Radio Receivers

Unit II :AM Reception

• Block diagram of TRF AM Receivers
• Super Heterodyne Receiver
• Dual Conversion Super heterodyne Receiver
• Concept of Series & Parallel resonant circuits for
Bandwidth & Selectivity.
• Performance Characteristics: Sensitivity, Selectivity,
Fidelity
• Image Frequency Rejection and IFRR.
• Tracking, Mixers
• AM Detection: Rectifier detection, Envelope detection
• Demodulation of DSBSC: Synchronous detection
• Demodulation of SSBSC: Envelope detection
 Objectives
• Draw a simplified block diagram of an AM
tuned radio frequency receiver.
• Explain the theory of superheterodyne
receiver.
• Draw & identify the parts of a simple
Superherterodyne Receiver block diagram.
• Define the term selectivity, sensitivity, Fidelity
Image frequency.
• Describe AM detection Techniques.
 RECEIVERS

Receiver is an electronic equipment which pick

ups the desired signal, reject the unwanted signal
and demodulate the carrier signal to get back the
original modulating signal.
 Function of Receivers
• Intercept the incoming modulated signal
• Select desired signal and reject unwanted signals
• Amplify selected R.F signal
• Detect modulated signal to get back original
modulating signal
• Amplify modulating frequency signal
 AM Receivers

Receive broadcast of speech or music from AM

transmitters which operate on long wave, medium
wave or short wave bands.
TRF (Tuned Radio frequency) RECEIVER

Speaker

Power amplifier

2nd RF Amplifier Audio

1st RF Amplifier Detector
amplifier

Ganged Tuning
• TRF receiver includes an
– RF stage
– a detector stage
– and an audio stage .
• Two or three RF amplifiers are required to filter
and amplify the received signal to a level
sufficient to drive the detector stage.
• RF section (Receiver front end)
used to select the signal
Band limit the received RF signal
and amplifying the received RF signal.
• AM detector
Demodulates the AM wave and converts it to
the original information signal.
• Audio section
Used to amplify the recovered signal
 Advantages of TRF

• TRF receivers are simple to design and allow the

broadcast frequency 535 KHz to 1640 KHz.
• High senstivity.
 Disadvantages of TRF

• At the higher frequency, it produces difficulty in

design.
• It has poor audio quality.
• Drawbacks
– Instability
– Variation in BW
– Poor Selectivity
• INSTABILITY
Due to high gain, multi stage amplifiers are
susceptible to breaking into oscillation.
As gain of RF amplifier is very high ,a small
feedback from output to input with correct
phase can lead to oscillations.
Correct phase means a positive feedback and it
takes place through stray capacitances
As reactance of stray capacitances decreases at
higher frequencies resulting in increased
feedback.
Forcing the device to work as an oscillator
instead of an amplifier.
• VARIATION IN BANDWIDTH

The bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with

the center frequency when tuned over a wide
range of input frequencies.
As frequency increases, the bandwidth ( f/Q)
increases. Thus, the selectivity of the input
filter changes over any appreciable range of
input frequencies.
Example
Suppose required BW=10KHz
We have f1=545KHz,f2=1640KHz
 Q1= f1/BW= 54.5 ,
 Q2=f2/BW=164
 But practically Q is limited upto 120
 Considering Q limit 120 , BW changes to13.6 KHz
( as BW=f2/Q2=1640/120)
 So Adjacent channel is picked up resulting in
variation in bandwidth.
• POOR SELECTIVITY
– The gains are not uniform over a very wide
frequency range.
– Due to higher frequencies ability to select desired
signal is affected.

Due to these drawbacks TRF are rarely used.

 SUPER HETRODYNE RECEIVER

IF=fo- fs [A+ m(t)] cos ωIFt

[A+ m(t)] cos ωct Km(t)

