Building Technology

Notes done by Tahasin Nafi

 Masonry Work
Masonry is the construction of building units like stone, brick, or tile that are bonded together using mortar. It can also be defined as any stone, brick, or
tile construction that is hardened by heat.

Categories by Function

Load Bearing Wall : Designed to carry the weight (superimposed loads) of floors and roofs, requiring a continuous foundation.
Non-Load Bearing Wall : Acts as a screen for privacy or weather protection; it carries no extra load from the building.
Retaining Wall : Built specifically to resist the physical pressure from earth, liquids, or granular materials stored behind it.

Categories by Material

STONE MASONRY BRICK MASONRY REFINED BRICK MASONRY COMPOSITE MASONRY CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK MASONRY
BRICK MASONRY

Brick masonry, rooted in ancient construction practices, involves using bricks made of clay. These bricks are arranged systematically, creating sturdy and
visually appealing walls. Primarily used in residential, commercial, and industrial structures due to its versatility and timeless appeal.

Types of Brick

Bricks are primarily classified into two categories:

Traditional Bricks : Dimensions vary across different regions, ranging from 21 to 25 cm in length, 10 to 13 cm in width, and 7.5 cm in height. The
standard nominal size is commonly accepted as 23 x 11.4 x 7.6 cm .
Modular Bricks : These are standardized bricks established by the Indian Standard Institution for uniformity .
Nominal Size: 20 x 10 x 10 cm.
Actual Dimensions: 19 x 9 x 9 cm.

Modular bricks are more economical because they reduce the consumption of bricks, mortar, and labor compared to traditional bricks.

Advantages

Excellent Aesthetics : Bricks offer a classic and warm appearance.

Good Thermal Insulation: Brick walls regulate interior temperatures effectively
Fire Resistance : Bricks provide a natural fire-resistant barrier.

Disadvantages

Higher Cost : The aesthetic appeal comes at a price.

Time-Consuming Construction : Building brick walls can be labor-intensive and time-consuming.
Orientation, Cuttings, Forms of Brick

Brick Bond

Brick bond refers to the arrangement of bricks in masonry to ensure strength, stability, and aesthetic appearance by properly distributing load and avoiding
continuous vertical joints.

Stretcher bond

Bricks are laid with their long face (stretcher) visible, Common in half-brick thick walls.

Construction :

1. All bricks are laid longitudinally.

2. Vertical joints are staggered by half a brick.
3. Used for partition walls, light load structures, cavity walls, facades.
4. No closers are particularly needed, but sometimes half bats are used.

Stretcher Bond
Header bond

Bricks are laid with their short face (header) exposed, Common in One-brick thick walls.

Construction :

1. Each course consists entirely of headers.

2. Vertical joints are staggered by half a brick.
3. Often used in curved works, foundations. Header Bond
4. The vertical overlap is kept equal to half the width of a brick using three-quarter bat as Quoins
in alternative courses.

English bond

English bond is formed by laying alternate courses of stretchers and headers. It is one of the most commonly utilized variations of brick bonds and also
considered as one of the strongest bonds.

Construction :

1. One course of headers followed by one course of stretchers.

2. Queen closers are placed next to quoin headers to maintain alignment.
3. Ensures proper load distribution.
4. Used mostly in heavy load-bearing walls.

English Bond
Flemish bond

Headers and stretchers are alternately laid in same course to form this bond. Each header is centered
on a stretcher above and below and every alternate course begins with a header in the corner. This
bond is usually One-brick thick but often used for walls that are two bricks thick.

Construction :

1. Headers and stretchers alternate in the same course.

2. Queen closers are placed next to quoin headers to maintain alignment.
3. Used for Facing walls, decorative masonry. Flemish Bond

General principles of Brick Masonry

1. Material Quality & Preparation

Brick Quality : Bricks must be hard, well-burnt, uniform in color/shape, and free from cracks. They should produce a metallic ringing sound when
struck and absorb no more than 20% water.
Soaking : Bricks must be thoroughly soaked in water before use to prevent them from sucking moisture out of the wet mortar.

