Radioactivity and Particles

Edexcel IGCSE Physics – Detailed Notes

1. Atomic Structure
Structure of an Atom

An atom consists of:

● Nucleus (very small, very dense)

○ Protons (positive charge)

○ Neutrons (no charge)

● Electrons (negative charge) orbit the nucleus

Properties of Subatomic Particles

Particle Relative Charge Relative Mass

Proton +1 1

Neutron 0 1

Electron –1 Very small (≈ 1/1836)

Atomic Number (Z)

● Number of protons
 ● Determines the element

● In a neutral atom:

number of protons = number of electrons

Mass Number (A)

● Total number of protons + neutrons

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have:

● Same number of protons

● Different number of neutrons

Example:

● Carbon-12

● Carbon-14

Isotopes:

● Have the same chemical properties

● Have different nuclear properties (e.g. stability)

2. Radioactivity
Definition

Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random emission of radiation from an unstable

nucleus.
Key points:

● Happens naturally

● Cannot be predicted when a nucleus will decay

● Not affected by temperature or pressure

Why Some Nuclei Are Unstable

● Too many neutrons or protons

● Large nuclei become unstable

● They decay to become more stable

3. Types of Radiation
There are three main types of nuclear radiation:

Alpha (α) Radiation

Nature

● Helium nucleus (2 protons + 2 neutrons)

Properties

● Charge: +2

● Mass: Large

● Speed: Slow

Penetration

● Very low
 ● Stopped by paper or skin

Ionising Ability

● Very high

Uses

● Smoke detectors

Danger

● Not dangerous outside the body

● Very dangerous if inhaled or swallowed

Beta (β) Radiation

Nature

● Fast-moving electron

Properties

● Charge: –1

● Mass: Very small

● Speed: Fast

Penetration

● Medium

● Stopped by thin aluminium

Ionising Ability

● Medium
Uses

● Thickness control in paper or foil

Gamma (γ) Radiation

Nature

● Electromagnetic wave

Properties

● No mass

● No charge

● Travels at speed of light

Penetration

● Very high

● Reduced by thick lead or concrete

Ionising Ability

● Low

Uses

● Medical imaging

● Cancer treatment

● Sterilising equipment

Summary Table (Very Important)

 Radiation Charge Mass Penetration Ionisation

Alpha +2 Large Low Very high

Beta –1 Small Medium Medium

Gamma 0 None Very high Low

4. Nuclear Decay Equations

Alpha Decay

● Mass number decreases by 4

● Atomic number decreases by 2

Example:

Uranium → Thorium + alpha particle

Beta Decay

● Neutron turns into a proton

● Atomic number increases by 1

● Mass number stays the same

Gamma Emission

● No change in mass or atomic number

● Releases excess energy

5. Detection of Radiation
Geiger–Müller (GM) Tube

● Detects radiation

● Produces electrical pulses

● Connected to a counter or speaker

Background Radiation

Radiation that is always present in the environment.

Sources:

● Cosmic rays

● Rocks and soil

● Radon gas

● Medical procedures

● Nuclear power stations

6. Half-Life
Definition

Half-life is the time taken for:

● Half of the radioactive nuclei to decay

OR

● The activity to halve

Key Points

● Different isotopes have different half-lives

● Can range from seconds to millions of years

● Used in:

○ Carbon dating

○ Medical tracers

Calculating Half-Life

If:

● Starting count = 800

● After 1 half-life → 400

● After 2 half-lives → 200

● After 3 half-lives → 100

7. Uses of Radioactivity
Medical Uses

● Gamma rays to kill cancer cells

● Radioactive tracers for diagnosis

Industrial Uses

● Thickness monitoring

● Leak detection

8. Dangers and Safety

Dangers

● Damages living cells

● Can cause mutations

● Can cause cancer

Safety Measures

● Lead shielding

● Distance from source

● Minimise exposure time

● Protective clothing

9. Exam Keywords (Very Important)

● Spontaneous
 ● Random

● Ionising

● Penetration

● Background radiation

● Half-life

● Unstable nucleus

Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

1. Nuclear Fission
Definition

Nuclear fission is the process in which a large, unstable nucleus (usually uranium-235 or
plutonium-239) splits into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy and neutrons.

