WEEK 1

Objective of Remedial Instructions

A. Objective of Remedial Instructions

Each pupil is different in terms of learning ability, academic standards,

classroom learning and academic performance, and each has his own in
learning. The aim of IRTP is to provide learning support to pupils who lag far
behind their counterparts in school performance. By adapting school curricula
and teaching strategies, teachers can provide learning activities and practical
experiences to students according to their abilities and needs. They can also
design individualized educational programmes with intensive remedial support
to help pupils consolidate their basic knowledge indifferent subjects, master
the learning methods, strengthen their confidence and enhance the
effectiveness of learning.

WEEK 2-3
The Remedial Instruction: Organization of the
Remedial Classroom

1. Organization

A. Curriculum

 Based goals and standards for language learning on theory and

research.
 Relate teacher beliefs and knowledge about instruction to research.
 Organize the curriculum framework so that it is usable.
 Select materials that facilitate accomplishment of school goals.

B. Instruction

 The program must identify Instructional strategies and activities for

leamers.
 Instruction must be based upon what we know about the effective
teaching of language skills
 Those Involved in designing or selecting Instructional activities need
to consider the variables that contribute to success in language
learning, given its interactive and constructive nature.
 Time must be provided in the classroom for practice.
 Composing should be an integral part of the program.

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  Students should be given opportunities to become independent and to
self-monitor their progress.
 The climate in a school must be conducive to the development of
students.
 The school must develop an organizational structure that meets
individual needs of students.
 The program must provide coordination among all language programs
offered in the school.

C. Assessment

 Use assessment to guide instruction

 Develop scoring guides and rubrics
 Seek alignment among various layers of assessment

2. Management

 School-based remedial sessions tend to involve 3-10 learners, and

typically last between 30-50 minutes, depending on whether they are in
the elementary or secondary level.

A. Six Component of Remediation

1. The orientation component.

These are preparatory activities, preparation for a job or an activity. The

orientation component provides continuity and focus to the remedial session. It
may be an engaging question or statement related to local or national news, or
even school life. It must focus on structured routines, materials, equipment,
venue, people involved, and the objective of the program.

2. Direct Instruction Component.

Direct instruction refers to teacher-directed teaching methods. The

teachers give explicit, guided instructions to the students:

(1) instructional approaches that are structured, sequenced, and led by

teachers, and/or

(2) the presentation of academic content to students by teachers, such

as in a lecture or demonstration.

In other words, teachers are "directing" the instructional process or

instruction is being "directed at students. This is the instructional heart of the
remedial session. It should never be traded away, even for one period, without
some compelling reason.

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 3. Reinforcement and Extension Component.

Reinforcement is used to increase appropriate behaviors. It is the process

of encouraging or establishing a belief or pattern of behavior, especially by
encouragement or reward. This period ideally should build on the direct
instructional period and be spent in empowered reading, writing, and
discussion of what was read. Writing activities may vary from simply listing key
words to summarizing and reacting.

4. Schema-Enhancement Component.

Schema is the basic building block of intelligent behavior, a way of

organizing knowledge. We want the children's schemata to be enhanced
through remedial instruction. This unit of time should be spent building a
knowledge base for further reading and independent thinking. It is an ideal
time to teach study skills such as outlining, note-taking, and memory training.
Ideally, it should flow or precede Component 3.

5. Personal-Emotional Growth Development.

There is little learning or consequence that can occur without the

learner's involvement and anticipation of personal progress.

6. Cognitive Development Component.

This component should contain an attempt to enhance basic thinking

operations such as inference, abstract verbal reasoning, analogical reasoning,
constructive-critical/ creative reading. convergent and divergent analysis,
problem-solving, and metacognition.

WEEK 4
Principles of Helping Pupils with Learning Difficulties

Remediation in the Classroom

Remedial education (also known as developmental education, basic

skills education, compensatory education, preparatory education, and
academic upgrading) is assigned to assist students in order to achieve
expected competencies in core academic skills such as literacy and numeracy.

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Two Types of Remediation

A. Short-term remediation - is designed to get students ready for the

summative assessment
B. On-going remediation - focuses on long-term skill development to
address large gaps in background knowledge or basic skills. All
remediation usually occurs outside the classroom.

Characteristics of Learning Among Pupils with Learning Difficulties

Pupils under intensive Remedial Teaching Program (IRTP) usually have

one or more than one of the following learning difficulties:

 Poor memory
 Short attention span and easily distracted by other things
 Relatively poor comprehensive power
 Lack of learning motivation
 Lack of self-confidence and relatively low self-expectation
 Weak in problem-solving power
 Fail to grasp information effectively and mix things up easily
 Have difficulty understanding new/abstract concepts
 Fail to transfer knowledge to the related learning areas appropriately
 Need more time to complete assignments or tasks

Apart from various learning difficulties, pupils may have different abilities
and styles of learning. Some are better in visual learning while others are more
competent in audio learning. Certain pupils have to learn through sense of
touch or practical experiences. Remedial teachers, therefore, should design
diversified teaching activities and adopt various teaching methods to help
students develop their potential and remove the obstacles to learning.

Remedial Teaching

Remedial teaching is intended for students who, for one reason or

another, have fallen behind the rest of the class. At the beginning of a remedial
course. the teacher has to assess with care, the strengths and weaknesses of
her students. The remedial class teacher is expected to pay greater attention
to individual weaknesses and needs. The ultimate aim is to help such students
learn to the best of their ability and to bring them back into the mainstream
classes as far as possible (Handbook on Remedial Teaching in Secondary
Schools, 1997).

Remedial Teaching should be started immediately when the difficulties in

learning or school attendance have been noticed so that the students would
not stay behind permanently in their studies. Remedial teaching can counteract
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difficulties beforehand. Remedial teaching should be organized according to a
plan and as often as necessary.

1. Characteristics of remedial teaching are individually planned tasks,

time management, and guidance.

Diverse methods and materials are used in remedial teaching, with which
new ways can be found to approach the subject that is to be learned. In
proactive remedial teaching, the new things that are to be learned are
introduced beforehand. Remedial teaching can also answer the need for
support that arises from absences. Schoolwork is planned in such a way that
every student can participate in remedial teaching if need be. Remedial
teaching is given either during the lessons to which the need for support is
connected, or outside lessons

2. Various flexible groups are used in remedial teaching.

The initiative about giving remedial teaching is primarily done by the

teacher. It can also be done by the student or guardian. The task of each
teacher is to monitor the learning and growth of the student and the possible
needs for support that may arise. Remedial teaching is organized in mutual
understanding with the student and the guardian. They will be given
information about the forms of remedial support and its importance to learning
and school attendance. Students are obligated to participate in the remedial
teaching that has been organized for them.

3. Remedial teaching is given at all levels of support.

Objectives of Remedial Teaching (Education Bureau in Hongkong,

2007)

1. To provide learning support to pupils who lag far behind their

counterparts in school performance. By adapting school curricula and
teaching strategies, teachers can:
2. Provide learning activities and practical experiences to students
according to their abilities and needs.
3. Design individualized educational programs with intensive remedial
support to help pupils consolidate their basic knowledge in different
subjects, master the learning methods, strengthen their confidence, and
enhance the effectiveness of learning.
4. Provide systematic training to develop pupils' generic skills: interpersonal
relationships, communication, problem-solving, self-management, self-
learning, independent thinking, creativity, and the use of information
technology

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 Throughout the teaching process, teachers should provide systematic
training to develop pupils generic skills, including interpersonal relationships.
communication, problem-solving, self-management, self-learning, independent
thinking, creativity, and the use of information technology. Such training can
lay the foundation for pupils' life-long learning, help them develop positive
attitudes and values, as well as prepare them for future studies and careers.

Principles of Helping Pupils with Learning Difficulties

1. Teaching preparation
 Before preparing for their lessons, remedial teachers should identify
pupils' diverse learning needs as soon as possible so that they may
design appropriate teaching plans to facilitate pupils' effective learning.