2. Laying & Workmanship

Mortar Bedding : Bricks should be pressed into a full bed of mortar. All joints must be properly filled so no empty cavities remain.
Joint Thickness : Mortar joints should be uniform and must not exceed 13 mm in thickness.
Leveling : All courses must be laid perfectly horizontal, and vertical joints must be truly vertical.

3. Structural Details

Bonding : English bond is common practice. Quoin bricks (corners) should consist of headers and stretchers in alternate courses, using a
queen closer next to the quoin header.
Structural Support : For R.C.C. slabs resting on walls, the bearing area should be at least the depth of the slab or 10 cm, whichever is greater.
Embedded Fixtures : Iron fixtures (pipes, hold-fasts) should be embedded securely using cement mortar or concrete.

4. Finishing & Curing

Joint Finishing : If no plastering is planned, joints should be struck flush and finished at the time of laying.
Curing : Completed masonry work must be kept wet (cured) for at least 7 days.
Plastering : Plastering should only be done 28 days after completion to allow for necessary shrinkage.

5. Movement & Reinforcement

Expansion Joints : To handle thermal expansion, provide minimum 18 mm wide expansion joints every 30 to 45 meters of wall length.
Partition Walls : Thin half-brick partition walls should be reinforced with steel bars or mesh at every third or fourth course for stability.

STONE MASONRY

Dating back to ancient civilizations, Stone Masonry involves the use of natural stones like granite, limestone, or slate to create robust and aesthetically
pleasing walls and is often used in historic and high-end projects.

Advantages

Timeless Aesthetics : Natural stones lend a timeless and elegant appearance.

High Durability : Stone walls are resistant to wear and weathering.

Disadvantages

Higher Cost : The use of natural stones can be expensive.

Skilled Labor Required : Crafting stone walls demands skilled artisans.
CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY

Concrete block masonry involves the use of blocks made of cement, sand, and aggregate, providing a robust alternative to traditional brick construction. Concrete
block walls are widely employed in both load-bearing and non-load-bearing applications, ranging from residential houses to commercial buildings.

Advantages

Cost-Effective : Concrete blocks are generally more affordable than traditional bricks.
Quick Construction : The assembly of concrete block walls is faster than bricklaying.
Structural Strength : Concrete blocks offer excellent load-bearing capacity.

Disadvantages

Limited Aesthetic Options : Concrete blocks may lack the aesthetic charm of bricks.
Insulation Requirements : Additional insulation might be needed in some cases.

HOLLOW MASONRY

Hollow masonry walls incorporate cavities within the structure, offering improved insulation properties compared to solid masonry and used mostly in residential
and commercial buildings.

Advantages

Enhanced Thermal Performance : The air-filled cavities provide better insulation.

Reduced Material Usage : Hollow masonry requires less material than solid walls.

Disadvantages

Limited Load-Bearing Capacity : Hollow walls may have limitations in supporting heavy loads.
STONE VS BRICK MASONRY

Material : Stone is a natural, raw material (quarry-sourced); Brick is a man-made unit (clay or concrete) fired in a kiln.
Uniformity : Stone units are often irregular and vary in size; Brick units are modular and perfectly uniform.
Construction: Stone is slow due to the need for "dressing" (shaping) the units; Brick is significantly faster thanks to its standard size and easy handling.
Labor : Stone requires highly skilled stonemasons; Brick can be handled by semi-skilled labor.
Cost : Stone is generally more expensive (quarrying + transport + skilled labor); Brick is more economical and mass-produced.
Strength : Stone (especially granite or basalt) has much higher compressive strength; Brick is strong but generally has lower load-bearing capacity than high-
quality stone.
Weight : Stone is much heavier, requiring deeper/stronger foundations; Brick is lighter and easier on the structural base.
Durability : Stone is virtually indestructible over millennia; Brick is durable but can weather, spall, or crumble over several centuries.
Mortar Usage: Stone (specifically rubble) uses more mortar to fill irregular gaps; Brick uses minimal, uniform mortar joints.
Fire Resistance: Stone can crack or calcify under intense heat; Brick is highly fire-resistant as it is literally born in a kiln.
Water Absorption: Stone (especially igneous) is very dense with low absorption; Brick is more porous and can absorb more moisture.

