of the most important natural resources and a part of biosphere since
these are natural assets on this earth. Forests predominantly composed of trees, shrubs,
woody vegetation etc… Approximately 1/3rd of the earth’s total land area is covered by
forests.
Forests are important ecologically and economically. Ecologically forests are to be
considered as earth’s lungs because they consume CO2 and release O2which is required
for sustaining the life on this earth. The poisonous gas CO2 is absorbed by the trees of
forests and reduces the global warming and helps to continue hydrological cycle, reduce
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 soil erosion. Forest ecosystems are extremely good & hold a good quantity of water.
Economically forests provide timber, fodder to grazing animals, firewood (conventional
fuel), bamboos, rubbers, medicines, gums, resins, food items etc.
Type of forests
According to the type of vegetation, forests are
classified into three major types.

1. Evergreen forests.
2. Deciduous forests.
3. Coniferous forests.
1. Evergreen forests:
Evergreen forests are generally found in the equatorial regions, where the temperature
and rainfall is very high. Due to heavy rainfall throughout the year these forests are
evergreen.
Example The silent valley in Kerala. Important trees: Teak, mahogany, rosewood.
2. Deciduous forests:
These forests are of two types
(a) Tropical deciduous forests.
(b) Temperature deciduous forests.
(a) Tropical deciduous forests: These forests are generally found in the tropical
monsoon. As these forests receive only seasonal rainfall, they shed their leaves during
the summer season.
Important tress: Teak, sandalwood, pillaimarudhu.
Temperature deciduous forests: Due to severe winter with heavy snowfall the trees shed
their leaves just before the winter season.

3. Coniferous forests:
The snow slides down the sloping sides of the trees. The needle typed leaves preserve the
moisture.
Important trees: Pine tree, spruce tree.
Functions of forests
1. Forests perform very important functions both to humans and to nature.
2. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wildlife.
3. They recycle rainwater and remove pollutants from air. b
4. They control water quality and quantity.
5. They moderate temperature and weather and help to maintain humidity.
6. They influence soil conditions and prevent soil erosion and perform watershed
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 functions.
7. They promote tourism and contribute aesthetic beauty.

USES OF FOREST:
[Link] uses
Man depends heavily on a larger number of plant and animal products from forests for
his daily needs.
They provide us a large number of commercial goods.
Name of the products Uses
1. Forests supply wood Used as fuel.
2. Forests supply for various industries- - raw materials as pulp, paper, board, timber.
3. Forests supply minor forest products -- like gums, resins, dyes, etc.
4. Many plants----------------------------are utilized in medicines and drugs.
5. Forest produces variety of animal products- - -honey, ivory, hides etc.,
6. Many forest lands are used for -mining, grazing, and recreation for dams.

2. Ecological Uses
Though a typical tree produces very good commercial goods, it also provides the
following environmental services.
(a) Production of oxygen: During photosynthesis trees produce oxygen which is
essential for life on earth.
(b) Reducing global warming: The main greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is
absorbed by the trees (forests).
The trees (forests) absorb the main green house gas carbon dioxide (CO2) which is a
raw material for photosynthesis. Thus the problem of global warming caused by green
house gas CO2 is reduced.
(c) Soil conservation: Roots of trees (forests) bind the soil tightly and prevent soil
erosion. They also act as wind breaks.
(d) Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watersheds in forest act like giant sponges,
which absorb rainfall, slow down the runoff and slowly release the water for recharge of
springs.
(e) Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and noises and help in
preventing air and noise pollution.
(f) Wildlife habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants.
3. Aesthetic value
Forests also have aesthetic value and serve as gene reserve of important species.
Examples
18
I. Tribals utilize bamboo and wild grass for erecting the huts to reside and for making
other product like mats, baskets, cots, etc., used in their daily lives.
II. There are a variety of daily plants whose fruits, leaves, seeds; roots are used as food
by tribals and poor people who live nearer to the forest range.
III. Many kinds of alcoholic drinks and medicines are derived from forest plants.
[Link] oils and other oils, used for lighting and cooking, are also obtained from
forests.
4. Touristic Value
Ecotourism provides a growing income for those who have facilitated it. Several
countries are now attracting the tourists.

DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the process of removal of (or) elimination of forest resources due to
many natural or man-made activities. In general deforestation destruction of forests.
Deforestation in India: Deforestation is a continuous process. In India about 1.3
hectares of forest land has been lost. The precipitate availability of forest in India is 0.08
hectare per person. Which is much lower than the world average of 0.8 hectares?
The presence of wasteland is a sign of deforestation of India.

