Wear

Definition:
Wear is the surface damage or material loss that occurs on one or more solid surfaces in
contact due to relative motion. It results from processes such as sliding, rolling, or impact
between interacting surfaces.

Key Points:

 Wear is not a material property; it is a system response, influenced by operating

conditions and environment.
 It is generally undesirable because it leads to increased friction, reduced efficiency,
and may eventually cause component failure or loss of functionality.
 The progression of wear may occur continuously over time or may vary with
changes in operational conditions such as load, speed, temperature, and environment.
 Frictional heating accelerates wear by promoting both chemical and mechanical
interactions at the surface.

Consequences of Wear:

 Degradation of surface finish

 Increased energy consumption
 Loss of dimensional accuracy
 Reduced service life of components

Factors Affecting Wear:

 Type of motion (sliding, rolling, impact)

 Load and speed
 Surface roughness
 Lubrication conditions
 Material properties and hardness
 Environmental factors (temperature, moisture, corrosion)
Wear Types / Mechanisms

Wear can be classified according to how the damaging of the surfaces occurs. Commonly,
there is:

1. Adhesive wear

2. Abrasive wear

3. Surface fatigue

4. Fretting wear

5. Erosive wear

6. Corrosive and oxidation wear

Each type of wear is caused by one or more mechanisms. These mechanisms can synergically
overlap, leading to an increased rate of wear
Adhesive Wear

Definition:
Adhesive wear is a form of wear that occurs due to the contact and interaction between
surface asperities of two sliding bodies. When these asperities come into contact, strong
adhesive forces cause them to bond together.

Mechanism:

 When one surface slides over another, the bonded asperities may shear off.
 This results in material transfer from one surface to the other.
 Very small fragments undergo plastic deformation within the surface layers.
 Repeated sliding promotes progressive material loss.

Conditions Favoring Adhesive Wear:

 Direct metal-to-metal contact

 High surface energy density
 High loads and temperatures
 Poor lubrication

Factors Influencing Adhesive Wear:

 Surface energy: Higher surface energy increases adhesion.

 Material compatibility: Similar materials tend to adhere more easily.
 Contact pressure: Higher loads increase asperity interaction.
Suppression of Adhesive Wear:

 Formation of oxide films

 Presence of lubricants
 Surface contaminants
 Use of dissimilar materials
 Reduced contact pressure

Characteristics:

 Material transfer between surfaces

 Generation of wear debris
 Increased friction due to bonding

Applications Where It Occurs:

 Bearings
 Gears
 Sliding mechanical joints

Abrasive Wear

Definition:
Abrasive wear occurs when a rough, hard surface slides or rubs against a relatively softer
surface, causing material removal. It is one of the most common wear mechanisms
encountered in industrial applications.

Mechanisms of Abrasive Wear

Abrasive wear can occur through three primary mechanisms:

1. Plowing
o Material is displaced sideways without actual removal.
o Grooves are formed on the surface, and ridges are created adjacent to them.
o The displaced material may eventually be removed by subsequent abrasive
action.
2. Cutting
o Material is removed in the form of microchips or debris.
o Minimal side displacement occurs.
o Mechanism resembles conventional machining operations.
3. Fragmentation
 o Material removal occurs due to cutting and localized fracture.
o Cracks form around the wear grooves and propagate, causing spalling and
additional material loss.

Types of Abrasive Wear (Based on Contact Conditions)

1. Two-body Abrasive Wear

o Hard asperities or particles are firmly fixed to one surface.
o They cut or plow into the softer surface during sliding contact.
2. Three-body Abrasive Wear
o Loose abrasive particles are free to roll or slide between surfaces.
o Material removal occurs due to repeated indentation and scratching.

Characteristics of Abrasive Wear

 Produces grooves or scratches on the worn substrate.

 Occurs when hardness difference exists between contacting materials.
 More severe when abrasive particles are angular, sharp, and hard.