Cavity Wall

A cavity wall is a type of wall construction consisting of two separate walls (called leaves or skins) built
parallel to each other with a gap or cavity between them. The two walls are connected using metal wall
ties.

-The outer wall protects the building from weather and rain.
-The inner wall carries structural loads and supports floors and roofs.
-The cavity usually ranges from 5 cm to 10 cm wide and helps prevent moisture penetration and improves
thermal insulation.
Position of Cavity Walls

1. External Walls of Buildings : They are mainly provided in external walls to prevent dampness from entering the interior spaces.
2. Areas with Heavy Rainfall : Suitable for regions exposed to strong winds and rain because the cavity stops rainwater penetration.
3. Residential & Commercial Buildings: Used where better thermal and sound insulation is required.
4. Above Ground Level : The cavity starts slightly above the ground level to avoid moisture transfer from the soil.
5. Near Damp-Proof Course (DPC) : DPC is provided at the base of both leaves to stop rising dampness.

Advantages of Cavity Walls

1. Prevention of Dampness
The cavity acts as a barrier and prevents rainwater or moisture from passing from the outer wall to the inner wall.
2. Thermal Insulation
Air trapped in the cavity reduces heat transfer, keeping interiors cooler in summer and warmer in winter.
3. Sound Insulation
Cavity walls reduce transmission of sound and provide better acoustic comfort than solid walls.
4. Economical Construction
Because thinner walls can be used, the overall construction may become economical.
5. Reduced Wall Weight
Cavity walls are lighter than solid masonry walls of similar thickness.
6. Better Weather Resistance
The outer leaf resists rain and weather effects while the cavity protects the inside surface.
7. Reduced Efflorescence
The cavity minimizes moisture movement and therefore reduces salt deposits on wall surfaces.
Construction Details of Cavity Walls

1. Foundation
Both leaves of the cavity wall are built on a common concrete foundation. The foundation should be wide enough to support both walls.
2. Width of Cavity
The cavity is generally kept between 5 cm and 10 cm. It should be uniform throughout the wall height.
3. Wall Ties
The two leaves are connected using galvanized steel, stainless steel, or iron wall ties.
Ties are placed horizontally and vertically at regular intervals. Horizontal spacing: about 90 cm, Vertical spacing: about 45 cm
4. Damp-Proof Course (DPC)
A DPC layer is provided at the base of both leaves. The cavity should continue below the DPC to prevent moisture bridging.
5. Weep Holes
Small openings called weep holes are provided near the bottom of the outer wall. They allow accumulated water inside the cavity to drain out.
6. Keeping the Cavity Clean
During construction, mortar droppings should not block the cavity. The cavity must remain clear for proper moisture protection.
7. Lintels and Openings
Special care is required around doors and windows. Metal trays or cavity trays are provided above openings to divert water outward.

8. Top of the Wall

The cavity is closed at roof level using coping or damp-proof material to stop rainwater entry.
MASONRY LINTELS

A lintel is a horizontal structural member placed across an opening (like doors, windows, or cupboards) to support the weight of the masonry wall above it. It
essentially acts as a beam, transferring the overhead load vertically to the supporting walls or jambs.

Purpose

Structural Support : They bridge the gap of an opening, preventing the masonry above from collapsing.
Load Transfer : They carry the weight of the wall and any superimposed loads and distribute them to the side piers.
Aesthetics : In some cases, lintels are used as decorative elements over openings.