Major causes of Deforestation:

(i) Developmental Projects: Massive destruction of forests occurs for various
development projects. Development projects cause deforestation in two ways.
(i). Through submergence of forest area underwater.
(ii) Destruction of forest area.
Examples: Bigrams, hydroelectric, projects, road construction etc.,
(ii). Mining operations: Mining has a serious impact on forest areas. Mining operation
reduces the forest area.
Examples: Mica, coal, manganese, limestone, etc.,
(iii). Raw materials for industries: Wood is the important raw material for so many
purposes.
Examples: For making boxes, furniture, plywood, match-boxes, pulp, etc.,
Every year in India, the demand for wood is increased continuously.
(iv). Fuel requirements: In India both rural and tribal population is dependent on the
forest for meeting their daily need of fuel wood, which leads to the pressure on forest,
ultimately to deforestation .
v). Shifting cultivation: The replacement of natural forest ecosystem for monospecific
tree plantation can lead to disappearance of number of plant and animal species.
19
Example:
India is the richest nation with more than 15,000 species of plants, many of which is
endangered due to deforestation.
(vi). Forest fires: Forest fire is one of the major causes for deforestation. Due to human
interruption and rise in ambient temperature, forest fire happens often nowadays. Thus,
due to forest fire thousands of forest area gets destructed.

Impact of Deforestation on the environment:

Since many people are dependent on the forest resources, deforestation will have the
following social, economic and ecological effects.
1. Global warming: The cutting and burning of forest trees increases the CO 2 content in
the atmosphere, which inturn changes the global climatic pattern, rising sea levels and
depletion of the protective ozone layer.
2. Loss of genetic diversity: The destruction of our forest destroys the greatest
storehouse of genetic diversity on earth, which provides new food and medicines for the
entire world.
3. Soil erosion: Deforestation also causes soil erosion, landslides, floods, drought.
Natural vegetation acts as a natural barrier to reduce the wind velocity, this inturn
reduces soil erosion. 6000 million tons of soil get eroded every year in
India.
4. Loss of biodiversity: Most of the species are very sensitive to any disturbance and
changes. When the plants no longer exist, animals that depend on them for food and
habitat become extinct.
5. Loss of food grains: As a result of soil erosion, the countries loose the food grains.
6. Unemployment problems: The people living around forest areas losses their
livelihood.
7. Flood and Landslides: Frequent floods, landslides in hilly areas and wind speed are
heavy.
Preventive measures (or) avoid of deforestation (or)
methods of conservation of forests
Conservation of forest includes planting of new trees and protecting the existing ones.
Followings are the methods of conservation of forests.
1. New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the trees
cut down for timber.
2. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged
3. Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aeroplanes
4. Forest fire must be controlled by modern
techniques. [Link] grazing by cattle must be controlled
20
6. Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of people into
the islands from mainland.
7. Education and awareness programs must be conducted
8. Strict implementation of law of Forest Conservation.

ENERGY RESOURCES :

ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD:

Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute only 5% of the world’s
population but consume 25% of the world’s available energy.
Energy consumed by a person in a developed country for a single day is equal to
energy consumed by a single person in a poor country for one year.
Developed country GNP increases and energy consumption increases. In the poor
country GNP and Energy consumption is less
Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work. Energy is found on our
planet in a variety of forms, some of which are immediately useful to do work, while
others require a process of transformation. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
but transformed from one form to other. Energy is closely related to force.
When a force causes an object to move, energy is being transferred from the force to
kinetic energy. Energy is present in a number of forms such as mechanical, thermal,
chemical, biological energy etc.. Energy production and utilization have become
essential to carry out many activities in modern life. Energy is one of the important
requirements that a country needs for its economic growth. At the same time, energy
production has its impact on environment due to pollution and finally affects the quality
of life of people.
Energy plays a key role in the process of economic growth of a nation. The industrial
development of any country is dependent on the organized development of its power
resources'.
Energy is also indispensable for agriculture, transport, business and domestic
requirements. In fact, electricity has such a wide range of applications in modern
economic development that its per capita consumption is, to a great extent, an index of
the material advancement of the country.
Energy is the capacity for doing useful work. It is an essential input for economic
growth. This energy is used in the form of electrical energy, thermal energy, light,
mechanical energy and chemical energy etc. Energy is measured in joules in Si units.
The annual per capita energy consumption in developed countries ranges from 5 to
11 kW whereas in the developing countries it is between 1 to 1.5 KW Only.