Common Applications/Examples

 Sand erosion on pump impellers

 Abrasive belts or grinding operations
 Wear in agriculture and mining equipment
Differences Between Adhesive and Abrasive Wear
Parameter Adhesive Wear Abrasive Wear
Definition Caused by bonding and shearing of Caused when a harder material or
surface asperities when two surfaces particle scratches, cuts, or plows
slide against each other. into a softer surface.
Primary Material transfer due to adhesion Material removal due to micro-
Mechanism and plastic deformation of cutting, plowing, or fragmentation.
asperities.
Material More severe when sliding surfaces Occurs when hardness difference
Compatibility are of similar materials. exists (hard vs. soft).
Surface Shows localized welding spots, Shows grooves, scratches, and plow
Appearance scuffing, or galling. marks.
Major Contributing High surface energy, high loads, poor Presence of hard particles, rough
Factor lubrication. surfaces, contaminants.
Role of Lubrication Strongly reduces adhesive wear. Reduces abrasive wear but cannot
eliminate angular particle
scratching.
Debris Typically large transferred Small microchips or sharp debris
Characteristics fragments. particles.
Common Bearings, gears, sliding metal Mining equipment, grinding
Components surfaces. operations, pumps, conveyors.
Affected

Surface Fatigue Wear

Definition:
Surface fatigue wear is a wear mechanism that occurs due to the repeated formation and
growth of cracks on a material’s surface under cyclic loading conditions. Over time, the
surface weakens and material particles are removed.

Mechanism:

 Caused by repeated or fluctuating stresses on the surface.

 Cyclic loading leads to the development of microcracks and voids.
 As the loading cycles continue, these cracks:
o Grow in size,
 o Intersect,
o Eventually cause small surface fragments to detach.
 Material loss occurs when these surface fragments break away.

Characteristics:

 Progressive process—damage accumulates over time.

 Common where high contact stresses occur (rolling, sliding contact).
 Often observed below the surface before emerging outward.

Typical Applications/Occurrences:

 Gears
 Bearings
 Rolling contact elements (cam–follower mechanisms)

Consequences:

 Pitting on surfaces
 Increase in vibration and noise
 Loss of component functionality
 Possible failure if not detected early

Factors Influencing Surface Fatigue:

 Magnitude of contact stress

 Number of load cycles
 Surface finish and hardness
 Lubrication quality
 Presence of contaminants
Fretting Wear

Definition:
Fretting wear is a type of wear that occurs between two contacting surfaces subjected to
repeated, small-amplitude oscillatory motion (cyclical rubbing). This micro-slip causes
continuous surface damage at the interface.

Mechanism:

 Small vibratory motions cause breakdown of surface films.

 Repeated rubbing leads to:
o Surface fatigue
o Initiation and growth of micro-cracks
 Detached particles oxidize in air, forming hard oxides.
 These oxides act as abrasives, accelerating wear.

Characteristics:

 Occurs at microscale cyclic displacements

 Produces reddish-brown debris (powdery oxide)
 Surface becomes pitted and rough
 Leads to fretting fatigue failure, especially under high stress

Common Components Affected:

 Shafts
 Bearing seats
 Splines and couplings
 Bolted or riveted joints
 Aerospace joints (vibrating assemblies)

Consequences:
  Loss of dimensional tolerance
 Increased friction and vibration
 Crack propagation
 Potential catastrophic failure (if left undetected)

Aggravating Conditions:

 Vibration
 Poor lubrication
 Moisture or corrosive environment
 High contact stresses

Associated Problems:

 Fretting corrosion:
When oxidation accompanies fretting, the harder oxide particles intensify abrasive
wear.
 Environmental effects:
Water and salt accelerate corrosion, especially in outdoor structures.

Historical Failures (Case Studies):

 Silver Bridge collapse (USA, 1967)

 Mianus River Bridge accident (USA, 1983)
Both involved structural degradation where fretting corrosion contributed to cracking
and failure.

Preventive Measures:

 Proper lubrication
 Surface hardening
 Use of protective coatings
 Design modifications to eliminate micro-slip
 Damping mechanisms to reduce vibration

Erosive Wear

Definition:
Erosive wear is a type of wear caused by the repeated impact of solid particles or liquid
droplets striking a surface at high velocity over a short interval of time. The continuous
impacts gradually deform, damage, and remove material from the surface.
Mechanism:

 Hard particles (or droplets) strike the surface repeatedly.