2. Devise various learning activities

 Since pupils have different characteristics in learning, teachers must
devise different learning activities with the same teaching objective to
develop pupils varied abilities and skills in problem solving. It is more
effective for teachers to adopt a series of relevant and simple teaching
activities than assigning one long teaching activity since pupils may
acquire the required knowledge and skills through diversified activities.

3. Design meaningful learning situations

 Remedial teachers should specifically design meaningful learning
situations, language environments (especially for English subject),
games or activities so as to provide personal learning experiences for
pupils and stimulate their interest and initiative in learning.

4. Teaching approaches
 Teachers should give concrete examples before proceeding to abstract
concepts by way of simple and easy steps at a pace in line with the
learning abilities of students. Teachers may teach new concepts from
different perspectives by various approaches so that pupils can grasp
the ideas through meaningful and repeated Illustrations. Teachers should
encourage pupils' active participation by more frequent use of teaching
aids, games and activities. They can also make use of information
technology and all the teaching resources available to help pupils
understand the main points.

5. Provide clear instructions

 Pupils with learning difficulties are less competent in understanding
written language. Therefore, remedial teachers should give pupils short
and clear instructions to avoid confusion. They must explain clearly the
arrangement of each learning activity. If necessary, they may ask pupils

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 to repeat the steps of activities so that every pupil may understand the
instructions.

6. Summarize the main points

 At the course of teaching, teachers should always sum up the main
points in teaching and write the key phrases on the board to enhance
pupils' audio and visual memories. Teachers can guide their pupils to link
up the knowledge they learn from class with their life experiences so as
to enhance the effectiveness of learning. Besides, guiding pupils to
repeat the main points in verbal or written form is also an effective way
of learning.

7. Enhance learning interest and motivation

 Suffering from frequent frustrations in their work, pupils with learning
difficulties may gradually lose their Interest in learning. Therefore,
teachers should adapt the curriculum to meet the needs of pupils. With
lesser pupils in the IRTP, teachers can design interesting activities
coupled with reward scheme to stimulate pupils' interest. It is most
important to help pupils overcome their learning difficulties so that they
may gain a sense of achievement and recover their confidence and
interest in learning.

8. Encourage pupils' active participation in class activities

 Pupils with learning difficulties usually lack self-confidence and are more
passive in class. They seldom ask questions or express their views.
Remedial teachers should patiently encourage active participation in
class Pleasurable learning experiences may help enhance pupils’ interest
in learning.

9. Focus on the learning process

 Teaching should not only focus on the transmission of knowledge. It is
also important to see that pupils benefit from the entire learning
process. Teachers should provide ample opportunities in class for pupils
to practice and think what they have learnt and allow them to solve
problems by different means. Teachers should also carefully observe the
performances of pupils and give them appropriate assistance, feedback
and encouragement so as to help them acquire the learning skills, solve
their problems and understand their own capability, thus enhancing self-
confidence and improving their learning skills.

10. Show concern for the performances of individual pupils

 Pupils may encounter different problems in their studies, therefore,
teachers should carefully observe the learning process of individual
pupils in class. Whenever necessary, they should provide individualized
remedial teaching before and after class, during recess or lunchtime, so

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 that they can remove their learning obstacles as soon as possible. When
marking assignments, teachers should take note of the common errors
of pupils and deliver the correct concepts and knowledge to them
promptly.

WEEK 5
Process of Remedial Teaching

Process - A process is a set of steps that are followed in order to achieve a

certain goal or outcome.
Remedial Teaching - Remedial teaching is aimed at providing
personalized instruction and support to help students overcome their
learning deficiencies.
Process of Remedial Teaching - The series of steps or actions involved
in providing targeted instruction to help students overcome specific
learning difficulties and improve their academic performance.

Curriculum Adaptation

a. Remedial teachers should adapt the curriculum to accommodate the

learning characteristics and abilities of pupils. They should set some
teaching objectives which are easy to achieve to ensure that pupils may
acquire the knowledge as desired after the completion of each module.

b. Teaching should not be directed by textbooks which should not be taken

as the school curriculum. There is no need to cover all the contents in the
textbooks as well. Schools can classify the teaching content into core and
non-core learning aspects according to the teaching objectives and
pupils' abilities. Core learning aspects require in-depth studies and
application whereas materials in the non-core or advanced learning
aspects may be streamlined or appropriately selected for teaching.

c. Teachers are encouraged to adopt recommendations on cross-curricular

teaching by linking up related teaching areas flexibly so that more time
can be spared for effective activities and learning.

d. Teachers should make good use of all teaching materials. For example,
they may select and use the materials in textbooks to meet the teaching
objectives, or compile their own supplementary teaching materials. They
may also design materials of different standards. Materials from the
internet, newspapers, magazines and references provided by the

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 Education Department may help teachers design interesting and
enjoyable activities to enhance pupils' effectiveness of learning.

Homework Policies

Schools should formulate clear policies on homework which should be

reviewed regularly. The assignments should be targeted at the teaching
objectives and serve the purposes of learning.

Exercise books available in the market should only serve as a reference.

Schools should choose these exercise books carefully and make appropriate
adjustments to the category, quantity and quality of homework.

Teachers should take note of the following points when designing

homework for pupils:

a. The homework should have clear objectives and can accommodate the level
and needs of pupils,
b. The form and contents of homework should be of a great variety so as to
develop pupils' creativity, self-learning and collaborative skills;
c. The homework should match the content taught in class,
d. Teachers should give simple and clear instructions;
e. Assign an appropriate amount of homework each day;
f. Ineffective and mechanical drills should be avoided; and
g. Teachers should make good use of the homework as a tool for evaluation
and feedback to enhance the motivation and effectiveness of learning.

Formulation of Teaching Plans

When formulating teaching plans, teachers are advised to take the

following aspects into consideration:

 Teachers should formulate practical teaching objectives that meet the

learning characteristics and weaknesses of pupils so as to foster a sense
of achievement.
 Teachers should decide whether the learning items should be taught in
detail or in brief. Moreover, the items should be classified into different
levels and taught through small and simplified steps to facilitate
comprehension as well as to strengthen pupils' confidence in learning.
 With reference to the common difficulties encountered by pupils,
teachers should set down the main points for remedial teaching and
make adjustments promptly according to the performance of students.
 Teachers should make a brief record of the learning aspects, teaching
objectives/aims, key learning points, activities, use of teaching aids and
evaluations for future reference.

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  Teachers may deliver the teaching content by means of modules,
themes, learning aspects of teaching items and work out the teaching
plans accordingly.
 Post-lesson reviews should focus on the teaching process and pupils'
performance, with specific and critical evaluations made.

Examples of main points for review areas follow:

1. the common difficulties of pupils;

2. the effectiveness of teaching strategies and class activities to help pupils
understand the teaching contents, grasp the main points and apply what
they have learned, and
3. issues of concern (e.g. basic knowledge that requires enrichment, the
need to break down or re-arrange teaching steps, etc.)

WEEK 6
TEACHING ACTIVITIES, AIDS, AND SUPPORTING
MATERIALS

Teaching Activities, Aids, And Supporting Materials

Teaching activities encompass a wide range of strategies and methods

employed by educators to facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills to
students.

Teachers should design appropriate learning activities in line with the

focus of teaching. On the basis of low starting point, small steps, diversified
activities and instant feedback, teachers should encourage students to
participate actively during the learning process to help master the skills and
methods of collaborative learning.

Diversified teaching activities such as situational teaching, competitions,

collation of information, discussion, oral reporting, games, topical research,
production of graphs/figures/models, role play, recording, visit and experiments
may help students enhance their interest in learning, stimulate their thinking
and reinforce the effectiveness of teaching.

Teaching aids are objects (such as a book, picture, or map) or devices

(such as a DVD or computer) used by a teacher to enhance or enliven
classroom instruction (Merriam-Webster). It is essential that the teachers
exercise their discretion in the appropriate use of teaching aids.