21
Uses of Energy
1. Energy is a primary input in any industrial operation.
2. It is also a major input in sectors such as commerce, transport, Tele-communications

22
 Etc

3. The wide range of services required in the household and industrial sectors.
4. Owing to the far-reaching changes in the forms of energy and their respective roles in
supporting human activities, research and training on various aspects of energy and
environment have assumed great significance.
Types of energy: There are three main types of energy;
A. Non-renewable B. Renewable [Link] energy
Non – renewable energy resources

Fossil fuels: Fossil means the remains of an animal or a plant which have become hard and
turned into rock. All these found in earth’s crusts which have been formed in the past by the
geological processes. Fossil fuels are solid coal (lignite), liquid (crude oil / petroleum) and
gases (natural gas ).
a) Coal: Huge quantity of plant materials buried under earths crust and altered by geological
process and converted into carbon rich fuel. It is a non – renewable source because it takes a very
long period (million of years) for its formation.
Coal is extracted by the process of mining and involves accidents due to mine collapse,
ground water pollution, accumulation of poisonous material, explosive gases etc cause
diseases. CO2 pollution leads to green house effect (global warming).

b) Crude oil: It is obtained in the form of liquid . The crude oil is heated up to 600 oC in the oil
refinery and condense the vapours of hydro – carbons. Petrol another petroleum products are
refined fuels from crude oil. Petroleum products are used in large quantities in the manufacture
of detergents, plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, synthetic rubber etc.. The transport sector
consumes about 40% of diesel; 25% industries and 19%household and rest 16% agriculture and
other sectors. .

c) Natural Gas: Gas deposits are trapped from the sedimentary formations by means drilling
holes into the rock formations. While burning of natural gas, the emission of CO2 is less and
thus reduces green house effect and global warming. A total of 734 billion cubic mts of gas is
estimated as proven reserves.

B. Renewable energy resources: Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly
replaced and are usually less polluting.
Examples include hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat inside the
earth).
1. Solar energy: The energy which is derived from the sun is known as solar energy. It can be
used for direct heating or sun’s heat is converted into electricity. Photo voltaic cells convert
direct solar energy into electricity.

23
A number of solar equipments have been developed to utilize sun rays to heat water, to cook
food, to pump water and to run certain machines and used for street lighting, railway signals
etc. But the major problem with solar energy is that during cloudy weather it is available in
less quantity than on sunny days.
1. Hydro-Power energy: Electrical power is generated by hydro-electric projects in which dams
are constructed across the river. The kinetic energy of water is converted into mechanical
energy by means of turbines and in turn, the mechanical energy is transferred into electrical
energy by generators. Hydro power projects lead to several environmental problems like
destruction of animal habitats, deforestation, migration of people etc..

2. Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy found within rock formations. Inside the earth the
temperature rises with depth .The temperature in earth’s crust is around 4000o C. Geysers ( a
natural spring that emits hot water ) and hot springs are examples for geothermal energy where
the steam and hot water come to the surface, in areas where the steam is tapped by drilling.
The obtained steam is then used to generate power. Air pollution results in case of geothermal
energy where the gases like H2S, NH3, CO2 present in the steam coming out of the geothermal
sources. The overall efficiency for power production is low (15%) as compared to fossil fuels
(40%).

3. Wind energy: Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of
atmospheric air. Wind mills convert the wind energy into electrical energy. On an average
wind mills can convert 30 – 40 % of available wind energy into electrical energy at a steady
wind speed of 8.5mts / sec. The efficiency of wind mill is increased with the speed of wind and
length of rotor blade.
The total wind energy potential in India’s estimate is 25,000 MW of this about6000 MW is
located in Tamil Nadu; 5000 MW in Gujarat and contribute thestates of Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan forbalance quantity.
A. Nuclear Energy or Atomic power: It is the energy which is trapped inside the atom. It is
non–renewable source of energy which is released during fission or fusion of certain
radioactive elements. The most important advantage of atomic power is the production of an
enormous amount of energy from a small quantity of radioactive element. For eg: 1 kg of
Uranium
liberates energy equivalent to 30000 kgs of coal.
Energy released during nuclear reaction (mass – energy equation as per Albert Einstein’s
formula E = mc2).
Nuclear Energy is produced by two processes namely (1) Nuclear Fission and (2) Nuclear
Fusion.
USE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These
alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels.

The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over
time, as have controversies regarding energy use. Today, because of the variety of energy
choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as "alternative" is
24
highly controversial.

In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived, is that which is produced

or recovered without the undesirable consequences inherent in fossil fuel use, particularly
high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming. Sometimes, this less
comprehensive meaning of "alternative energy" excludes nuclear energy

 Solar energy is the generation of electricity from the sun. It is split up into two
types, thermal and electric energy. These two subgroups mean that they heat up
homes and generate electricity respectively.
 Wind energy is the generation of electricity from the wind.
 Geothermal energy is using hot water or steam from the Earth’s interior for
heating buildings or electricity generation.
 Biofuel and Ethanol are plant-derived substitutes of gasoline for powering vehicles.
 Nuclear binding energy uses nuclear fission to create energy.
 Hydrogen is used as clean fuel for spaceships, and some cars

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEMS:

In 1935, the British ecologist [Link] coined the term “eco system”.
The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological sphere
(or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living
organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner. Hence,
A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known a
ecosystem. (OR)
A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is
called as “Ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.
Ecology:
The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) –
means “house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of.
Hence, ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of relations
25
between the organism and their environment. (OR)
Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with their
environment.
(OR)
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.