Types of Lintels (By Material)

Wooden Lintels : Used primarily in hilly areas where timber is available. They are prone to decay and are not fireproof.
Stone Lintels : Common in "stone districts." They are thick (minimum 8 cm) but can be expensive and weak against transverse (bending) stresses.
Brick Lintels : Built with hard, well-burnt bricks. Suitable only for small spans (up to 90 cm) with light loads.
Reinforced Brick Lintels : Similar to brick lintels but include steel bars for extra strength, allowing them to span larger distances.
Steel Lintels : Used when the opening is large and the load is heavy. These consist of rolled steel joists (RSJs) or channels .
RCC Lintels : The most common modern type. They are durable, fire-resistant, and can be used for any span. These often include a Chajja
(sunshade) projection.
Construction Process

1. Preparation of Opening : The wall is built up to the level of the top of the opening (door/window frame).
2. Formwork (Centering) : For cast-in-situ lintels (like RCC), a temporary wooden or steel mold is placed over the opening to hold the material until
it sets.
3. Placement of Reinforcement : For RCC, main steel bars are placed at the bottom (tension zone). Stirrups are added to resist shear.
4. Casting : The material (concrete or mortar) is poured into the formwork. In RCC, a standard mix of 1:2:4 (Cement:Sand:Aggregate)
is typically used.
5. Curing : The lintel must be kept moist (usually for 7 to 14 days) to reach its full design strength.
6. Pre-cast Option : For efficiency, many RCC lintels are pre-cast on the ground, cured, and then lifted into place once they are ready.
Construction Process of Sunshades and Connection with Lintels

A sunshade is usually constructed above doors and windows to protect the building from sunlight and rainwater. It is commonly made of reinforced cement
concrete (RCC).

Construction Process of Sunshades

1. shuttering or formwork is fixed above the opening.

2. Steel reinforcement bars are placed according to design requirements.
3. Concrete is poured and properly compacted.
4. The sunshade is given a slight slope outward for rainwater drainage.
5. A drip course is provided at the outer edge to prevent water from flowing back to the wall.
6. After setting, curing is done for proper strength.

Connection Between Sunshade and Lintel

Sunshades are generally constructed together with the lintel above doors and windows. The RCC lintel acts as structural support over the opening, while the
sunshade projects outward from the lintel slab. Both are often cast monolithically (in one piece) to provide better strength, stability, and durability.

Sill
A window sill is the horizontal surface provided at the bottom of a window opening. It supports the window frame by providing a firm base and helps prevent
rainwater from entering the wall below the window. The sill also protects the masonry from dampness and damage, improves the appearance of the window
opening, and provides stability by helping to distribute the load of the window frame.

Construction Details of Window Sill

1. The sill is constructed at the bottom of the window opening.

2. It is generally made slightly wider than the wall thickness.
3. A slope is provided outward to drain rainwater away from the building.
4. A drip course or groove is provided below the outer edge to prevent water from flowing back to the wall.
5. The sill may be made of stone, concrete, brick, or wood depending on design and requirement.
6. Proper curing is done in case of concrete sills for strength and durability.
POINTING

Pointing is the process of finishing mortar joints in brick or stone masonry by raking out the joints to a depth of about 13 mm and refilling them with a rich mortar.

It is done to:
-protect joints from rainwater and dampness,
-improve durability,
-and enhance the appearance of masonry work.

Pointing may be carried out using either lime mortar or cement mortar. Lime mortar is prepared by mixing equal parts of fat lime and fine sand and grinding the
mixture thoroughly in a mortar mill. Cement mortar is prepared by mixing cement and sand in the proportion of 1:2 or 1:3. Cement mortar is stronger and more
durable, so it is commonly used for pointing work.

Types of Pointing

Flush Pointing
Mortar is pressed into joints and finished flush with wall surface. Edges are neatly trimmed. Used in Brick masonry, Stone masonry.