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 Since appropriate teaching aids not only help to enhance students'
interest in learning, but will also consolidate the knowledge they learned, thus
achieving the objective of teaching. Common teaching aids are concrete
objects, figures, models, word cards, number cards and audio-visual
equipments such as tape recorder, headset, wire free induction loop system
and multimedia teaching aids, etc. When designing and using teaching aids,
teachers should first consider their practical use and assess whether the aim of
remedial teaching can be attained.

Teaching-learning material (TLM) stands for instructional material. It is

defined as resources that organize and support instruction, such as textbooks,
tasks, and supplementary resources (adapted from Remillard & Heck, 2014). It
is used by the teacher to enhance their teaching.

The design and organization of teaching materials should be student-

oriented. They should be selected and collated systematically to serve
the purpose. Teaching materials provided by the Education Department or
other academic institutions may also serve as a reference for teachers.

WEEK 7
Setting of Learning Environment

Setting of Learning Environment

The term learning environment can refer to an educational approach,

cultural context, or physical setting in which teaching and learning occur.

A well-designed learning environment helps to maintain students'

attention and interest in learning and facilitates the achievement of teaching
aims. In this way, it is easier to achieve the aim of teaching.

The teaching environment should be designed to support remedial

teaching and group activities.

Seat arrangements of students should be flexible to meet the specific

teaching purposes of each learning activity. For example, teachers and
students may form a circle when holding discussions; and then, two students or
group members involved may sit together during peer group or small group
learning.

Teachers should prepare a rich, pleasant and comfortable learning

environment for students. For example, they may set up a self-learning corner,
book corner, toy corner, science corner, prize corner or stationery/learning
resources corner, etc. to rekindle students' interest in learning. Teachers may
display the teaching materials of the week or the learning outcomes or
products of students at prominent places to stimulate their motivation in
learning.

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 WEEK 8
Remedial Teaching Strategies
Remedial Teaching Strategies

I. Pull out: Remediation is given by pulling the student out of the

classroom and providing instruction in a small group in a different
environment. This type of instruction can be beneficial to students who
get distracted by other students or frustrated when there is a lot going on
in the classroom. However, it can also make students feel isolated and
separated from the rest of their class. Some students can feel like they
are being left out when they are pulled from classroom instruction.
II. Push in: Remediation is provided by the remedial teacher coming into
the classroom to provide support to the students who need it during a
lesson. This type of instruction is helpful when the student only needs.
minimal support and can also focus well in a whole group setting.
However, this type of remediation can be difficult for students who have
more critical needs and are easily distracted by others. For example, Joey
does better when his remediation teacher comes into his classroom
during lessons. He can ask questions in a small group while remaining in
the classroom with his peers and teacher

Peer Support Programme

Remedial teachers may train students who perform better in a certain

subject to become 'little teachers' and who will be responsible for helping
schoolmates with learning difficulties in group teaching anf self-study sessions
as well as outside class. Peer support programme help students reinforce their
knowledge and develop their communication and cooperation skills as well as
good interpersonal relationships. To enhance the effectiveness of the
programme, remedial teachers must provide training to the students
concerned beforehand and make regular reviews on its effectiveness. Generally
speaking, this programme is more suitable for students of higher grade levels.

Peer Support is a student-led approach to wellbeing. Senior students

are trained as Peer Leaders and lead small groups of younger students in
weekly structured sessions.

The program explores four key concepts: resilience, sense of self,

connectedness, and sense of possibility. Peer Support equips students with the
skills and tools to build strong relationships and positively navigate life.

Students learn the social and emotional literacy skills to better manage
life's ups and downs. The program is supported by research and offers the best
practice approach.
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 This was recently highlighted by the findings of the ACER systematic
review into external wellbeing programs in schools.

The Peer Support Program builds strong relationships, empowers

students, nurtures a sense of belonging, and fosters an anti-bullying culture.

Many schools report that their students have better relationships, an

increased sense of personal responsibility and agency, and a greater feeling of
belonging.

In fact, research into our program has found that 69% of younger
students who participated in the Peer Support Program reported greater
feelings of acceptance and inclusion.

80% of Peer Leaders felt they experienced personal growth, 82% felt they
improved their leadership skills, and 89% improved their confidence.

Reward Scheme

The reward scheme has positive effect in enhancing student's

motivation. It aims at guiding students to set their own objectives and plans,
and positively reinforcing their good performance. No matter what reward is
provided, the most important thing is to help students cultivate an interest in
learning and gain a sense of satisfaction anf achievement during the learning
process. When designing the rewards offered, remedial teachers should take
note of the following:

1. Set clear specific targets (for example: requirement on the score of

dictation and number of assignments submitted);
2. Set achievable objectives;
3. Give diversified rewards (including verbal commendation) or prizes to
accommodate students interest, give rewards instantly,
4. Review and revise the reward scheme regularly, and
5. Invite parents to help children improve their work.

Handling Students' Behavior Problems

Remedial teachers should observe the following when dealing with the
behavior problems of students:

1. Always observe the performance of students in class and their behaviors

in groups;
2. Establish close relationship with the students, develop mutual trust and
listen carefully to what they say;
3. Help students understand the effect of their behavior on the other as well
as their own selves;

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 4. Keep in close contact with parents to find out the cause of a students'
behavior problems;
5. Help students build up self-confidence and a healthy self-image;
6. Give positive reinforcement ato students' good behavior, and do not pay
undue attention to their misbehavior,
7. Do not try to change all the deviant behavior of students at once.
Teachers should list out the problems and set the priorities with an aim to
improve one or two of them at a time;
8. Refer the cases to Student Counsellors/Teachers for follow-up action if the
behavior problems of students continue or become serious. If necessary,
student counsellors officers/teachers may refer the case to the
Psychological Services Section of the Education Department for individual
assessment and remedial services.

Development of Generic Skills

Remedial teachers should help students develop good learning habits

and attitudes, such as completing the assignments tidily, keep their promise
and be responsible and disciplined. A constructive attitude is the foundation for
life-long self-learning, and it helps enhance students' learning effectiveness.

Students should be helped to master basic self- learning skills and

abilities. For example, teachers may teach them how to set appropriate
learning objectives and priorities, time management, note- taking. reading
skills and examination taking skills, etc.

Remedial teachers can also make use of information technology to

motivate and teach students to learn at their own pace, help them cultivate the
habit of self learning, so that they will benefit from such training for their whole
life.

Students can be taught to solve problems by different methods, tools or

by drawing insight from their past experiences. For example, teachers can
teach them the use of dictionaries, as well as the skills of seeking and handling
information obtained from school and public libraries. These are ways to
develop students' flexibility, creativity, and independent thinking.

Teachers should train students to establish good interpersonal

relationships so as to facilitate effective communication and collaboration as
well as to enhance the team spirit of students.

Assessment and Record on Learning

Assessment plays a very important role in teaching and learning. By

means of assessment, remedial teachers can know the learning progress as
well as strengths and weaknesses of students, hence, they may design

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different teaching activities accordingly to help students learn in an effective
manner. Besides, it is also a means to measure the discrepancy between under
achieving students and ordinary students so that teachers may decide whether
it is desirable for the student(s) concerned to withdraw from remedial learning.

The two most common assessment methods are listed as follows for
teachers' reference:

1. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Teachers can understand and assess the learning abilities of students from
their daily classwork and homework as well as individual or group projects,
such as model making, drawing, information collection, measuring activities
and the way they relate daily events to the topics they are learning in class, so
that they can revise the teaching concern accordingly.

2. SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

With reference to the progress of teaching, teachers may assess the

performance of students by means of examinations/tests. The
examinations/test papers must cover all the main points in teaching where the
levels of difficulty meet the students' abilities. The weighting of questions and
marks should be balanced. Different types of questions should be included.

Schools may have different forms and weightings of assessment.

