LOADS &
Load Types
1. Dead Loads (D)
• Definition: Permanent loads that remain constant over time.
The weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building, including walls,
floors, roofs, and fixed service equipment.
• Examples:
➛ Self-weight of structural components (beams, slabs, columns, etc.)
➛ Fixed architectural elements (walls, ceilings)
➛ Permanent equipment (mechanical systems, built-in furniture)
2. Live Loads (L)
• Definition: Loads that are transient or movable, not permanently applied to the structure.
• Examples:
➛ People
➛ Furniture
➛ Vehicles (in garages or parking structures)
• Characteristics:
- Vary over time
- Not always present
- Must be estimated based on use and occupancy (usually from ASCE 7)
3. Earth and Fluid Pressure Loads
• Soil Pressure: On retaining walls, basement walls, etc.
• Hydrostatic Pressure: From water or fluids acting on structures.
• Uplift Forces: From groundwater under slabs or footings.
4. Construction Loads
• Temporary loads that occur during the construction phase.
• Includes:
➛ Weight of formwork and fresh concrete
➛ Construction workers and equipment
➛ Must be considered to avoid overloading partially completed structures
5. Environmental Loads
a. Wind Loads (W)
• Lateral and uplift forces caused by wind.
• Structures must resist both pressure and suction forces.
b. Earthquake Loads (E)
• Inertial forces induced by ground motion.
• Governed by seismic design provisions in ACI 318, especially Chapter 18.
• Seismic forces include horizontal and vertical components.
c. Snow Loads (S)
• Vertical loads from accumulated snow on roofs.
• Snow drift and sliding need to be considered.
d. Rain Loads (R)
• Weight of rainwater that can accumulate due to blocked drainage or ponding.
e. Thermal Loads (T)
• Changes in temperature cause expansion or contraction in materials.
• Can induce stresses if movement is restrained.
• Considered especially in bridges, pavements, and large concrete structures.
6. Shrinkage and Creep Effects
• Not directly a “load” but cause internal stresses and deformations over time.
• Must be considered in long-term deflection calculations and crack control.
7. Settlement Loads
• Caused by differential settlement of foundations.
• Can induce significant stresses and cracking in rigid structures.
Load Directions
1. Gravity Loads (Vertical)
These are the most common and include forces acting downward or upward (along the gravity
axis):
a. Downward Loads:
• Dead Load (D) Soil heave is the upward movement of soils Wind uplift occurs when the pressure
which can occur at any stage of the building below the roof is greater than the
• Live Load (L) or development process. The most likely pressure above. This can be
• Snow Load (S) cause is excessive water absorption by the intensified during high winds, as air
• Rain Load (R) soil (most commonly shrink-swell soils such infiltrates into the building, causing
as clay or silt), often due to leaking drains, a an increase in air pressure below the
b. Upward Loads:
change in the water table, or flooding. roof, while the speed of the wind over
• Wind uplift Freezing and the subsequent expansion of the roof reduces the air pressure
• Hydrostatic uplift trapped water can also lead to ground heave. above it.
• Soil heave
ACI Context:
• Slabs, beams, and footings are mainly designed for vertical loads.
• Uplift forces are checked in roof systems and foundations (ACI 318 Section 9 & 13).
2. Lateral Loads (Horizontal)
These loads act laterally (in-plane with floors or walls), usually perpendicular to the vertical
structural system:
a. Wind Load (W)
• Acts horizontally on walls, frames, or roof diaphragms.
• Can cause overturning and sliding.
b. Seismic Load (E)
• Primarily lateral, can act in any horizontal direction.
• ACI 318 Chapter 18 (Earthquake-Resistant Structures) specifies:
➛ Structures must resist forces in two orthogonal horizontal directions.
➛ Torsional effects due to asymmetry must also be considered.
c. Earth Pressure / Lateral Soil Loads
• Act horizontally on retaining walls and basement walls.
ACI Contxt:
• Lateral load-resisting systems include shear walls, moment frames, and braced frames.
• Diaphragms and collectors are used to transfer lateral loads (Chapter 12 & 18).
3. Longitudinal and Transverse Directions
In more complex structures (especially seismic design), ACI 318 requires that loads be
considered in both:
• Longitudinal direction (along the length of the building or element)
• Transverse direction (perpendicular to the longitudinal axis)
ACI Requirement:
• Seismic design requires load to be applied in each principal direction.
• For irregular structures, ACI 318 mandates combination of orthogonal load effects
(Chapter 18).
Load Distribution
1. Concentrated Load (Point Load)
Definition: A force applied at a single point on a structural member.
Examples:
• Column load.
• Heavy equipment on a floor.
Behavior:
• Causes localized stress concentration.
• Can create punching shear or bearing issues.
• Must be checked for shear and flexural capacity around the application point.
ACI Reference:
• Punching shear at slab-column connections (ACI 318-19 Chapter 22).
• Bearing strength limits around concentrated loads (Chapter 10).
2. Linear Load (Line Load)
Definition:
A load distributed along a line, such as along the length of a beam or wall.
Examples:
• Load from a wall bearing on a slab or beam.
• Load from a row of lockers or piping.
• Edge load on a footing.
Behavior:
• Load per unit length (e.g., kN/m or lb/ft).
• Induces bending and shear in members like beams and slabs.
• Often simplified in design as uniformly distributed load (UDL).
ACI Reference:
• Design of beams under uniform or varying distributed loads (Chapter 9).
• Wall loads on foundations or slabs (Chapters 13 and 15).
3. Area Load (Surface Load)
Definition: A load spread over an area, typically uniformly.
Examples:
• Live load on a floor slab (people, furniture).
• Dead load from slab self-weight.
• Snow or rain on a roof.
Behavior:
• Load per unit area (e.g., kN/m² or psf).
• Distributed to supporting beams or columns based on tributary area.
• In two-way slabs, load is distributed to all adjacent supports.
ACI Reference:
• One-way and two-way slab design (Chapters 8 and 13).
• Floor systems subject to uniform loads (based on occupancy and use from ASCE 7).
LOADS
TYPES DIRECTIONS DISTRIBUTION
1. Dead Loads 1. Gravity Loads 1. Concentrated (Point) Loads
2. Live Loads ➛ Dead Loads 2. Linear Loads
3. Earth and Fluid PressuIre Loads ➛ Live Loads
3. Area Loads
4. Construction Loads ➛ Rain Loads
5. Environmental Loads ➛ Snow Loads
➛ Snow Loads 2. Lateral Loads
➛ Rain Loads ➛ Wind Loads
➛ Earthquake (Seismic) Loads ➛ Earthquake (Seismic)Loads
➛ Thermal Loads ➛ Earth Pressure
6. Settlement Loads ➛ Fluid Pressure
7. Shrinkage and Creep effects 3. Longitudinal
➛ Thermal Loads
➛ Creep