In an ecosystem, the interaction of life with its environment takes place at many levels.
A single bacteria in the soil interacts with water, air around it within a small space while
a fish in a river interacts with water and other animals, rivals in a large space. .

Considering the operational point of view; the biotic and abiotic components of an
ecosystem are so interlinked such that their separation from each other is practically
difficult. So, in an ecosystem both organisms (biotic communities) and abiotic
environment (rainfall, temperature, humidity) each influence the properties with other
for maintenance of life.

STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM:
A structure of Ecosystem comprise of The Composition of biological community
including, species number, biomass, life history, and distribution in space.
• The quantity and distribution of non-living material, such as nutrient water, etc. •The
rage of condition of existence such as temperature, light.

FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM:
• The rate of biological energy flow i.e. production & respiration rates of the community.
• The rate of material or nutrient cycles
• Biological or ecological regulation including both regulation of organism by
environment and regulation of environment by the organisms.
-

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

There are two components of an ecosystem; Living components and non living
component.
Non Living Components: (Abiotic):
Non living components are the physical and chemical factors that directly or indirectly
affect the living components e.g. air, water, land, rock etc. Non living components are
also called Abiotic components. Physical factors include sunlight, water, fire, soil, air,
26
temperature etc. Chemical factors include moisture, salinity of water, soil nutrients,
oxygen dissolved in water etc.
Living Components:
Living components in an ecosystem are either producers or consumers. They are also
called biotic components. Producers can produce organic components e.g. plants can
produce starch, carbohydrates, cellulose from a process called photosynthesis.
Consumers are the components that are dependent on producers for their food e.g.
human beings and animal
Biotic Components are further classified into 3 main groups

• Producers •Consumers •Decomposers or Reducers

1. Producer (Autotrophs): The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which
they trap solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple
inorganic compound namely, water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as
photosynthesis. The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized partly by the
producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plants for
their future use. They are classified into two categories based on their source of food.
A) Photoautotroph’s: An organism capable of synthesizing its own food from
inorganic substances using light as an energy source. Green plants and photosynthetic
bacteria are photoautotrophs.
B) Chemotrophs: Organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in
their environments. These molecules can be organic (chemoorganotrophs) or inorganic
(chemolithotrophs).
[Link] (Heterotrophs): The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesis
their own food therefore they depend on the producers for their food.
• They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros= others, trophs= feeder).The Consumers
are of 4 types:
(a) Primary Consumer: (Herbivores) i.e. Animal feeding on plants, e.g. Rabbit, deer,
goat etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers: The animal feeding on Herbivores are called as secondary
Consumer or primary carnivores. e.g. Cats, foxes, snakes.
(c) Tertiary Consumers: These are large carnivores which feed on secondary consumers.
e.g. Wolves (d) Quaternary Consumers: They are also called omnivores these are
largest carnivores Which feed on tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other
animals. e.g. lion and Tiger.

3. Decomposers or Detrivores: Bacteria & fungi belong to this category. They break
down the dead organic matter of producers & consumers for their food and release to
27
the environment the simple inorganic and organic substance. These simple substances
are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of material between biotic &
abiotic environment.
E,g: Bacteria, Earth worms, Beetles etc.

Classification of ecosystem:

Different types of ecosystem of biosphere artificially categorized as

follows: I) Natural Ecosystems:
These ecosystems operate by themselves under natural conditions without any
major interference by man. Based upon the particular kind of habitat, these are further
divided as: •Terrestrial as forest, grassland, desert etc.
• Aquatic which may be further distinguished as
• Freshwater which may be latic(running water as springs, stream, river) or lentic
(standing water as lake, pond, pools, ditch, swamps, etc.)
• Marine Ecosystems: as an ocean or shallow ones like sea or estuary etc.

II) Artificial Ecosystems:

These are maintained by man where, by addition of energy & planned
manipulations natural balance is disturbed regularly.

28
For e.g - croplands like maize, wheat, rice-fields etc., where man tries to control the biotic
community as well as physical, chemical environment are artificial ecosystems.

function of an ecosystem

The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of
energy.
Types of functions: Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system. Examples: All
green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own
food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called
secondary function of eco system
. 3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and
producers and decompose them into simpler compounds.
During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released. Examples: Micro organisms
like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.

Biodiversity

The word biodiversity is a combination of two words: “biological and diversity”

and refers to the variety of life on the Earth.
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given species, ecosystem,
biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. The
term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist
Raymond F. Dasmann in the 1968. The term's contracted form biodiversity may have
been coined by
W.G. Rosen in 1985.
There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, by
29
research expeditions, mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between 3-50
million different species may be alive today. Insects make up more than one half of all
known species and may comprise more than 90% of all species on earth.

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY:

The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels.