Remedial teachers should keep a detailed personal record for each

underachieving student. They should assess the progress of these students
regularly and systematically. A comprehensive record provides information on
the learning progress of students and serves as a reference.

Liaison with Parents

In order to help students with learning difficulties, schools must liaise

closely with parents. Apart from providing guidance on homework to their
children, parents also handle students' problems either by the same way or
similar ways in line with the requirements of the school and their schoolwork.

Some parents may have unrealistic expectations of their children's

performance. In such cases, remedial teachers have to explain to the parents
about the characteristics and abilities of students so that they may help their
children to learn in a pleasurable manner. On the contrary, some parents'
expectations may be too low. Teachers must then keep in contact with parents
to help them understand their children and to provide appropriate guidance to
develop the students' potential.

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Coordination with Other Teachers and Professionals

Remedial teachers must keep in close contact with other teachers. They
are encouraged to discuss or share their experiences with others to find out
ways to improve students' learning and behavior. For example, they may
discuss on the teaching plans, learning progress of students, test and
examination questions, students' problem behavior and partial or total
withdrawal of students.

Remedial teachers should also liaise with other related professionals to seek
professional support with a view to helping students solve their problems.

Week 9-11
Remedial Instruction In Reading

Remedial Instruction In Reading

Importance Of Remedial Instruction In Reading

When is remediation needed when it comes to reading, which is the most

fundamental part of education? Remedial comes in when the reading level of
students does not match with the outcome of teaching. A remedial reading
program is needed for slow and non-reading students, because reading opens
the door to a number of opportunities for growth and development. An
effective remedial instructor should always be sensitive to the needs of every
learner in her class, and must be concerned with the outcome of her teaching.
She should plan ahead her lessons so that slow learners can keep up with the
level of other pupils in the class. It is also important to provide a specific time
slot for remedial instruction, as teachers should maximize the use of this
opportunity to make pupils master lessons taught and attain quality reading.

Improving the reading ability of students needs a lot of time, effort and
cooperation on the part of the teacher and the students, Remedial reading can
unlock reading difficulty of students, who find it hard to read, pronounce words,
and don't even comprehend what they have read. There are various factors
that can affect the ability and the willingness of the students to read. Through
this program, they will be given the opportunity to love reading again, increase
phonemic awareness, develop skills or effective oral and written
communications, organize and express ideas and develop skillful study habits,
develop correct speech habits which guarantee automatic response in normal
speech situations and helps the students listen and read with comprehension.

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The goal of Remedial Reading is to dramatically reduce the number of students
who have extreme difficulty learning to read and write. Remedial Reading is a
highly effective short-term intervention of tutoring struggling readers in both
an individualized and small group setting. Remedial Reading teachers are
highly trained professionals who work closely with students and design
prescriptive and strategic instruction to address individual student needs. Once
students can meet grade-level expectations and demonstrate that they can
continue to work independently in the classroom, they are released from
Remedial Reading but are still monitored closely to ensure academic success.

A. Correcting Perceptual and Decoding Deficits in Word Recognition

Perpetual

 relating to the ability to interpret or become aware of something through

the senses. (Oxford Dictionary)
 of, relating to, or involving perception especially in relation to immediate
sensory experience (Merriam Webster Dictionary
 percept, relating to the sense of sight

Decoding deficit

A DD is the inability to process and discriminate incoming auditory

information. This deficit manifests itself as a discrimination issue with
misunderstanding information, difficulty hearing in noise, and weaknesses with
language skills such as reading, spelling, and vocabulary. Patients often have
difficulty with sounding out words, discriminating between similar-sounding
words, speech clarity, and word ending discrimination.

B. Definition of Terms

1. Alphabetic Knowledge: understanding that letters represent sound so that

words may be read by saying the sounds represented by the letters, and words
may be spelled by writing the letters representing the sounds in a word.

2. Sight word knowledge

Technically speaking, the term "sight word" refers to any word an individual
can read as a whole word, without sounding it out. High frequency words are
words that commonly occur in print. Because high frequency words appear
repeatedly in texts, it is important for students to recognize these words with
automaticity. These words then become "sight words" for the individual.

Sight word recognition of high frequency words is important

because it increases fluency and allows the reader to focus upon the decoding
of more complex words. As students become more fluent with decoding and
17
sight word recognition, they are better able to focus on comprehending the
text.

Sight words are common words that schools expect kids to recognize
instantly. Words like the, it and appear so often that beginning readers reach
the point where they no longer need to try to sound out these words. They
recognize them by sight.

Building up a large base of sight words help kids become faster, more
fluent readers. When kids master a sight word, they no longer have to pause to
blend its letter-sounds together. And they don't have to think about the spelling
rules.

Some schools call sight words high-frequency words. Other terms for
sight words include star words, core words, and popcorn words. Popcorn,
because these words "pop-up" so frequently in reading and writing.

How do students go from sounding out every printed word to knowing

sight words? The process of storing a word permanently in memory for instant
retrieval is called orthographic mapping (Ehri, 2014, Kilpatrick, 2015). Research
suggests that we scan every single letter of every word we read. Our brains use
what we know about letter-sound relationships plus our awareness of speech
sounds to map letter patterns and words together as units. These units are
stored in long-term memory.

So how do children turn a printed word into a sight word? Creating a sight
word involves forming permanent connections between a word's letters, its
pronunciation, and its meaning in memory (Perfetti, 1992; Rack, Hulme,
Snowling, & Wightman, 1994). To read a word, a connection between a
word's spelling and letter-sounds is key (Ehri, 1992, 1998). A reader must
notice the sequence of letters or spelling, pronounce the word, map the spoken
sounds to the letters through reading and writing the word a few times to
secure it in memory. This process of orthographic mapping (Ehri, 2014;
Kilpatrick, 2015) forms the "glue" that bonds words in memory. Once a reader
has a strong alphabetic mapping "system" in place sight word learning will
occur quickly and easily.

We See A Printed

Our brain uses letter

sound relationships
PLUS our knowledge
of phonemes to
segment and blend
18
 With multiple exposures
and practice, our brains
map the letter sequence
to long-term memory. It
becomes a sight word!
Phonics The “ea” The “ai”
supports pattern in pattern in
learning the “bead” may “said” is
letter-sound be irregular.
knowledge temporarily Draw
needed. irregular until children’s
attention to
the parts of
Example of orthographic mapping

3. Basic sight word

Basic sight words are designated lists of words, usually of high utility.
Sight word lists are typically composed of words from the Revised Dolch List of
Basic Sight Words and Fry's 300 Instant Sight Words, which are also referred to
as Dolch or Fry words Each grade level has ils own set of sight words, and they
progressively build upon each other. Once a child learns the sight words for a
particular grade level, they are expected to know these words in addition to the
new ones introduced in the following grade. Sight words build on each other
from grade to grade, so once a child has learned a set words in kindergarten,
they will need to be able to recognize them as well as the new words
introduced in first grade. This technique is known as scaffolding, and it helps
children to be able to decode new words using the ones they have already
learned.

Here are examples of the sight words kids learn in each grade:

 Kindergarten: but, do, they, have, she, he, with, was, what
 First grade: again, his, after, from, of, her, his, then, when
 Second grade: write, right, which, does, around, goes, been, because,
don't
 Third grade: own, better, eight, carry, light, laugh, only, myself, shail,
together
 Fourth grade: measure, are, certain, piece, body, complete, notice,
usually, questions, unit
 Fifth grade: special, among, shown, course, language, equation,
machine, produce, minutes, quickly

4. Knowledge on sound-symbol correspondence (Graphophonic

Knowledge)

Graphophonic refers to the relationship between the way letters in

written language relate to the sounds of the spoken language. It is a crucial
aspect of reading and writing that plays a significant role in the development of
Literacy skills.