fs
RF IF AF & P
mixer detector
amplifier amplifier amplifier

fo
Local
Oscillator
(ωc+ωIF)
Ganged
tuning
• Heterodyne – to mix two frequencies together in a
nonlinear device or to transmit one frequency to
another using nonlinear mixing.
• Also known as frequency conversion , high
frequency down converted to low frequency.(IF)
• A super heterodyne receiver converts all incoming
radio frequency (RF) signals to a lower frequency
known as an intermediate frequency (IF).
 RF section
– Consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier
– Pre-selector is a broad-tuned bandpass filter with
an adjustable center frequency used to reject
unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the noise
bandwidth.
– RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the
receiver and a predominant factor in determining
the noise figure for the receiver.
 RF section Advantages
1. Greater gain i.e. better selectivity
2. Improved Image rejection
3. Improved SNR
4. Improved adjacent channel rejection
5. Better coupling of receiver with antenna
6. Preventing spurious frequencies from entering mixer
and avoiding heterodyning there
7. Prevention of re-radiation of Local Oscillator
through the antenna of the receiver
 Mixer/converter section
– Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a
mixer.
– Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and
accuracy desired.
– Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio
frequency to intermediate frequencies (i.e.
heterodyning process).
– The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the
original information contained in the envelope
remains unchanged although the carrier and
sideband frequencies are translated from RF to IF.
 Frequency Conversion
Mixing Principles
– Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude
modulation carried out by a mixer circuit or converter.
– The function performed by the mixer is called
heterodyning.
– Mixers accept two inputs: The signal to be translated to
another frequency is applied to one input, and the sine
wave from a local oscillator is applied to the other
input.
– Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer essentially
performs a mathematical multiplication of its two input
signals.
– The oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be
translated is the modulating signal.
– The output contains not only the carrier signal but also
sidebands formed when the local oscillator and input
signal are mixed.
 Frequency Conversion

Concept of a mixer.
– Local Oscillator
– The local oscillator is designed such that its
frequency of oscillation is always above or below
the desired RF carrier by an amount equal to the
IF center frequency.
– Therefore the difference of RF and oscillator
frequency is always equal to the IF frequency
 – The adjustment for the center frequency of the pre-
selector and the local oscillator frequency are gang-tune
(the two adjustments are tied together so that single
adjustment will change the center frequency of the pre-
selector and at the same time change the local
oscillator)
– when local oscillator frequency is tuned above the RF –
high side injection
when local oscillator frequency is tuned below the RF –
low side injection
• Mathematically expressed :
High side injection
flo  fRF  fIF
Low side injection
flo  fRF  fIF
 Tuning Range
– The tuning range of a tunable radio receiver is
decided by the range over which capacitance of
the resonant circuits can be varied. Typically
this has a maximum of about 10:1
– The resonant frequency of a high Q tuned
circuit is given by
fo = 1/(2π√(LC))
Also Rc = Cmax/ Cmin
and Rf = fmax/fmin= √Rc
Where Rf = circuit frequency tuning range
And Rc = capacitor tuning range ratio
Why Local Oscillator Frequency is
Higher Than Signal Frequency
– Normal tunable capacitor has a capacitance ratio
of apprx. 10:1
For AM receiver : pre-selector tunable from 540
KHz to 1600 KHz (Rf= 2.96 ) and (Rc= 8.8)
Local oscillator tunable from 995 kHz to 2055 KHz
Rf= 2.06 and Rc = 4.26
For Low-side injection
Local oscillator tunable from 85 kHz to 1145KHz
Rf = 13.5 and Rc = 182
 IF section
– Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and
bandpass filters to achieve most of the receiver
gain and selectivity.
– The IF is always lower than the RF because it is
easier and less expensive to construct high-gain,
stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.
– IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than
their RF counterparts.
 Intermediate
Frequency and Images
• The primary objective in the design of an IF
stage is to obtain good selectivity.
• Narrow-band selectivity is best obtained at
lower frequencies.
• At low frequencies, circuits are more stable
with high gain.
 IMAGE FREQUENCY
• In radio reception using heterodyning in the tuning
process, an undesired input frequency that is
capable of producing the same intermediate
frequency (IF) that the desired input frequency
produces.
• Image frequency – any frequency other than the
selected radio frequency carrier that will produce
a cross-product frequency that is equal to the
intermediate frequency if allowed to enter a
receiver and mix with the local oscillator.
• It is given by signal frequency plus twice the
intermediate frequency
fsi = fs + 2fi
 Intermediate
Frequency and Images

Signal, local oscillator, and image frequencies in a superheterodyne.

