Chapter 10

Computer Networks
Introduction
• A computer network is a interconnection of two or more computers that are able to exchange information’s.
• Two computers are said to be inter connected if they are capable of exchanging information.
Evolution of networking
• in the 1960s a research project was commissioned by Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) in the U.S. Department of Defence to connect the academic and research institutions
located at different places for scientific collaborations.
• The first message was communicated between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and
Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
1961 - The idea of Advanced Research Project Agency Network (ARPANET) is conceptualized.
1969 - ARPANET became functional by connecting UCLA and SRI.
1971 - Roy Tomlinson develops network messaging or E-mail. Symbol @ comes to mean "at"
1974 - The term Internet was coined, First commercial use of ARPANET, was started in the name of Telenet.
1982 - TCP/IP introduced as standard protocol on ARPANET.
1983 - Domain Name System introduced.
1986 - National Science Foundation brings connectivity to more people with its NSFNET program.
1990 - The Berners-Lee at CERN developed HTML and URL, thus giving birth to World Wide Web (www).
1997 - First version of Wi-fi (802.11) standard was introduced.
Types of network:
• A computer network means a group of networked components, i.e., computers are linked by means of
a communication system.
• There are three types of network.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
Personal Area Network (PAN) :
• It is a network formed by connecting a few personal devices like computers, laptops, mobile phones,
smart phones, printers etc.,
• All these devices lie within an approximate range of 10 metres.
• A personal area network may be wired or wireless. For example, a mobile phone connected to the
laptop through USB forms a wired PAN while two smartphones communicating with each other
through Bluetooth technology form a wireless PAN or WPAN.
Local Area Network (LAN) :
• Privately owned small networks that are confined to a localized area (e.g., an office, a building or a
factory) are known as Local Area Networks (LANs).
• The key purpose of a LAN is to serve its users in resource sharing.
• The hardware as well as software resources are shared through LANs.
• LAN users can share data, information, programs, printers, hard disk, modems, etc.
 • It is fast with speed from 10 MBPS to 10 GBPS.
• LAN Configuration consists of:
1. A File Server: Stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the software that can
be shared by the computers attached to the network.
2. A Workstation: Computers connected to the file server. These are less powerful than the file server.
3. Cables: Used to connect the network interface cards on each computer.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :
• Metropolitan Area Network is the networks spread over a city.
• MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 KM.
• The purpose of a MAN is also the sharing of hardware and software resources among its users.
• For example, cable TV networks that are spread over a city can be termed as metropolitan area networks.
Wide Area Network (WAN) :
• The networks spreads across countries are known as WANs.
• A wide Area Network (WAN) is a group of computers that are separated by large distances and tied together.
• The largest WAN in existence is the internet.
• It can even be a group of LAN that are spread across several locations and connected and together to look
like one big LAN.
• The WANs link computers to facilitate fast and efficient exchange of information at lesser costs and higher
speeds.

Network Devices:
To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure networks with different
functionality, we require different devices like Modem, Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc.
Modem:
• Modem means Modulation/ Demodulation.
• A modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and communicate with other computers via
telephone lines.
• Modulation: A modem changes the digital data from your computer into analog data, a format that can be
carried by telephone lines.
• Demodulation: The modem receiving the call then changes the analog signal back into digital data that the
computer can digest.
• The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and demodulates at the receiving end.
Internal modems: The modems that are fixed within the computer.
 External modems: The modems that are connected externally to a computer as other peripherals are
connected.
RJ-45
• RJ-45 is short for Registered Jack-45 is an eight-wire connector, which is commonly used to connect
computers on the local area networks i.e., LANs especially Ethernets.
• The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector.
Ethernet Card:
• The computer that are part of Ethernet, have to install our special card called Ethernet card.
• It is LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp association with DEC and Intel.
• It make use of Bus or Star topology and data transfer rates of 10 Mbps.
• An Ethernet card contains connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both).
• If it is designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be BNC.
• If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection.
• Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber
optical cables to an Ethernet card.
Hub :
• A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together.
• A concentrator is device that provides a central connection point for cables from workstations, servers, and
peripherals.
• In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each workstation to a central concentrator.
• Types of hub:
• Active hubs:  It electrically amplifies the signal as it moves from one connected device to another.
 Active concentrators are used like repeaters to extend the length of a network.
• Passive hubs:  It allows the signal to pass from one computer to another without any change.
Switch:
• The switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components.
• The switch is like Hub but built in with advanced features.
• The switch connects the source and destination directly which increases the speed of the network.
Repeater:
• A Repeater is network device that amplifies and restore signals for long-distance transmission.
• It is used in long network lines, which exceed the maximum rated distance for a single run.
Router:
• A router works like a bridge but can handle different protocols.
• A Router is a network device that is used to separate different segments in a network to improve
performance and reliability.
Gateway :
• The term gateway is applied to a device, system or software application which has internetwork capability of
joining dissimilar network.
• It is node on network that provides entry to another network.
• It performs data translation and protocol conversions which is suitable to other network.
• Example: It needs to convert Ethernet traffic from the LAN to SNA (System Network Architecture). It then
routes SNA traffic to Mainframe. When Mainframe answers, the reverse process occurs.
• Gateway can be implemented on software, hardware or a combination of both.
• Gateway is that only the data format is translated, not the data itself.
Network Topologies
• Network Topology refers to the arrangement of computers and other devices in a network.
• Need for Topologies are: Cost, Flexibility, and Reliability.
• Network topologies can be classified as follows:
1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Hybrid Topology