They are
1. Ecosystem diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Genetic diversity
1. Community or Ecosystem diversity:

A set of biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) and abiotic

components (soil, air, water, etc) interacting with each other is known as an ecosystem.
Ecosystem or ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a biological
community, including tropic levels, ecological processes (which capture energy), food
webs and material recycling.
The diversity at an ecological level or habitat level is known as ecosystem diversity. Ex:
River ecosystem- Rivers include fish, aquatic insects, mussels and a variety of plants
that have adapted. Ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types
in a region.
It explains the interaction between living organisms and physical environment in an
ecosystem.

2. Species diversity:
A discrete groups of organisms of the same kind is known as species.

Species diversity is the diversity between different species.

The sum of varieties of all living organisms at the species level is knownas species
diversity.
Species diversity describes the number of kinds of organisms within individual
communities or ecosystems.
The biotic component is composed of a large number of species of plants, animals and
microorganisms which interact with each other and with the abiotic component of the
environment.
30
Ex: The total number of species living on earth is approximately more than 2 million.
However, only around 1.5 million are found and assigned scientific names. Plant
species: Apple, Mango, Wheat, Grapes, Rice etc Animal species: Lion, Tiger, Elephant,
Deer etc.
3. Genetic diversity:
A species with different genetic characteristics is known as a sub-species or
"genera".
Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene within individual
species.
Within individual species, there are varieties that are slightly different from one other.
These differences are due to differences in the combination of genes.
Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to
the other.
Ex: (i) Rice varieties - All rice varieties belong to the species "oryzasativa".
However there are thousands of rice varieties that show variation at the genetic level in
the form of different size, shape, color and nutrient content.
(ii) Teak wood varieties: The various teak wood varieties available are - Indian teak,
Burma teak, Malaysian teak etc.

FUNCTIONS OF BIODIVERSITY: Two main functions of biodiversity are

1. It is the source on which the entire human species depends on for food, fiber, shelter,
fuel and medicine.
2. It depends on biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, air and
overall health of biosphere.

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

The value of biodiversity (in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services,
social and aesthetic values) is enormous. There are several ways that biodiversity and its
various forms are valuable to humans. The biodiversity value may be classified as
follows:

1. CONSUMPTIVE VALUE:
Biodiversity is an essential requirement for the maintenance of global food supply.
The main sources of human food include animals, fish and plant produces.
A large number of plants are consumed by human beings as food. A few animal species
are consumed by people which come from cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, buffaloes, chickens,
31
ducks, geese and turkey species.
Fish: Many fresh water fish can be grown in ponds. Israel and China already get about
half of their fish from aqua culture.
Drugs & medicines: About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant
extracts for medicines. The drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus
called Penicillium.
Likewise, Tetracycline from bacteria which is used to cure malaria is obtained from the
bark of cinchona tree. .Fuel: The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum products and natural
gas are the products of biodiversity.

2. PRODUCTIVE VALUE:
Some of the organisms are commercially usable where the product is marketed
and sold. The animal products like tusks of elephants; musk from deer; silk from
silkworm; wool from sheep or goats; fur of many animals etc all of which are traded in
the market.
Eg: Calabar bean was traditionally used as a poison in West Africa.
Daisy plants were first used as a lice remedy in the Middle East and this led to the
Discovery of Pyrethrum. Mosquito coils made from Pyrethrum are sold in the market.
The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxic proteins that kill certain insects.
3. SOCIAL VALUE:
These are the values associated with the social life, religion and spiritual aspects
of the people. Many of the plants are considered to be sacred in our country like Tulasi,
Mango leaves, Banana leaves. The leaves, fruits, flowers of some of the plants are used
in worship. Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock also have significant place in
spiritual and thus hold special importance. Thus, biodiversity has distinct social value,
attached with different societies.
4. ETHICAL VALUE:

The ethical value means that human beings may or may not use a certain
species but knowing the very fact that this species exists in nature gives pleasure.
For e,g:
A peculiar species of Pigeon, grey / white bird with short legs is no more on this
earth. Similarly, Dodo species is also no more. Human beings are not deriving anything
direct from Kangaroo, giraffe but strongly feel that these species should exist in nature.
5. AESTHETIC VALUE:
Every one of us would like to visit vast stretches of lands to enjoy the visible
life. People from farther areas, spend a lot of time and money to visit wild life areas
where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is
known as eco tourism.

32
Eco-tourism is estimated to generate 12 billion dollars of revenue annually that roughly
gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity.
A study of the impact of environment on the psyche was undertaken by Kaplan and
Kaplan (1989) in whom they found that being near nature relieved working stresses
while people who worked in closed environment or human made structures experienced
much more job stresses and illnesses.