 Each impact causes:
o Plastic deformation
o Material removal
o Surface pitting
 Over time, surface roughness increases, accelerating wear.

Factors Affecting Erosive Wear:

1. Particle Characteristics
o Size
o Shape (angular particles are more aggressive)
o Hardness relative to the surface
2. Impact Conditions
o Velocity (higher velocity = higher erosive rate)
o Angle of impact (normal or shallow angles)
o Frequency of impacts
3. Material Properties
o Hardness
o Toughness
o Ductility
4. Environmental Conditions
o Temperature
o Presence of corrosive elements

Impact Angle Effect:

 Ductile materials experience maximum wear at shallow angles (15°–30°).

 Brittle materials experience maximum wear at normal impact angles (90°).
 Fig.: Different types of erosive wear out mechanism

Characteristics of Erosive Wear:

 Produces pits, craters, and surface roughening.

 Accelerates when mixed with corrosion → erosion–corrosion.
 Often localized in high-velocity flow regions.

Common Applications Where It Occurs:

 Piping systems carrying abrasive slurries

 Pump impellers
 Turbine blades
 Nozzles and valves
 Boiler tubes
 Mining and mineral processing equipment

Consequences:

 Reduced wall thickness

 Leakage or failure of pipelines
 Increased maintenance cost
 Reduced efficiency of flow systems

Control Measures:
  Use of wear-resistant materials
 Surface coatings
 Flow velocity reduction
 Changing flow direction to reduce impact angle
 Use of liners in piping systems

Corrosive and Oxidation Wear

Definition:
Corrosive and oxidation wear is a wear mechanism that results from the combined action of
chemical reactions (corrosion or oxidation) and mechanical surface interaction (sliding or
rubbing). The chemical reaction weakens the surface, while mechanical motion removes the
affected material.

Mechanism:

1. Chemical reaction with the environment forms oxide or corrosion products on the
surface.
2. Sliding or relative motion removes these products.
3. Fresh, unprotected surface becomes exposed.
4. The cycle continues, accelerating wear and material loss.

Effects of Chemical Action:

 Increases porosity and surface roughness.

 Weakens surface layers.
 Reduces protective properties.

Mechanical Action Contribution:

 Abrasive removal of corrosion/oxide layers.

 Exposure of new reactive surfaces.
 Increased friction and heat generation.
Factors Influencing Corrosive and Oxidation Wear:

 Poor component design

 Inability to remove heat and moisture
 High temperature and humidity
 Presence of corrosive media (salt, acids)
 Surface roughness and contact pressure

Characteristics:

 Continuous removal of protective oxide films

 Progressive pitting and roughening
 Temperature-dependent oxidation rates
 Rapid surface deterioration under sliding contact

Typical Applications / Occurrence Areas:

 Marine components (saltwater corrosion)

 Steam turbine blades
 Chemical processing equipment
 High-temperature furnace parts
 Automotive exhaust parts

Consequences:

 Reduced structural integrity

 Increased friction and energy loss
 Premature component failure
 Higher maintenance cost

Control Measures:

 Use of corrosion-resistant materials

 Proper lubrication
 Protective coatings (paint, plating)
 Surface hardening techniques
 Proper heat and moisture control

Wear Effects

• Over heating

• Unwanted vibration
 • Noisy operation

• Loss of efficiency

• Quality reduction

Wear Reduction Methods

We all understand that wear can only be mitigated, not prevented. We can minimize wear, but
we won’t be able to eradicate it. Many strategies have been devised to minimize wear, as
detailed below.

1. Prevention of overloading

Overloading should be avoided since it causes lubricants to break down and puts an excess
force on the worn surface.

2. Maintain a proper clearance

When the clearance between the surfaces is too small, a lubricating oil layer cannot be applied
to the worn surface, resulting in metal-on-metal contact. If there is more space between the
surfaces, motion is lost. Due to the sheer absence of lubrication, the machine’s parts wear down
quickly, making it loud and vibrating.

3. Better lubrication

Lubrication produces a lubricant film in the space between the contacting surfaces, which
improves its smoothness and avoids material contact. Improper lubrication leads to wear of
surfaces.