Cut / Weathered / Struck Pointing

Mortar is pressed into joints. Upper edge is pressed inward by about 3–6 mm. Surface slopes downward, thus, rainwater drains easily.

V-Grooved Pointing

Similar to grooved pointing. A V-shaped groove is formed in the joint using a tool. Done primarily for decorative finish.

Keyed or Grooved Pointing

Mortar is finished flush with wall face. A groove is formed at the center using a steel rod. Done primarily for decorative finish.
Tuck Pointing
Mortar is pressed flush into joints. A narrow-raised band (about 6 mm wide and 10 mm deep) is formed. Gives fine decorative joints.

Beaded Pointing

Mortar is finished flush. A rounded bead is formed using a steel tool. Done to be decorative and ornamental.
How Pointing is done

Preparation of Surface
First, the masonry joints are raked out to a depth of about 13 mm. All loose mortar, dust, and dirt are removed from the joints. The wall surface is then cleaned
thoroughly and washed with water. Before starting pointing, the masonry surface is kept wet for a few hours to ensure proper bonding between old masonry and
new mortar.

Preparation of Mortar
Mortar for pointing is prepared using either lime mortar or cement mortar. Cement mortar is generally prepared in the proportion of 1:2 or 1:3 (cement : sand). The
mortar should be properly mixed and workable.

Filling the Joints

The prepared mortar is pressed firmly into the raked joints with the help of a pointing trowel. Care is taken to fill all joints completely without leaving any voids or
gaps.

Finishing of Joints
After filling the joints, the surface is finished according to the required type of pointing such as flush, grooved, struck, or beaded pointing. Excess mortar is removed
neatly to obtain a clean appearance.

Curing
After completion, the pointed surface is kept moist for about 7 days. Proper curing increases the strength, durability, and weather resistance of the pointing.
PLASTERING
Plastering is the application of a thin, plastic covering to walls and ceilings. It creates a smooth, durable base for internal decorative finishes (like paint or
wallpaper).

Purpose

Protection : Covers uneven or coarse structural surfaces (brick/stone).

Decoration : Provides a smooth, level base for final aesthetics.
Durability : Adds a layer of protection to the structural wall.
Fire Resistance : Certain plaster types (like Keene’s cement) improve fire safety.

The Three-Coat Process

In high-quality work, plaster is applied in three distinct layers. The average total thickness is 19 mm (3/4").

The coat names are-

1. Rendering
2. Floating
3. Setting

The Wall Plastering Process

Preparation

Clean : Remove dust and loose mortar from joints.

Wet : Sprinkling water on the wall to prevent the masonry from absorbing moisture from the plaster.
Key : Rake out mortar joints (13 mm deep) to provide a mechanical grip for the first coat.
Rendering (1st Coat)

Thickness: ~10 mm.

Action: Apply a coarse mix (1:3 lime/sand) to the wall.
Finish: Roughen the surface with a wire brush or comb to create a "key" for the next layer.

Floating (2nd Coat)

Thickness: ~6 mm to 9 mm.
Action: Apply "Screeds" (vertical plaster strips) as level guides. Fill spaces between them and use a straight-edge (Floating Rule) to level the surface.
Finish: Rub with a wooden float to create a true, even plane.

Setting (3rd Coat)

Thickness: Max 3 mm (1/8").

Action: Apply a very thin, fine mix.
Finish: Use a steel trowel while sprinkling water to polish the surface until glass-smooth.

The Ceiling Plastering Process

Ceiling plastering follows a similar "three-coat" logic as walls but involves extra critical steps , which are , “Lathing” and “Pricking-Up” .