Hotspots of biodiversity

Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are
termed as hot spots of biodiversity. Species which are restricted only to particular areas
are known as endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of
amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic to India. Western Ghats are the site of
maximum endemism.
The term “Hot spots” was introduced by Myers (1988). There are 25 such hot
spots of biodiversity on a global level out of which two are present in India, namely the
Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. These hotspots covering less than 2% of the
world’s land area are found to have about 50% of the terrestrial biodiversity. According
to Myers an area is designated as a hotspot when it contains at least 0.5% of the plant
species as endemics.

a) Eastern Himalayas:

They display an ultra-varies topography that fosters species diversity and

endemism. Recent studies have shown that North East India along with its contiguous
regions of Burma and Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an active center of
organic evolution and is considered to be the cradle of flowering plants. Out of the
world’s recorded flora 30% are endemic to India of which 35000 are in the Himalayas.
E,g ; Rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chili, jute and sugarcane.
The taxol yielding plant is also sparsely distributed in the region.
(a) 63% mammals are from Eastern Himalayas, and
(b) 60% of the Indian Birds are from North East.
(c) Huge wealth of fungi, insects, mammals, birds have been found in this region.
b) Western Ghats:
The area comprises Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala. Nearly 1500
endemic, dicotyledonous plant species are found from Western Ghats. 62% amphibians
and 50% lizards are endemic in Western Ghats.
It is reported that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest has
33
been deforested or degraded.
Some common plants: Ternstroemia, Japonica, Rhododendron and Hypericum.
Some common animals: Blue bird, lizard, hawk

Threats to Biodiversity

Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem tends to reduce its [Link]

Waste generated due to increase in human population and industrialization spoils the
environment and leads to decreased diversity in biological species.
Any change in the system leads to a major imbalance and threatens the normal
ecological cycle
. Causes for loss of biodiversity are:
1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wildlife and
3. Man-wildlife conflicts
I. Habitat destruction:
The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat loss. Habitat loss
threatened a wide range of animals and plants.

Factors influencing Habitat loss

1. Deforestation: The loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities. Forests

and grasslands have been cleared for conversion into agricultural lands, or settlement
areas or developmental project. The forest and grasslands are the natural homes of
thousands of species, which disintegrate due to loss of their natural habitat.
2. Destruction of wetlands: The wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are destroyed due to
draining, filling and pollution, which causes huge biodiversity loss.
3. Habitat fragmentation: Sometimes the habitat is divided into small and
scattered patches. This phenomenon is known as habitat fragmentation. Due to this
many wild animals and songbirds are vanishing.
4. Raw material: For the production of hybrid seeds, the wild plants are used as raw
materials. As a result, many plant species become extinct.
5. Production of drugs: Many pharmaceutical companies collect wild plant for the
production of drugs. Therefore several medicinal plant species are on the verge of
extinction.
6. Illegal trade: Illegal trade on wild life also reduces the bio-diversity and leads to
habitat loss.
7. Developmental activities: Construction of massive dams in the forest areas, discharge
industrial effluents which kill the birds and other aquatic organisms.
34
(II).Poaching (Over Harvesting) of wildlife ;
Poaching means killing of animals (or) commercial hunting. It leads to loss of animal
biodiversity.
1. Subsistence poaching: Killing animals to provide enough food for their survival is
called subsistence poaching.
2. Commercial poaching: Hunting and killing animals to sell their products is called
commercial poaching.
Factors Influencing Poaching
1. Human population: Increased human population in our country has led to pressure
on forest resources, which ultimately causes degradation of wildlife habitats.
2. Commercial activities: Though international ban on trading the products of
endangered species, smuggling of wildlife products continues. Since the trading of such
wildlife products is highly profit, poaching makes the poachers to just hunt these
prohibited wildlife and smuggle it to other countries.
Wild life products: Furs, horns, tasks, live specimens, herbal products.
Wealth of wildlife: The developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa have richest
source of biodiversity.
Importers of wild life: The rich countries in Europe and North America, Japan, Taiwan,
Hong Kong are the major importer of wildlife products (or) wildlife itself.

Examples
1. Male gorilla: In Rwanda and Zaire, it is hunted for its body parts, head and hands.
2. Blue morph butterfly: In Brazil, it is poached for making attractive trays and other
objects.
3. Snowy large egret: In U.S, it is poached for its white plumes, so as to keep it in
ladies hats.
4. Blubber: It is used to prepare lamp oils and lubricating oils.
5. Baleen: It is used to prepare combs and other similar articles.
6. Elephant feet: It is used to make Ash trays.
7. Elephant: It is killed for ivory.
8. Bengal tigers: Its fur sell is more than $1,00,000 in the foreign market.
9. Bush meat: It is an important source of protein for many local people in west and
central Africa.
10. Dynamite fishing: It is "high-tech fishing", which have exhausted the ocean marine
life.
11. Seahorses, Star turtles: These valuable species are also illegally sold into the
foreign market for want of money.
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Remedy measures
1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped
immediately.
2. We should not purchase furcoat, purse or bag or items made of crocodile skin or
python skin
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.
[Link] wildlife conflicts
Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing immense damage and
danger to the man. Under such condition it is very difficult for the forest department to
compromise the affected villagers and to gain the villagers support for wildlife
conservation.
Examples for man - wildlife conflicts

1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, 195 humans were killed in the last 5 years by elephants. In
retaliation, the villagers have killed 98 elephants and badly injured 30 elephants.