 IMAGE FREQUENCY
• It is equivalent to a second radio frequency that will
produce an IF that will interfere with the IF from the
desired radio frequency.
– if the selected RF carrier and its image frequency
enter a receiver at a same time, they both mix with
the local oscillator frequency and produce different
frequencies that are equal to the IF.
– Consequently, two different stations are received
and demodulated simultaneously
– The higher the IF, the farther away the image
frequency is from the desired radio frequency.
Therefore, for better image frequency rejection, a
high IF is preferred.
– However, the higher the IF, it is more difficult to
build a stable amplifier with high gain. i.e. there is a
trade-off when selecting the IF for a radio receiver
(image frequency rejection vs IF gain and stability)
• Once an image frequency has down-converted to IF, it
cannot be removed. In order to reject the image
frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer stage.
i.e. the bandwidth of the pre-selector must be
sufficiently narrow to prevent image frequency from
entering the receiver.
 CHOICE OF IF
1. Very high IF will result in poor selectivity and poor
adjacent channel rejection
2. A high value of IF will result in tracking
difficulties
3. At low values of IF image frequency rejection is
poor.
4. Also the selectivity will be too sharp that cut off
the sidebands
5. A very low IF requires the frequency stability of
the Local Oscillator to be made correspondingly
higher.
6. IF must not fall within the tuning range of the
receiver or else instability will occur and
heterodyne whistles will be heard
 Frequencies Used
• AM receivers:
MW: tuning range: 540 – 1650KHz
IF: 455KHz
SW: tuning range: 3 – 30MHz
IF: 455KHz
SSB receivers: SW and VHF: IF: 1.6 – 2.3
MHz or else above 30MHz
 Intermediate Frequency and Images
Solving the Image Problem
– To reduce image interference, high-Q tuned circuits
should be used ahead of the mixer or RF amplifier.
– The rejection of an image frequency by a single tuned
circuit is:
α = 1/√ (1+ Q2ρ2)
where ρ = (fsi/fs) – (fs/fsi)
Q = loaded Q of tuned circuit
Due to the RF section two tuned circuits are present and total rejection will be the
product of the two
– The IF is made as high as possible for effective
elimination of the image problem, yet low enough to
prevent design problems.
– In most receivers the IF varies in proportion to the
frequencies that must be covered.
 Dual-Conversion Receivers
– To obtain selectivity while eliminating the image
problem is to use a dual-conversion
superheterodyne receiver.
– A typical receiver uses two mixers and local
oscillators, so it has two IFs.
– The first mixer converts the incoming signal to a
high intermediate frequency to eliminate the
images.
– The second mixer converts that IF down to a much
lower frequency, where good selectivity is easier
to obtain.
Duel Conversion Superhetrodyne
[Link] Amplifier/Preselector: Filters incoming signals to remove unwanted frequencies.

[Link] Mixer & 1st LO (Local Oscillator): Converts the incoming RF to a high first IF (e.g., 10.7 MHz or
higher) to easily reject image frequencies.

[Link] IF Filter & Amplifier: Selects the first IF and amplifies it.

[Link] Mixer & 2nd LO: Converts the high-frequency first IF down to a lower, second IF (e.g., 455
kHz or 100 kHz) for better adjacent channel selectivity.
[Link] IF Filter & Amplifier: Provides high-Q, narrow-band filtering to isolate the desired signal.
[Link] & Audio Output: Extracts the original signal.
Advantages and Disadvantages
•Advantages: Excellent selectivity for separating adjacent channels, superior image rejection, and
high stability, especially when the first local oscillator is crystal-controlled.
•Disadvantages: Increased complexity, higher cost, higher component count, and potential for
"secondary image" issues if frequency planning is poor.
Typical Applications
These receivers are commonly used in high-performance applications where signals are close
together in frequency, such as:
•HAM Radio Transceivers: For precise channel selection.
•Radio Scanners: To monitor wide frequency bands.
•UHF/VHF Communication: Where image frequencies are harder to filter.
•Software Defined Radios (SDR) and Base Stations: For high-performance signal processing
Tracking
 Tracking
Padder Tracking

Figure: Padder Tracking

Figure: Tracking Error

Co = (Cs * Cp)/(Cs + Cp)

 Tracking

• Trimmer Tracking

Figure: Tracking Error

Figure: Trimmer Tracking

Co = Cs + Ct
 Tracking
• Three Point Tracking

Figure: Three Point Tracking

Figure: Tracking Error

Co = Cp(Cs * Ct)/(Cp + Cs + Ct)

 AGC ( Automatic Gain Control )
– Adjust the IF amplifier gain according to signal
level(to the average amplitude signal almost
constant).
– AGC is a system by means of which the overall
gain of radio receiver is varied automatically
with the variations in the strength of received
signals, to maintain the output constant.
• It uses a DC feedback loop, typically derived from the detector, to
reduce amplifier gain for strong signals, preventing distortion,
while keeping maximum sensitivity for weak signals.
• AGC circuit is used to adjust and stabilize the frequency of local
oscillator.
• Types of AGC –
 No AGC -No AGC means the receiver operates at maximum gain
constantly, leading to distorted, deafeningly loud signals and a high
noise floor
 Simple AGC - improves this by automatically reducing the gain
of the IF (Intermediate Frequency) and RF amplifiers based on
the strength of the incoming signal, keeping output steady but
sometimes reducing gain too much for weak signals.
 Delayed AGC - To maximize sensitivity, many receivers use delayed
AGC, where the gain reduction only kicks in once the incoming signal
exceeds a set threshold.
 Automatic Gain Control