Lathing (The Base)

Since a ceiling has no solid masonry surface to "grip," a framework must be installed first:
Wood Laths: Thin strips of wood are nailed to the underside of the floor joists. They are spaced about 10 mm (3/8") apart.
Metallic Lathing: Alternatively, expanded metal mesh is used. It is nailed to the joists to form a "diamond-mesh" surface.
Pricking Up

The Pricking-Up coat is the structural foundation of a ceiling. Coarse plaster is squeezed through gaps in wood or metal laths so it "slumps" over the back,
forming hook-like "keys." These keys create the mechanical bond that physically holds the ceiling up against gravity. Once applied, the surface is scratched to
provide a grip for the next layers.

Then the rest is same as plastering a wall.

DRIP COURSE
A drip course is a small groove or projection provided on the underside of elements such as sunshades, chajjas, lintels, balconies, window sills, and cornices
to prevent rainwater from flowing back toward the wall [Link] is usually made in the form of a narrow groove near the outer edge of the projection.

-Stops water from running along the underside and entering the wall.
-Reduces moisture penetration and staining on walls.
-Protects plaster and masonry from weather damage.
-Prevents dirty water marks on the building surface.
Construction Details
•A groove of about 10 mm to 20 mm depth and width is made on the underside of the projection.
•It is usually placed about 20 mm to 50 mm away from the outer edge.
•Water droplets fall directly from the groove instead of flowing toward the wall.

DOOR

A door system consists of two primary categories: the Door Frame (the stationary support) and the Door Shutter (the movable part).

Door Frame Components

The frame is fixed to the wall and provides the structural support for the door to hang and swing.

Header (Head Jamb): The horizontal top member of the frame spanning the opening.
Jambs: The vertical side members.
Hinge Jamb: The side where hinges are attached.
Strike/Lock Jamb: The side where the latch or lock meets the frame.
Stop: A thin strip on the jamb that the door closes against to prevent it from swinging through the frame.
Sill: The horizontal bottom member that rests directly on the floor.
Threshold: The piece fixed over the sill; it provides a transition between floor levels and helps seal the
bottom of the door.

Door Shutter (The Door Itself)

The shutter is the actual moving panel that opens and closes.

Stiles: The vertical outer members of the door.

Rails: The horizontal members of the door.
Top Rail: The uppermost horizontal member.
Bottom Rail: The lowermost horizontal member.
Mullion (Mid-Rail): A horizontal member that divides the door into upper and lower sections.
Panels: The infill sections (wood, glass, or louvers) held between the rails and stiles.

Essential Hardware

Hinge: The metal hardware that connects the shutter to the frame, allowing rotation.
Lockset / Door Hardware: The mechanism (handle, latch, and lock) used to secure the door.
Protection Plates:
Kick Plate: Installed at the bottom of the door to protect against scuffing.
Mop Plate: Similar to a kick plate but smaller, used to protect against cleaning equipment.

Types of Doors Based on Design

1. Panel Door: A classic door design featuring rectangular panels, commonly available in 2, 4, or 6 panels. Found in most residential homes, panel doors are
often made of wood and can be solid or hollow.
2. Flush Door: A smooth, flat surface with no panels or ornamentation. These are widely used in modern interiors and often come with a plywood or MDF finish
over a wooden frame.
3. French Door: People often use double doors with large glass panels for patios or balconies. It lets sunlight in and makes the space look bigger.
4. Dutch Door: A horizontally split door that allows the top half to open independently from the bottom. Popular in country-style kitchens or nurseries for
ventilation while keeping pets or kids contained.
5. Barn Door: A sliding door, often with visible hardware, is inspired by traditional barns. It adds a rustic touch and helps modern interiors save space.
6. Louvered Door: Features horizontal slats (louvers) for ventilation. Commonly used in closets, laundry rooms, or utility areas.