2. In the border of Kote-Chamarajanagar, Mysore, several elephants was killed because

of the massive damage done by the elephants to the farmer's cotton and sugarcane crops.

3. The agonized villagers sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane fields, which
explode when the elephants enter into their fields.
4. It has been reported that a man-eating tiger killed 16 Nepalese people and one
4-years old child inside the Royal Chit wan National Park, Kathmandu. Now the park
has become a zone of terror for the locals.
5. Very recently, two men were killed by leopards in Powai, Mumbai.
6.A total of 14 persons were killed during 19 attacks by the leopards in Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Mumbai.
Causes of Man-animal conflicts: Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and
bears due to shrinking forests cover are compelled to move outside the forests and
attack the field or sometimes even humans.
Human encroachment into the forest areas has rendered all forest living animals to
trespass the borders of human civilizations.
This is because the conflicts between man and the wildlife have increased since it is an
issue of survival of both.

Factors influencing (or) causes man - animal conflicts

1. Shrinking of forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest and attack the
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 fields and humans.
2. Human encroachment into the forest area induces a conflict between man and the
wildlife.
3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man. Usually the female wildlife attacks
the human if she feels that her newborn cubs are in danger.
4. Earlier, forest departments used to cultivate sugarcane paddy, coconut trees, in the
sanctuaries. When the favourite food of elephants (i.e., bamboo leaves) were not
available, they feed them to the elephants. But, how due to lack of such practices the
wild animals move out of the forest for searching food.
5. Often the villagers put electric wiring around their crop fields. The elephants get
injured, suffer in pain and start violence.
6. The cash compensation paid by the government for the damage caused by the wild
animals, is not enough. Therefore the agonized farmers get revengeful and kill the wild
animals.
Example-A farmer, in Mysore, gets compensation of Rs.400/- per quintal, but the
market price is Rs.2400/- per quintal
7. Garbage near human settlements or food crops near forest areas attracts wild animals.

Remedial measures (or) Conservation of biodiversity

1. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started.

2. Solar powered fencing must be provided along with electric current proof trenches to
prevent the animals from entering into the fields
3. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders.
4. Adequate food and water should be made available for the wild animals within forest
zones.
The development and constructional work in and around forest region must be stopped

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Conservation is defined as, the management of biosphere so that it will yield the greatest
sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the
needs of future generation.
Factors affecting biodiversity
1. Biodiversity is generally disturbed by human activities such as construction of dams
in forest areas, release of industrial wastes, using pesticides and insecticides in the crop
fields, urbanization, etc..
2. Poaching of wild animals, over exploitation of natural resources, degradation of
habitats, affect biodiversity.
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3. The marine ecosystems are also disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents.
4. The climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain also affect the
biodiversity.

Advantages (or) need of biodiversity conservation

1. It provides immediate benefits to the society such as recreation and tourism.

2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials can be derived from plants and
animals.
It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals.
4. Ensures the sustainable utilization life supporting systems on earth.
[Link] leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting systems.
6. Since the biodiversity loss results in ecological and environmental deterioration, it is
essential to conserve the biodiversity.

[Link] (OR) STRATEGY OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

There are two types of biodiversity conservation.
1. In-situ conservation (within habitat)
2. Ex - situ conservation (outside habitat)
1. In-situ conservation;
In-situ conservation involves protection of fauna and flora within its natural habitat,
where the species normally occurs is called in-situ conservation.
The natural habitats or ecosystems maintained under in-situ conservation are called
"protected areas".
Important In-situ conservation: Biosphere reserves, National parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
Gene sanctuary etc.,
Methods of In-situ conservation
Around 4% of the total geographical area of the country is used for in-situ conservation.
The following methods are presently used for in-situ conservation. It is the best method
for the long term protection of biodiversity.

In-Situ conservation Numbers available

Biosphere reserves 7
National parks 80
Wildlife sanctuaries 420
Botanical gardens 120

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[Link] reserves:
Biosphere reserves cover large area, more than 5000 sq. km. It is used to protect species
for long time.
Some important Biosphere Reserves in India
Name of Biosphere State

Na Devi------------------------------------------U.P
Nokrek-----------------------------------------Meghalaya
Manas-------------------------------------------Assam
Sunder bans----------------------------------West Bengal
Gulf of Mannar-------------------------------Tamil Nadu
Nilgiri-----------------------------------------Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Great Nicobars and--------------------------Orissa
Similipal
Role of biosphere reserves
1. It gives long-term survival of evolving ecosystem.
2. It protects endangered species
3. It protects maximum number of species and communities.
4. It serves as site of recreation and tourism
[Link] is also useful for educational and research purposes.
[Link] remains and functions as an open system and changes in land use are not allowed.