19
 Phonics, the study of the relationship between letters and sounds, is a
critical component of graphophonic knowledge. Children learn to read by
recognizing the sound-letter correspondences in words. For example, they learn
that the letter "D" represents the sound /b/ and that the letter "a" represents
the sound al They then use this knowledge to decode words and read fluently.

However, graphophonic knowledge is not just about recognizing

individual letters and sounds. It also involves understanding how letters work
together to form syllables and words. For example, children learn that the letter
combination "th" represents the sound/th/, and that the letter combination "ee"
represents the sound /eel. They use this knowledge to read words like "the"
and "see"

In addition to phonics, graphophonic knowledge also involves using

background knowledge, context clues, and other cues to construct meaning
from written text. This is known as the three-cueing model of reading. which
emphasizes the Importance of using semantic (word meaning and sentence
context), syntactic (grammatical features), and graphophonic cues to gain
meaning from text.

Here are some examples of how graphophonic knowledge can be used

to help children develop literacy skill:

 Teaching children to recognize common letter combinations, such as

"oh," "sh," and "th," can help them read words more quickly and
accurately.
 Using word families, such as "cat," "bat," and "hat," can help children
understand the relationship between words that have similar letter
patterns and sounds
 Encouraging children to look for context clues, such as pictures,
headings, and captions, can help them understand the meaning of
unfamiliar words

Graphophonic knowledge is a critical component of literacy development

that involves understanding the relationship between letters and sounds in
written language. By teaching children to recognize sound-letter
correspondences, use context clues, and understand the structure of words, we
can help them become skilled readers and writers
([Link] Luay, Rhea Elizabeth B.)

Graphophonic knowledge refers to the understanding of the relationship

between letters and the sounds they represent in written language. This
knowledge is crucial for reading and writing in English. It involves recognizing
letter patterns, understanding the rules of phonics, and being able to decode
words by sounding them out. Additionally, graphophonic knowledge includes
knowledge of the different ways that letters can be pronounced in different
words, such as the silent "e" at the end of some words or the different sounds
that the letter "c" can make depending on the following vowel. Developing

20
strong graphophonic knowledge is essential for becoming a proficient reader
and writer in English. It allows individuals to sound out unfamiliar words and
comprehend the meaning of written text.

Phonics and Graphophonics are two key concepts in the field of reading
instruction that are often used interchangeably, but they have different
meanings and implications for reading development.

Phonics is primarily concerned with the relationship between sounds and

letters in words, and how this knowledge can help readers decode words and
recognize them quickly and accurately. In other words, phonics focuses on the
mechanics of reading and how to sound out words.

On the other hand, Graphophonics is a broader term that encompasses

phonics but also includes other factors that influence reading comprehension,
such as background knowledge, context, and visual cues. Graphophonics
recognizes that reading is not just about decoding words but also about making
meaning from them, and that readers use a variety of strategies to do so.

To illustrate the difference between phonics and Graphophonics, consider

the following example. A beginning reader may use phonics to sound out the
word "cat" based on their knowledge of the sounds of the letters c, a, and t.
However, they may also use Graphophonics to recognize that "cat" is a familiar
word that refers to a small, furry animal that meows. This knowledge helps
them understand the meaning of the word and its context in a sentence.

While phonics is concerned with the mechanics of reading and how to

decode words, Graphophonics is a broader term that includes phonics but also
emphasizes the importance of background knowledge, context, and visual cues
in reading comprehension.

C. Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit

What is a Knowledge Deficit?

Knowledge deficit refers to a lack of cognitive or psychomotor abilities

necessary for health restoration, preservation, or promotion. Nurses are crucial
in identifying and addressing knowledge deficits through client education,
considering the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. Healthcare
providers also contribute to client education, but nurses have a unique
responsibility to provide ongoing education and support. Factors such as age,
cognitive abilities, cultural beliefs, and physical limitations must be considered
when designing an effective teaching plan to meet individual client needs.

What are sight words?

21
  Sight words are common words that kids recognize instantly without
sounding them out.
 Recognizing words by sight helps kids become faster, more fluent
readers.
 Many sight words are tricky to read and spell they aren't spelled the way
they sound.

Sight words are basically the words that appear more frequently than other
words in our reading and writing materials. These words occur so often that the
learners are expected to recognize them easily and quickly. Sight words are not
easily represented by images or graphics. They are not often linked to any
particular subject. That is why we find them repeatedly in various parts of
texts, irrespective of the topic the texts are based on. Teaching these words for
kids will enable them to become proficient readers.

Examples of sight words:

Sight Words Phrases

 Come down here

 My mother is there
 A blue bear
 Pretty please
 Little flower girl
 My birthday cake
 Mountains without sun
 Sometimes it's late
 Upon your word

How can I enhance the study of sight words in my classroom?

 use pictures with words to practice the words

 build word banks of sight words and use them to create sentences
 say, write, and read words repeatedly to develop automaticity
 use timed drills to practice fluency
 use group flash cards by word family
 label objects in the classroom using single words or sentences
 use word walls
 repeat sight word lists
 use matching games using sight words
 use word searches

Properties of Sight Words

Here are certain characteristics of sight words in English language as

mentioned below:

22
  Sight words are high-frequency words and thus appear highly often in
text or speeches.
 Most of the sight words are words that provide a sense to a sentence and
the text as a whole.
 They are majorly helping verbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs and adjectives.
 Sight words are not very easy to represent through images or videos.
(How can one explain 'the' or 'it' or "am" through pictures!)
 Sight words are often phonetically quite random. You won't find sight
words very consistent in terms of the way they are pronounced. Some of
them go in line with the usual rules of phonetics while others don't.
 These are basic sight words that can only be recognized and memorized.
Sight words give meanings to the information that you want to convey.
 There is an increase in the fluency of the language by using sight words
appropriately.
 Though the words seemed to be small but have more weightage in terms
of meaning.

Why are Sight Words Important?

Some of the benefits of learning sight words are mentioned below:

Build Vocabulary: As a parent, you must want your child to develop a

rich vocabulary. The journey of knowing lots of words starts with getting
acquainted with a few words. Sight words are the first set of words that children
would come across very often and thus, should become a part of their
vocabulary soon.

Improves reading: The basic idea of categorizing some words as sight

words is that these become incorporated in an individual's reading and writing
in such a way that he/she doesn't have to stop and think about its meaning or
pronunciation anymore. Sight words become a part and parcel of
communication for young children as well, thus, making them more fluent
readers.

Familiarizes with pronunciation: Above everything, sight words are

basically words! When kids come across them so frequently, eventually they
get familiarized with how these words are to be pronounced.

Refines writing skills: Most of the things that improve reading skills
would automatically have a positive effect on writing proficiency. Essay writing,
sentence formation, etc. would obviously need usage of sight words. If kids are
thorough with sight words, they will be able to write better.

Introduces them to English phonetics: As discussed, sight words

have irregular phonetics. When kids are made aware of several sight words,
their spellings and pronunciation, they get to know that there can be

23
irregularities in terms of spelling and pronunciation of words. Thus, they get an
insight into English phonetics.

Helps in communication: in the formative years of children, they need

to grasp a lot of information on different things. This needs to be done through
communication. Sight words boost kids' comprehension of information that is
imparted to them.

Builds confidence among kids: While using appropriate sight words in

sentences, there will be clarity in the information that is being conveyed.
Eventually, this will build confidence among kids to make effective use of sight
words in communication.

Provides meaning to the sentences: Sight words will help in giving

meaning to the sentence that is being communicated. Without use of
appropriate words, the information can be miscommunicated or misinterpreted.
Here, sight words play an important role in making meaningful sentences.