Door Names Based on Material

1. Wooden Door: The most traditional and versatile material. Available in solid wood (like teak, oak, mahogany) or engineered options. Offers great insulation
and aesthetics.
2. Glass Door: Fully or partially made of tempered or frosted glass and often framed with metal or wood, they are used in modern homes and offices to
enhance openness.
3. Steel Door: Provides strength and security. Commonly used in commercial buildings and main entrances where durability is crucial.
4. Aluminum Door: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and often found in commercial settings, such as office cabins or shop fronts.
5. Fiberglass Door: Resistant to warping and moisture. Mimics the look of wood and is ideal for humid or coastal regions.
6. PVC or UPVC Door: Affordable, waterproof, and low-maintenance. Widely used in bathrooms, balconies, and kitchens.
Door Names Based on Mechanism
1. Hinged Door: The most basic and common type. Hinged on one side and swings open in one direction—either inwards or outwards.
2. Sliding Door: Operates horizontally by sliding along a track. Suitable for balconies, wardrobes, and small spaces.
3. Folding Door / Bi-Fold Door: Consists of multiple panels that fold onto each other. Used for patios, closets, or as room dividers.
4. Pivot Door: It turns around a central point instead of swinging on side hinges. Offers a contemporary look and a smooth opening motion.
5. Revolving Door: Commonly used in commercial buildings, these rotate around a central axis and reduce heat loss.
6. Automatic Door: Sensor-based doors that open and close automatically. Found in malls, hospitals, and airports.
Door Construction Process

1. Preparation of Door Opening

The required size of the door opening is marked in the wall according to the drawing. Proper alignment, level, and dimensions are checked. The opening should be
slightly larger than the door frame to allow fixing and plastering.

2. Fabrication of Door Frame

The door frame is made from wood, steel, aluminum, or other materials. Joints are connected firmly using nails, screws, welding, or adhesives.

3. Fixing the Door Frame

The frame is placed vertically in the wall opening. Temporary supports are used to keep it in position. The frame is checked using a plumb bob and spirit level.
Holdfasts or anchors are fixed into the wall using cement mortar or concrete.

4. Plastering and Finishing Around the Frame

Gaps between the frame and wall are filled with mortar or foam. Wall plastering is completed around the frame. Surface finishing and smoothing are done.

5. Construction of Door Shutter

The shutter (movable part) is prepared separately. The parts are joined together to form the complete shutter.

6. Installation of Hinges
Hinges are fixed on the stile of the shutter and the frame jamb. Usually, 2–3 hinges are used depending on door size and weight.

7. Hanging the Door Shutter

The shutter is aligned properly with the frame. Hinges are screwed tightly. Smooth opening and closing are checked.

8. Fixing Hardware and Accessories

Hardware installed may include: Handle, lock, latch, door closer, stopper, tower bolt, etc.

9. Surface Finishing
Sanding and polishing are carried out. Paint, varnish, laminate, or polish is applied for protection and appearance.
WINDOW`
Windows are organized into the stationary Frame, the movable Sash (shutter), and the supporting Hardware and Trim.

1. Window Frame Components

The frame is the outer enclosure that holds the entire window assembly in the wall opening.

•Head (Head Jamb): The main horizontal member forming the top of the window frame.
•Jambs: The vertical side members of the window frame.
•Sill: The main horizontal member forming the bottom of the frame. It is usually sloped outward to shed water.
•Mullion: A major structural vertical or horizontal member that connects two or more window units together.

2. Window Sash (Shutter) Components

The sash is the movable or fixed unit that holds the glass.

•Stiles: The vertical members of the sash.

•Rails: The horizontal members of the sash (e.g., Top Rail, Bottom Rail).
•Glazing (Glass): The actual glass pane installed within the sash.
•Grilles: Decorative or structural grids that divide the glass into smaller "lights" or "panes."
•Glass Spacer: The component that separates multiple panes of glass (in double or triple glazing) to create an insulating air gap.

3. Hardware and Exterior Trim

These components handle the installation, sealing, and operation of the window.