1. Linear or bus Topology:

• A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end.
• All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
• In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable called the bus.
• Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in the network.
• Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
- Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
- Requires less cable length than a star topology.
• Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
- Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
- Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
- Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
- Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
2. Star Topology :
* In this type of topology, all the computers are connected to a single hub or a switch through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
• Advantages of a Star Topology
- Easy to install and wire.
- No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
- Easy to detect faults.
• Disadvantages of a Star
- Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
- If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
- More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.
[Link] topology
• In a ring topology, all computers are connected via cable that loops in a ring or circle.
• A ring topology is a circle that has no start and no end.
• Each node connected to two neighbouring computers.
• Data accepted from one node transmitted to another.
• Data travels in one direction, from the node to node around the ring.
• Signal amplified at each node before being passed.
• Advantages of Ring Topology
- Short cable length
- No wiring closet space required
- Suitable for optical fibers.
- Each client has equal access to resources.
• Disadvantages
- Node failure causes network failure
- Difficult to diagnose faults
- Network reconfiguration is difficult
[Link] Topology:
• A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies.
• It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
• The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected together.
• The central computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network is a bus
network of star networks.
• Best suited for applications having hierarchical flow of data and control.
• Advantages of a Tree Topology
- Point-to-Point wiring for individual segments.
- Supported by several hardware and software venders.
- Network can be easily extended.
• Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
- Use large cable length.
- If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
- More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
[Link] Topology:
• In this topology each node is connected to two or more than two nodes.
• It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices.
• Traffic is carried only between two devices or nodes to which it is connected.
• This topology is robust, provides security and privacy.
• Overall cost of this network is too high.
Identifying nodes In a networked communication
Each node in a network should be uniquely identified so that a network device can identify the sender and
receiver and decide a routing path to transmit data.
MAC Address :
• MAC stands for Media Access Control.
• The MAC address, also known as the physical or hardware address, is a unique value associated with a
network adapter called a NIC.
• The MAC address is engraved(printed) on NIC at the time of manufacturing and thus it is a permanent
address and cannot be changed under any circumstances.
• Each MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length), of which the first six digits
(24 bits) contain the manufacturer’s ID called Organisational Unique Identifier (OUI) and the later
six digits (24 bits) represents the serial number assigned to the card by the manufacturer.

IP Address
• IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address, is also a unique address that can be used to
uniquely identify each node in a network.
• It can change if the device connects to different network.
• Used to globally identify devices over internet
• The initial IP Address called version 4 (IPV4 in short) is a 32 bit numeric address, written as
four numbers separated by periods(dots). representation for an 8-bit binary number and each
can take any value from 0 – 255.
• A sample IPV4 address looks like: [Link]
With more and more devices getting connected to the Internet, it was realised that the 32-bit IP address
will not be sufficient as it offers just under 4.3 billion unique addresses.
• Thus, a 128 bits IP address, called IP version 6 (IPV6 in short) was proposed. An IPv6 address is
represented by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons.
• A sample IPV6 address looks like: [Link]
Internet
The Internet is the global network of computing devices including desktop, laptop, servers, tablets, mobile
phones, other handheld devices, printers, scanners, routers, switches, gateways, etc.
The architecture of the Internet.
1. Computers are either connected to a modem through a cable or wirelessly (Wi Fi).
2. That modem, be it wired or wireless, is connected to a local Internet Service Provider (ISP).
3. then connects to a national network.
4. Many such ISPs connect together forming a regional network and regional networks connect together
forming a national network.
The World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW) or web in short, is an ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions of
interlinked web pages and web resources. The resources on the web can be shared or accessed through the
Internet.
Sir Tim Berners-Lee — a British computer scientist invented the revolutionary World Wide Web in 1990 by
defining three fundamental technologies that lead to creation of web:
1. HTML – Hypertext Markup Language. It is a language which is used to design standardised Web
Pages so that the Web contents can be read and understood from any computer.
2. URI – Uniform Resource Identifier. It is a unique address or path for each resource located on the web.
It is also known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Every page on the web has a unique URL.

3. HTTP – The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a set of rules which is used to retrieve linked web pages
across the web. The more secure and advanced version is HTTPS.
Domain name system
• The Internet is a vast ocean where information is available in the form of millions of websites.
• Each website is stored on a server which is connected to the Internet, which means each server has an
IP address.
• Every device connected to the Internet has an IP address.
• To access a website, we need to enter its IP address on our web browser.
• But it is very difficult to remember the IP addresses of different websites as they are in terms of
numbers or strings.
• however, it is easier to remember names, and therefore, each computer server hosting a website or web
resource is given a name against its IP address. These names are called the Domain names or
hostnames corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to each server.

DNS Server
Instead of remembering IP addresses, we assign a domain name to each IP. But, to access a web resource, a
browser needs to find out the IP address corresponding to the domain name entered.
Conversion of the domain name of each web server to its corresponding IP address is called domain name
resolution. It is done through a server called DNS server.
How it works :
1. You type a URL in your browser (ex: www. [Link]).
2. Your browser contacts a DNS server to find the IP address.
3. The DNS server replies with the correct IP (ex : [Link]).
4. Your browser uses the IP to retrieve the webpages.