Steps in correcting sight words knowledge deficit

1. Write a sentence on the chalkboard with the new word used in context.
Underline the word.
2. Let students read the sentence and attempt to say the new word using
context clues along with other word-attack skills. If you are introducing a
new story, it is especially important that you do not tell them each new
word in advance, as this deprives them of the opportunity to apply word-
attack skills themselves
3. Discuss the meaning of the word or how it is used in talking and writing.
Try to tie to something in their experience. If possible, illustrate the word
with a picture or a concrete object
4. Write the word as students watch. Ask them to look for certain
configuration clues such as double letters, extenders, and descenders.
Also ask them to look for any well-known phonograms or word families, e
g-ill, ant, ake, but do not call attention to little words in longer words.
5. Ask students to write the word themselves and to be sure have them say
the word while they write it.
6. Have students make up and write sentences in which the word is used in
context. Have them read these sentences to each other and discuss
them.

D. Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit

What is sight vocabulary?

Sight Vocabulary is the set of words that a child can immediately

recognize without use of decoding strategies. The child is able to identify these

24
words within a few seconds. An enlarged sight vocabulary improves reading
fluency (rate), confidence, expression, and comprehension.

A primary goal for beginning readers is to recognize words immediately

by securing the spellings of the words to both their pronunciations and
meanings in memory (Ehri 2014). These words may be referred to as sight
words or a sight word vocabulary. A sight word vocabulary is the ever-
expanding bank of words that are automatically and effortlessly recognized.
Sight word vocabulary is NOT based on visual memory or visual skills.

Becoming a reader with a large repertoire of sight words requires

knowledge of phonemic segmentation, letter-sound correspondences, and
spelling patterns (Kim, Apel and Al Otaiba 2013). Through connecting the
word's spelling, pronunciation and meaning, mental graphemic representations
are developed, stored and retrieved instantaneously during reading (Ehri 2014,
2015; Miles et al. 2019).

The Difference Between High Frequency Sight Words and Sight Vocabulary in
Reading.

That means the words are not phonetic and cannot be" sounded out".
They have to be learned. Examples of these words include: the, who, what, of,
are, you, is, why, etc. These are lists of words that show up the most frequently
in texts in the English language. Indisputably, the word "the" is the most
frequently used word in the English language and I've already used it eleven
times at this point.

On the other hand, sight vocabulary are words that relate to you,
personally. They refer to words that you can decode instantly that is, you can
identify them and comprehend their meaning at first glance or sight.

Different stages of sight vocabulary development

Linnea Ehri developed a four-phase model for sight word recognition.

1. Phase One: Pre-alphabetic - Connections are made with a visual aspect

of the word (the "eyes" in look).
2. Phase Two: Partial Alphabetic - Generally reached in kindergarten and
first grade, students begin to recognize the sound to symbol relationship,
which is usually the first and last letters and their sounds.
3. Phase Three: Full Alphabetic - Students begin to recognize the
phoneme/grapheme connection in conventional spelling. Students can begin
to decode unfamiliar words by sounding them out.
4. Phase Four: Consolidated Alphabetic - Students begin to remember
common spelling patterns and also automatically recognize syllables in
multisyllabic words.

25
Why is sight vocabulary important in reading comprehension?

Students who have a strong sight vocabulary are fluent readers. Fluent
readers are able to decode and comprehend at the same time. Fluency consists
of three component skills; accuracy, automaticity, and prosody.

1. Accuracy of decoding can be accomplished either because the word is

part of the sight vocabulary of the reader or because the reader is using
a decoding strategy.
2. Automaticity of word recognition is the ability to recognize words
automatically, with little cognitive effort. (The reader can focus on
meaning instead of on decoding.)
3. Prosody of oral text reading sounds natural. This can include suitable
volume, stress, pitch, and intonation.

Ways in Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit

1. Have the students trace the word; write it on paper, or use chalk or
magic slates.
2. Have the students repeat the word each time it is written.
3. Have the students write the word without looking at the flash card; then
compare the two.
4. Create "study buddies." Match learners in the classroom with fellow
students who have mastered the words. Take time to teach the "tutors"
how to reinforce new words. Provide a big reward to both tutor and
learner once the learner has attained the goal.
5. Provide reinforcement games for students to use on their own or with
their study buddies. Games may be open-ended game boards or
developed by levels according to the sublists.
6. Provide charts, graphs, and other devices for students to display their
progress. These serve as excellent motivators, especially since students
are competing with themselves rather than each other.
7. Use your imagination. Have students dramatize phrases, build a sight-
word "cave," practice words while lining up, read sight-word "plays," etc.

E. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence

What is Sound- Symbol Correspondence?

Sound-Symbol Correspondence involve knowledge of:

 the sounds represented by the letters of the alphabet -the letters used
to represent the sounds

Why is knowledge of Sound-Symbol Correspondence important?

26
  Knowledge of Sound-Symbol Correspondence is essential in reading
and writing.
1. In order to read a word: The learner must recognize the letters in
the word and associate each letter with its sound
2. In order to write or type a word: The learner must break the word
into its component sounds and know the symbols that represent these
sounds.

Knowledge of Sound-Symbol Correspondences and Phonological

Awareness skills are the basic building blocks of literacy learning. These skills
are strong predictors of how well students learn to read.

Vowel Rules or Principles and Accent Generalizations

1. In words containing a single vowel letter at the end of the word, the vowel
letter usually has the long vowel sound. (Note that this rule refers to words
and not just syllables.) There is a similar rule for single word letters at the
end of syllables.

Examples

 we
 she
 be
 me

2. In syllables containing a single vowel letter at the end of the syllable, the
vowel letter may have either the long or short vowel sound. Try the long
sound first. (Note that this has the same effect as rule 1.)

Examples:

 cargo
 halo

3. A single vowel in a syllable usually has the short vowel sound if it is not the
last letter or is not followed by r, w, or 1. When explaining this to students it
is often helpful to indicate that a single vowel in a closed syllable is usually
short. Students should be taught that a closed syllable is one in which there
is a consonant on the right hand side. They will also need to know, as
indicated above, the r, w, and I control rules

Examples:

 Jag
 bit
 bet
27
  hat

4. Vowels followed by rusually have a sound that is neither long nor short

Examples:

 far
 burn
 farm
 sort

5. A y at the beginning of a word has the 'y' consonant sound, y at the end of a
single syllable word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long I
sound, and y at the end of a multisyllable word, when preceded by a
consonant, usually has the long e sound. (Some people hear it as short 1)

Examples:

 yard, fry, sunny

 yoga, shy, study

6. In words ending with vowel-consonant-silent e the e is silent and the first vowel may be either
long or short.

Try the long sound first. In teaching this rule, stress that the student should be flexible, ie, try
the short vowel sound if the long one does not form a word in his or her speaking-listening
vocabulary. It has been demonstrated that students who are taught to be flexible in attacking
words when applying rules such as this become more adept at using word-attack skills than those
who are not taught this flexibility.

Examples:

 bake
 rate
 one
 phone

7. When aj, ay, ea, ee, and oa are found together, the first vowel is usually long and the second is
usually silent.

Examples:

 majestic
 player
 leader
 freezer

28
8. The vowel pair ow may have either the sound heard in cow or the sound heard in crow

Examples:

 now
 bow
 frown
 crown

9. When au, aw, ou, oi, and oy are found together, they usually blend to form a diphthong.

Examples:

 author
 claw
 clout
 avoid

10. The oo sound is either long as in moon or short as in book.

Examples:

 cook
 soon
 foot
 poor

11. If a is the only vowel in a syllable and is followed by I or w, then the a is usually neither long nor
short.

Examples:

 fall
 wall
 flaw
 law

Syllabication is the practice of breaking down a multi-syllable word into its individual syllabic
components. A syllable is a unit within a word that contains a vowel.

Syllabication is a practice that can help learners become readers (and subsequently, better
readers). By being able to interpret the syllables in a word, and understanding and pronouncing
each one correctly, an individual is better able to read that word and the words surrounding it.

29
Syllabication is closely related to phonics, the practice of breaking up different letter sounds and
blends in order to successfully read individual words.

Why learn syllabication?