•Casing: The decorative molding or framing around the window that covers the gap between the window frame and the wall.
•Brickmould: An exterior trim piece that provides a boundary between the window frame and the brick or siding.
•Weatherstripping: Material used to seal the gaps between the sash and the frame to prevent air and water infiltration.
•Hardware: Includes balances (for sliding windows), cranks (for casement windows), and locks/latches for security.
Classification by Material

Wooden Windows: Windows made of timber or wood. They provide a natural appearance and good insulation. Steel Windows: Windows made from steel
sections. They are strong, durable, and commonly used in industrial buildings. Aluminum Windows: Lightweight and corrosion-resistant windows made
from aluminum frames. uPVC Windows: Windows made from unplasticized polyvinyl chloride. They are low-maintenance and energy-efficient. Glass
Windows: Windows mainly made of glass panels for maximum light and visibility. Composite Windows: Windows made using a combination of materials
such as wood and aluminum.

Classification by Design

1. Fixed Window
Cannot be opened; used for light and view.
2. Casement Window
Opens like a door using hinges.
3. Sliding Window
Shutters slide horizontally or vertically.
4. Pivoted Window
Rotates around a central pivot.
5. Double-Hung Window
Contains two vertically sliding shutters.
6. Louvered Window
Made with inclined slats for ventilation and privacy.
7. Bay Window
Projects outward from the wall to increase space and view.
8. Corner Window
Placed at the corner of a building for better lighting and view.
9. Dormer Window
Provided on sloping roofs.
10. Clerestory Window
Located near roof level for light and ventilation.
Glazing Systems

Glazing systems are methods used to install and support glass in windows, doors, facades, skylights, and curtain walls. They are important in modern buildings
because they provide natural lighting, weather protection, thermal insulation, and aesthetic appeal. Depending on the requirement, glazing systems may use
single, double, or triple glass panes. The glass is fixed using aluminum, steel, rubber gaskets, sealants, or structural silicone.
There are different types of glazing systems such as:

•Single Glazing – one layer of glass, economical but less insulation.

•Double Glazing – two glass panes with an air gap for better insulation.
•Structural Glazing – glass fixed without visible frames for a modern appearance.

Good glazing systems improve energy efficiency, reduce outside noise, and increase indoor comfort.
They are widely used in commercial buildings, offices, airports, and residential projects.

Insulating Glass

Insulating glass, also called Insulated Glass Unit (IGU), consists of two or more glass panes separated by a sealed space filled with air or inert gas such as argon.
The gap between the panes reduces heat transfer and improves thermal performance. The edges are sealed tightly to prevent moisture and condensation from
entering.

Main advantages of insulating glass include:

•Reduces heat loss and heat gain
•Saves energy by reducing air-conditioning and heating loads
•Provides sound insulation
•Prevents condensation
•Improves indoor comfort

Special coatings such as Low-E (low emissivity) coatings can also be added to improve insulation further. Insulating glass is commonly used in green buildings,
offices, hotels, and modern homes because of its energy-saving properties.
Glazed Curtain Walls
A glazed curtain wall is a lightweight external wall system made mainly of glass panels supported by aluminum or steel framing. It is called a “curtain wall”
because it does not carry the structural load of the building; instead, it hangs from the structural frame. Its main function is to protect the building from wind,
rain, sunlight, and temperature changes while allowing natural light inside.

Curtain walls are usually designed using:

•Glass panels
•Aluminum framing systems
•Sealants and gaskets
•Anchors and brackets

Types of curtain walls include:

•Stick System – assembled piece by piece at the site.
•Unitized System – factory-made panels installed quickly on site.

Advantages of glazed curtain walls:

•Modern and attractive appearance
•Maximum daylight entry
•Reduced building weight
•Improved thermal and sound insulation
•Faster construction for high-rise buildings
Glazed curtain walls are widely used in skyscrapers, shopping malls, airports, hotels, and commercial office buildings.

Window construction process is exactly the same as door construction.

Thank You