Restriction: No tourism and explosive activities are permitted in the biosphere reserves.

2. National park

A national park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with
its environment. It is usually a small reserves covering an area of about 100 to 500 sq.
kms. Within the biosphere reserves, one or more national parks are also exists.

Some important National parks in India

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Name of National Park State Important Wildlife

Kaziranga - Assam - One horned Rhino

Gir National Park - Gujarat - Indian Lion
Bandipur - Karnataka - Elephant
Dachigam - J&K - Hangul
Corbett - U.P Tiger
Kanha - M.P - Tiger
Periyar - Kerala - Tiger, Elephant
Dudwa - U.P - Tiger
Sariska Rajasthan - Tiger
Ranthambore- Rajasthan - Tiger

Role of a national park

[Link] is used for enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the environment.
[Link] is used to protect, propagate and develop the wildlife.
Restrictions
1. Grazing of domestic animals inside the national park is prohibited
2. All private rights and forestry activities are prohibited within a national park.

3. Wildlife Sanctuaries
A wildlife sanctuary is an area, which is reserved for the conservation of animals only. At
present, there are 492 wildlife sanctuaries in our country.

Role of wildlife Sanctuaries

1. It protects animals only.

2. It allows the operations such as harvesting of timber collection of forest products,
private ownership rights and forestry operations provided it does not affect the animals
adversely.

Restrictions
Killing, hunting, shooting, or capturing of wildlife is prohibited except under the control
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of higher authority.

4. Gene Sanctuary
A gene sanctuary is an area, where the plants are
conserved.
Examples
In Northern India, two gene sanctuary are found available.
(a) One gene sanctuary for citrus (Lemon family), and
(b) One gene sanctuary for pitcher plant (an insect eating plant).
5. Other projects for conservation of animals
For the protection and conservation of certain animals, some special projects are framed
in our country.
Examples
Project Tiger, Gir Lion project, Crocodile Breeding project; Project Elephant,
etc.,
Advantages (or) merits of Conservations of In-situ
1. It is very cheap and convenient method.
2. The species gets adjusted to the natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires.
Disadvantages (or) limitations of In-situ Conservation
1. A large surface area of the earth is required to preserve the biodiversity.
2. Maintenance of the habitats is not proper, due to shortage of staff and pollution.
-

2 Ex-situ conservation

Ex-situ conservation involves protection of fauna and flora outside the natural habitats.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and the wild
relatives of crops.
Role of Ex-situ conservation
1. It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species under
controlled conditions.
2. It identifies those species which are at more risk of extinction.
3. It prefers the species, which are more important to man in near future among the
endangered species.

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Important Ex-situ conservation
Botanical gardens, seed banks, microbial culture collections, tissue and cell cultures,
museums, zoological gardens.

Methods of Ex-situ Conservation

The following important gene bank (or) Seed bank facilities is used in Ex-situ
conservation.
(i) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR): It is located in New Delhi. It
uses cryo preservation techniques to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops.
Cryo preservation technique: It involves the preservation of seeds, pollen of some
important agricultural and horticultural crops by using liquid nitrogen at a temperature
as low as 196°C. Varieties of rice, pearl millet, Brasslike, turnip, radish, tomato, onion,
carrot, chilli, tobacco, etc., have been preserved successfully in liquid nitrogen for
several years.
(ii) National Bureau of Animal (NBAGR):
It is located at Karnal, Haryana. It preserves the Genetic Resources
Semen of domesticated bovine animals.
(iii) National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR):
It develops the facility for conservation of varieties of crop plants or trees by tissue
culture. This facility has been created within the NBPGR.

Advantages (or) merits of Ex-situ Conservation

1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention.

2. In captive breeding, animals are assured food, water, shelter and also security and
hence longer life span.
3. It is carried out in cases of endangered species, which do not have any chances of
survival, in the world.
Disadvantages (or) limitations of Ex-situ Conservation
1. It is expensive method.
2. The freedom of wildlife is lost.
3. The animals cannot survive in natural environment.
4. It can be adopted only for few selected species

NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY ACT

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Biodiversity act is an act of the Parliament of India for preservation of biological
diversity in India and provides mechanism for equitable sharing of benefits arising out
of the use of traditional biological resources and knowledge.
Objective of this act
To meet the obligations under Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to which
India is a party.

National Biodiversity Authority and State Biodiversity Boards

The National Biodiversity, 2002, Authority (NBA) is a statutory autonomous body,
located in chennai, under the ministry of environment and forests, Government of India,
established in 2003 to implement the provisions under the act.
states along with 31,574 biological management committees State Biodiversity Boards
(SBB) has been created in 28 across India.

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