Figure: Response of Receiver with either simple or delayed

AGC compared to one without AGC
Automatic Gain Control
Figure: Circuit Diagram for AGC
 DRAWBACKS OVERCOMED IN
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
– Stability – as high frequency is down converted to IF
the reactance of stray capacitances will not decrease
as it was at higher frequencies resulting in increased
feedback.
– No variation in BW- as IF range is 438 to 465 KHz (in
case of AM receivers) mostly 455KHz ,appropriate
for Q limit (120).
– Better selectivity- as no adjacent channels are picked
due to variation in BW.
 COMPARISON
TRF Receiver Super hetrodyne Receiver
• No frequency conversion • Frequency conversion
• No IF frequency • Downconvert RF signal to
• Instability , variation in BW lower IF frequency
and poor selectivity due to • No instability, variation in
high frequencies BW and poor selectivity as
• Difficult to design tunable IF introduced.
RF stages. • Main amplifixcation takes
• Rarely used place at IF
• Mostly used
CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO RECEIVERS

• Sensitivity

• Selectivity

• Fidelity
 Sensitivity
• Ability to amplify weak signals.
• Minimum RF signal level that can be detected at
the input to the receiver and still produce a usable
demodulated information signal.
• Broadcast receivers/ radio receivers should have
reasonably high sensitivity so that it may have
good response to the desired signal
• But should not have excessively high sensitivity
otherwise it will pick up all undesired noise
signals.
• It is function of receiver gain and measures in
decibels.
• Sensitivity of a receiver is expressed in microvolts
of the received signal.
• Typical sensitivity for commercial broadcast-band
AM receiver is 50 μV.
• Sensitivity of the receiver depends on :
[Link] power present at the input to the
receiver
[Link] noise figure
[Link] improvement factor of the
receiver

The best way to improve the sensitivity is to

reduce the noise level.
 Selectivity

Selectivity of radio receiver is its ability to

differentiate desired signal from unwanted signals.
• Selectivity is obtained by using tuned circuits,
which are tuned to desired frequency. The quality
factor of these LC circuits determines the
selectivity. It is given by,
Q=XL/R

• For better selectivity ‘Q’ should be high.

 Fidelity
• Fidelity is defined as – a measure of the ability of a
communication system to produce an exact replica
of the original source information at the output of
the receiver.
• Any variations in the demodulated signal that are
not in the original information signal is considered
as distortion.
• Radio receiver should have high fidelity or
accuracy.
• Example- In an A.M. broadcast the maximum audio
frequency is 5 KHz hence receiver with good
fidelity must produce entire frequency up to 5KHz.
 Detector section
– To convert the IF signals back to the original
source information (demodulation).
– Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex
as a PLL or balanced demodulator.
 Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that
accept modulated signals and recover the original
modulating information.
AM Detection
Rectifier Detection
Envelope Detector
 Amplitude Demodulators

A diode detector AM demodulator.

 Amplitude Demodulators
Diode Detector
– On positive alternations of the AM signal, the capacitor
charges quickly to the peak value of pulses passed by the
diode.
– When the pulse voltage drops to zero, the capacitor
discharges into the resistor.
– The time constant of the capacitor and resistor is long
compared to the period of the carrier.
– The capacitor discharges only slightly when the diode is
not conducting.
– The resulting waveform across the capacitor is a close
approximation to the original modulating signal.
– Because the diode detector recovers the envelope of the
AM (modulating) signal, the circuit is sometimes called an
envelope detector.
Envelope Detection Waveform
 Diagonal Peak Clipping
– If the RC time constant in a diode detector is too
long, the capacitor discharge will be too slow to
follow the faster changes in the modulating signal.
– This is referred to as diagonal clipping.
Id

Exponential

Figure: Diagonal Clipping

Diagonal Peak Clipping
Condition to avoid Diagonal Peak
clipping
 Negative Peak Clipping
• Results from Loading effect of the network
R1C1 following the RC load.

IAV

Figure: Negative Peak Clipping

Practical Diode Detector
Synchronous Detection
Thank You