Dividing words into parts, or "chunks" helps speed the process of decoding. Knowing the
rules for syllable division can students read words more accurately and fluently. Understanding
syllables can also help students learn to spell words correctly

Syllabication Principles

1. When two consonants stand between two vowels, the word is usually divided between the
consonants, e.g... dag-ger and cir-cus. In some of the newer materials, materials are divided
after the double consonant, e.g., dagg-er. It should be remembered that in reading we are
usually teaching syllabication as a means of word attack. Therefore, we should also accept a
division after double consonants as correct even though the dictionary would not show it
that way.

2. When one consonant stands between two vowels, try dividing first so that the consonant
goes with the second vowels, e.g., pa-per and motor, Students should be taught that
flexibility is required in using this rule; if this does not give a word in the student's speaking-
listening vocabulary, then the student should divide it so that the consonant goes with the
first vowel, as in riv-er and lev-er.

3. When a word ends in a consonant and le, the consonant usually begins the last syllable,
e.g., ta-ble and hum-ble.

4. Compound words are usually divided between word parts and between syllables in this
part, e.g., hen-house and po-lice-man.

5. Prefixes and suffixes usually form separate syllables.

F. Remediation through Phonemic Awareness

What is Phonological Awareness?

Phonological awareness is the understanding of different ways that oral language can be
divided into smaller components and manipulated. Spoken language can be broken down in many
different ways, including sentences into words and words into syllables (e. g., in the word simple,
/sim/ and /ple/), onset and rime (e. g., in the word broom, /br/ and /com/), and individual
phonemes (e.g., in the word hamper, /h/, /a/, /m/, /p/, /er/). Manipulating sounds includes
deleting, adding, or substituting syllables or sounds (e.g., say can; say it without the /k/ say can

30
with /m/ instead of /k/). Being phonologically aware means having a general understanding at all
of these levels.

Why is phonological awareness so important?

An awareness of phonemes is necessary to grasp the alphabetic principle that underlies our
system of written language. Specifically, developing readers must be sensitive to the internal
structure of words in order to benefit from formal reading instruction (Adams, 1990; Liberman,
Shankweiler, Fischer, & Carter, 1974). If children understand that words can be divided into
individual phonemes and that phonemes can be blended into words, they are able to use letter-
sound knowledge to read and build words.

The following are Critical Phonemic Awareness skills students should learn:

1. Phoneme/Sound Isolation.

Phoneme isolation is the ability to identify where a sound appears in a word, or to identify
what isolated sound appears in a given position in a word. This is a very important step in the
development of literacy, as well as general language development.

Why Phoneme/Sound Isolation is important?

Phoneme Isolation is a strategy that helps develop students' phonemic awareness, which is
part of phonological awareness. Phoneme isolation involves having students identify specific
phonemes in words (e.g.. first, middle, last sound). Phoneme isolation tasks can be done in
conjunction with phoneme segmentation tasks.

 Example: The first sound in sun is /ssss/.

 Example Instruction: In sound isolation use conspicuous strategies.

A. Show students how to do all the steps in the task before asking children to do the task.
 Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with different sounds and say the names of the
pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound in man, /mmm/. Mmman begins with/mmm/.
Everyone, say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
 Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in these pictures?"

B. Use consistent and brief wording

 Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/. Everyone says the first sound in man,
/mmm/."
 Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as the first sounds in mountain, mop, and
Miranda. Does anyone know other words that begin with the same sound as man?"

C. Correct errors by telling the answer and asking students to repeat the correct answer.

31
  Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/. Say the first sound in mmman with me,
/mmm/. /Mmmm/."
 Non-example: Asking the question again or asking more questions. "Look at the picture
again. What is the first sound?"

2. Blending

Phoneme blending is the ability to hear the individual sounds in a word, put the sounds
together, and say the word that is made. For example, these sounds may be said to a student-/sss/,
/aaa/, /nnn/, /d/ and the student will say the word "sand".

Why are Phoneme Blending skills are important?

Phoneme blending is essential in developing reading skills. If a child can blend sounds, he
will eventually be able to see letters in a word, think about the sounds the letters make, and blend
the sounds to say the word.

 (Example: /sss/-/uuu/-/nnn/ is sun). In blending instruction, use scaffold task difficulty.

A. When students are first learning to blend, use examples with continuous sounds, because the
sounds can be stretched and held.
 Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says
/mmm/-/ooo/-/mmm/ he means mom."
 Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says
/b/-/e/-/d/ he means bed."

B. When students are first learning the task, use short words in teaching and practice examples.
Use pictures when possible.
 Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: "My lion puppet wants one of these
pictures. Listen to hear which picture he wants. /sss/-/uuu/- Innn/. Which picture?"
 Non-example: "/p/-/el/n/ /c/ Which picture?" (This is a more advanced model that should
be used later.)

C. When students are first learning the task, use materials that reduce memory load and to
represent sounds.
 Example: Use pictures to help them remember the words and to focus their attention. Use
a 3-square strip or blocks to represent sounds in a word.
 Non-example: Provide only verbal activities.

D. As students become successful during initial learning, remove scaffolds by using progressively
more difficult examples. As students become successful with more difficult examples, use
fewer scaffolds, such as pictures.

32
  Example: Move from syllable or onset-rime blending to blending with all sounds in a word
(phoneme blending). Remove scaffolds, such as pictures. "Listen, /s/ /t/ /o/-/p/. Which
picture?" "Listen, /s/ /t/ /o/ - /p/ What word?"
 Non-example: Provide instruction and practice at only the easiest levels with all the
scaffolds.

3. Segmenting

Segmenting is a strategy that helps develop students' phonemic awareness, which is part of
phonological awareness. Segmenting and blending are the two most critical skills in the
development of phonemic awareness. Segmenting involves identifying the individual sounds
(phonemes) in a word. Students should practice segmenting initial sounds, onset-rime, and
individual sounds in a word. Segmenting tasks take place orally without the written word.
Segmenting should be taught using direct and explicit instruction but after such instruction it can
also be reinforced with educational games/activities.

 Example: The sounds in sun are /sss/-/uuu/-/nnn/) in phoneme segmentation instruction,

strategically integrate familiar and new information.

A. Recycle instructional and practice examples used for blending. Blending and segmenting are
sides of the same coin. The only difference is whether students hear or produce a segmented
word. Note: A segmenting response is more difficult for children to reproduce than a blending
response.
 Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to say the sounds in words. The sounds in mom
are/mmm/-/ooo/-/mmm/Say the sounds in mom with us.

B. Concurrently teach letter-sound correspondences for the sounds students will be segmenting
in words.
 Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put down letter cards for familiar letter-
sounds. Then, have them place pictures by the letter that begins with the same sound as
the picture.
 Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been taught when teaching first sound in
pictures for phoneme isolation activities.

C. Make the connections between sounds in words and sounds of letters.

 Example: After students can segment the first sound, have them use letter tiles to
represent the sounds.
 Non-example: Letters in mastered phonologic activities are not used. Explicit
connections between alphabetic and phonologic activities are not made.

D. Use phonologic skills to teach more advanced reading skills, such as blending letter sounds to
read words.

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  Example: (Give children a 3-square strip and the letter tiles for s, u, n.) Have them do
familiar tasks and blending to teach stretched blending with letters.

G. Remedial Vocabulary instruction

1. Introduction

Isabelle Beck, Margaret McKeown, and Richard Omanson (1997) characterize these levels
of knowledge of word meaning as follows:

1. No knowledge
2. General Information Level
3. Narrow recognition (usually context-bound)
4. Need to hesitate to remember a meaning
5. Easy recognition and full knowledge

2. Vocabulary is initially acquired in four ways:

 Incidentally, through reading and conversation.
 Direct instruction when a teacher or auto-instructional program is used intentionally builds
vocabulary power.
 Through self-instruction, as when words are looked up in a dictionary or their meaning is
deliberately sought from others.
 Through mental manipulation while thinking, speaking, and writing.