How Nuclear Fission Occurs (Step-by-Step)

1. A slow-moving neutron is absorbed by a uranium-235 nucleus.

2. The uranium nucleus becomes unstable.

3. The nucleus splits into two smaller “daughter nuclei”.

4. 2–3 neutrons are released.

5. A large amount of energy is released.

This energy appears mainly as:

● Kinetic energy of the daughter nuclei

● Which then becomes thermal (heat) energy

Energy Released in Fission

● The daughter nuclei move away at very high speed

● This gives them kinetic energy

● Their kinetic energy is transferred to surrounding materials as heat

Exam answer:
The type of energy released is kinetic energy (which becomes thermal
energy).

2. Chain Reaction
What Is a Chain Reaction?

● The neutrons released from one fission reaction can cause further fission reactions.

● This creates a self-sustaining chain reaction.

Types of Chain Reactions

● Uncontrolled chain reaction → atomic bomb

● Controlled chain reaction → nuclear reactor

3. Controlled Nuclear Fission

Definition

Controlled nuclear fission is when the number of neutrons causing further fission is carefully
regulated, so energy is released at a steady rate.

Explanation in Terms of Neutrons (Exam Style)

● Each fission releases 2–3 neutrons

 ● Not all neutrons are allowed to cause further fission

● Some neutrons are absorbed by control rods

● This keeps the reaction stable and safe

Key phrase for marks:

“Only one neutron from each fission causes another fission.”

4. Main Parts of a Nuclear Reactor and Their Functions

Fuel Rod

● Contains uranium-235

● Where fission occurs

Moderator

● Usually graphite or water

● Slows down fast neutrons

● Slow neutrons are more likely to cause further fission

Role of the moderator (2 marks):

● Slows down neutrons

● So they can cause more fission reactions

Control Rods

● Made of boron or cadmium

● Absorb excess neutrons

● Control the rate of fission

 ● Can be lowered to slow or stop the reaction

Coolant

● Removes thermal energy from the reactor

● Transfers heat to make steam

● Steam turns turbines to generate electricity

Shielding

● Absorbs dangerous radiation

● Protects workers and environment

5. Summary of Energy Changes in a Reactor

1. Nuclear energy → released during fission

2. Converted to kinetic energy of particles

3. Becomes thermal energy

4. Used to produce electrical energy

6. Nuclear Fusion
Definition

Nuclear fusion is the process where two small nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus,
releasing a very large amount of energy.
Example of Fusion

● Two hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium

● Happens in the Sun and stars

Conditions Required for Fusion

● Extremely high temperature (millions of °C)

● Extremely high pressure

● Needed to overcome electrostatic repulsion

Why Fusion Is Difficult on Earth

● Very hard to maintain such high temperatures

● Difficult to contain the reaction safely

7. Fission vs Fusion (Comparison)

Feature Fission Fusion

Type of nuclei Large, unstable Small, light

Process Splitting Joining

Fuel Uranium / Plutonium Hydrogen

Waste Radioactive Very little

Where it occurs Nuclear reactors Sun and stars

Control Possible Very difficult

5. Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of Nuclear Fission

● Reliable source of electricity

● Produces large amounts of energy

● Low greenhouse gas emissions

Disadvantages of Nuclear Fission

● Produces dangerous radioactive waste

● Risk of nuclear accidents

● Fuel is non-renewable

Advantages of Nuclear Fusion

● Very high energy output

● Fuel is abundant (hydrogen)

● Minimal radioactive waste

● No risk of runaway reactions

Disadvantages of Nuclear Fusion

● Requires extremely high temperatures

● Difficult to control

● Not yet commercially viable