3. Considerations in Remedial Vocabulary Instruction

Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning. The literature on
vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary into five phases. These are:

a. Disposition - opening the student's mind and will to engage in new words.
b. Integration - establishing ties between the meaning of a new word and the student's
existing knowledge.
c. Repetition - provisions for practice distributed over time, as well as opportunities for
frequent encounters with the word in similar and differing contexts.
d. Interaction and meaningful use - social situations conducive to using new words in
interactions with others and thus, mentally referencing new words in listening, reading,
writing, and speaking.
e. Self-instruction - maintaining an awareness of new words outside the classroom.

4. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building

a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of the concept in question.
b. Provide examples of the concept.

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 c. Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely related concepts with which it might be
compared.
d. Relate the concept by some possible smaller or subordinating concepts.
e. Relate or categorize the concept by some possible larger or superordinating concepts.
f. Relate or categorize the concept alongside equal or coordinating terms.

5. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV)

a. Identify two to four words to be taught or pre-taught if SAV is used as a pre-reading activity.
If a word list is used, be sure to include as many words as possible that impart concepts and
feelings that you would wish students to learn.

b. The teacher tells the student the full meaning of a word, much as it might be found in a
dictionary. It is recorded in a Word Study Journal as the "objective" or dictionary meaning.

c. The teacher asks the student, "What does this word remind you of?" or "What do you
picture or think of when you hear this word?" Explain that discussion of a personal
association with a word can be very helpful in remembering and clarifying its meaning.

d. The teacher talks to the student through this personal search for meaning by asking further
clarifying questions, and in group situations by pointing out those images suggested that
seem most vivid. The teacher may add his or her images. Students are then directed to
write some "subjective" or personal associations for the new word under the previously
written dictionary definition in their journals. Drawings can be added.

e. Silent reading follows next when SAV is used as pre-reading vocabulary development.
When it is being used for general vocabulary development, students are given 5 to 10
minutes to study and rehearse the new and previously recorded words.

f. The teacher lets the student close the Word Study Journal and asks him/her the meanings
of the words studied that day and a few others from previous days. This step can be tied to
seat exercises in conventional workbooks such as crossword puzzles, category games, etc.
This manipulation and reinforcement step can be made easier by selecting the words to be
taught from the exercise material.

6. Motor Imaging

It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary and concept learning have psychomotor
foundations or equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated with certain stimuli can become
interiorized as a "symbolic meaning" (Piaget, 1963 in Manzo and Manzo1993). There are three
considerable advantages to knowing this where remediation is concerned:

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 a. First, since physical-sensory or proprioceptive learning can be interiorized, they also can be
self-stimulating, and as such, they are easier to rehearse and recall with the slightest
mental reminder, as well as from external stimulation.
b. Second, proprioceptive learning is so basic to human learning that it is common to all
learners, fast and slow, and hence, ideal for heterogeneously grouped classes.
c. Third, the act of identifying and acting out a word becomes a life experience in itself with
the word - a value that Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980) in Manzo and Manzo (1993)
demonstrated when he successfully taught youngsters words via the "experiential
approach.

PROCEDURE

1. Take a difficult word from the text, write it on the chalkboard, pronounce it, and tell what it
means.
2. Ask students to imagine a simple pantomime for the word meaning ("How could you show
someone what this word means with just your hands or a gesture?")
3. Tell students that when you give a signal, they will do their gestures pantomimes
simultaneously.
4. Select the most common pantomime observed. Demonstrate it all to the students, saying
the word while doing the pantomime.
5. Repeat each new word, this time directing the class to do the pantomime while saying a
brief meaning or simple synonym.
6. Let the students encounter the word in the assigned reading material.
7. Try to use the pantomime casually whenever the word is used for a short time thereafter.

Other Ways To Instruct Vocabulary:

A. Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers provide a visual representation of the relationships among words.

Usually, geometric shapes and lines are used to slow these relationships. They provide
opportunities for students to develop a more thorough understanding of words by seeing
relationships and being active in the learning process (Blanchowicz and Fisher 2000).

 Definition Word Maps - help students see visual representations of definitions (Schwarts
and Raphael 1985). The concept is presented, and students organize information to which
the concept belongs, its properties, examples, or illustrations of the concept.
 Logo And Pictomaps - at the emergent literacy stage, students may not have developed the
skills needed to decode words. A pictorial representation of the words and their
relationships is presented.
 Semantic Feature Analysis - is a grid that assists students in identifying similarities and
differences among concepts that are related to each other. It helps students make
comparisons.

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  Semantic maps are a diagrammatic way of showing relationships among concepts, and
ideas, by using circles and lines.
 Word Walls - are working bulletin boards (Padak 2001). It is a chart with a theme or focus
determined by the teacher. These charts are posted around the room and used as a way of
studying word patterns and word relationships.

B. Morphology

Morphology is the study of word formations that include compound words, contractions,
and affixes. Knowledge of morphemes helps children expand their vocabulary beyond root words
and aids in comprehension of printed materials.

C. Context

Contexts are words that surround a particular word and help identify it. Better readers who
view reading as "getting meaning" use context. Less able readers tend to view reading as
"decoding" or pronouncing words.

Six Types Of Context Clues:

1. Direct definitions and explanations. Words such as is and means give clues that a
definition or explanation will follow.
2. Explanation through example. Sometimes, writers use explanations to help the reader
understand a word's meaning. "The car has rust spots; these are reddish brown spots that
have decayed."
3. Words in a series. The reader can get an idea about a word's meaning if it is included
among other words that belong to the same category. "We visited Hirosaki, Tokyo, and
Toyota."
4. Synonym or restatement. Unknown words may be identified because different words with
similar meanings are used in conjunction with it.
5. Comparison or contrast. Words are compared or contrasted with words that are known
already.
6. Familiar expressions or figures of speech. At times metaphors and similes may be used to
convey meaning.

D. Word relationships

Words have many different relationships with each other that students should be aware of
to understand differences in meanings. Understanding these differences in meaning helps students
use the dictionary and comprehend the material they read (Crawley and Mountain 1995).

 Antonyms - words that are opposite in meaning.

 Figurative language - words that contain meanings that are different from their literal
meanings. Connotative rather than denotative meanings.
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  Homophones (homonyms) - words that have the same sound but are spelled differently
and have different meanings.
 Homographs - words that have the same spelling but are pronounced differently.
 Multiple meanings - the various meanings and shades of meaning words can have.
 Synonyms - words that have the same meanings.

E. Extending an Interest in Vocabulary

Vocabulary development is an ongoing activity, and many opportunities should be provided

to encourage its expansion.

F. Fluency

Being able to decode words automatically, group them meaningfully, and read with
expression. Being fluent in reading allows students to focus on comprehension interacting with
text and attaching meaning to printed symbols. It also helps students develop a more positive self-
image as readers. A sample activity to work on fluency is:

 Oral Reading - communicating an author's message by reading aloud to an individual or an

audience.

Fluency instruction has been found to result in improved reading comprehension (Dowhower
1987). Blachman (2000) concluded that "without accuracy and fluent word recognition, there will
always be constraints incomprehension".

Major Fluency Strategies:

 Antiphonal Reading - groups of students are assigned to read parts of a selection or text in
unison.
 Choral reading - students read together text in unison and the selection is not divided into
parts for different groups of students to read.
 Echo reading - fluency is modeled. Students immediately echo a phrase read by a skilled
reader.
 Paired reading - a capable reader and a student who is having difficulty reading materials
written at an instructional level are paired or partnered together.
 Radio reading - students are asked to think back to the days when people sat around the
living room in anticipation of stories being told on the radio. In radio reading, one student is
the announcer. This promotes listening skills and audience reading.
 Readers' theater - students practice reading their script parts. After practicing their parts,
they present the script to an audience of parents or peers without memorizing the script.
 Repeated readings - students practice reading a selection until it is read perfectly
 Tape-assisted reading - students read along in their books as they listen to an audiotaped
recording of their book by a fluent reader. This has been called "talking books"

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