4. Improving the surface finishing

Various sorts of straight or circular lays are formed when parts are passed through the
machining process, that cannot be seen with the human eye. Because of the good surface, a line
contact rather than a point contact is created, which is advantageous in processes. Good surface
finish uniformly distributes load rather than maintaining asperity contacts leading to reduction
of wear.

5. High surface hardness

In compared to soft surfaces, hard surfaces wear down faster. Heat treatment is used to enhance
the surface hardness of the shaft, bearing, and guide way, which reduces wear.

6. Proper surface treatment

Mechanical wear can be minimized by applying a hard coating of metal, such as chromium or
galvanic, on the surface. As a result, it may be argued that if a hard layer is applied to the
surface of a wear-resistant metal, the part’s wear can be minimized.

7. Protection of surface against the ingress of dirt, dust and metal particles

If debris, dirt, or metal particles get inside the bearings, they get crushed much more. If the
particles are tougher than the surface of the part, the surface will wear down and gets damaged.

8. Proper atmosphere

Dust, debris, moisture, dangerous chemical vapour are all present in the atmosphere, affecting
machining operations and reducing their service life. Several other techniques for wear
reduction include proper maintenance, varying clearance adjustments over time, good
planning, integration of preventive maintenance, controlling the preventive maintenance tasks,
selection of appropriate material for the component, reducing sliding pairs with the replacement
of rolling pairs, and using a fully automated maintenance facility.

Lubricants-types and Applications

Lubricants are materials used to reduce friction between moving surfaces and prevent wear
and tear. They also help in cooling, cleaning, and protecting machine parts.

Lubricants are mainly classified into four types:

1. Grease 2. Oil 3. Penetrating Lubricant 4. Dry Lubricant

1. Grease

Grease is a semi-solid lubricant made by mixing a lubricating oil with a thickener

(such as soap).
It is commonly used where frequent lubrication is difficult.
Grease provides long-lasting lubrication, good sealing, and corrosion protection.

Types of Grease and Their Uses:

Type of Grease Key Properties Typical Applications

Calcium Grease Excellent water resistance, good Marine, industrial, automotive,
corrosion protection, stable at low and agricultural equipment
temperatures
 Aluminium Withstands high temperatures, resists Food industry, automotive,
Complex Grease water, rust, and oxidation construction, and steel plants
Barium Excellent mechanical and oxidation Heavy industrial, marine,
Complex Grease stability, chemical resistance, handles aeronautical, and manufacturing
high load and temperature uses
Bentone (Clay) Non-melting, strong adhesion, high Steel, mining, ceramic, and
Grease temperature resistance construction industries
Polyurea Grease Excellent water and oxidation Electric motors, steel plants, and
resistance, long life, high-temperature general machinery
performance
Sodium Grease High dropping point, good rust Rolling contact bearings and as
protection, but poor water resistance a blend in mixed greases

2. Oil Lubricants

Oil is the most common type of lubricant. It is a liquid made up of long hydrocarbon chains
and additives like:

 Antioxidants – prevent oxidation

 Corrosion inhibitors – prevent rust
 Detergents – prevent deposit formation

Viscosity:

 Low viscosity (thin oil) = easy flow

 High viscosity (thick oil) = better film strength

When to Use Oil:

 For hinges, bearings, tools, and blades

 When low friction is needed without resistance from grease
 When lubrication is needed in small or hard-to-reach spaces

When Not to Use Oil:

 On dirty or dusty surfaces – oil attracts dirt and forms a sticky layer
 On wet surfaces – oil can wash away and lose adhesion
3. Penetrating Lubricants

Penetrating lubricants are thin, low-viscosity oils designed to loosen rusted or stuck parts.
They quickly seep into tiny cracks and help separate corroded or seized components.

When to Use Penetrating Lubricants:

 To loosen seized or rusted nuts and bolts

 For removing gum, stickers, or adhesives
 During maintenance or repair work

When Not to Use Penetrating Lubricants:

 They are not meant for long-term lubrication (they evaporate quickly)
 Should not be used where continuous lubrication is required (like bearings)

4. Dry Lubricants

Dry lubricants are made of fine solid particles (e.g., graphite, molybdenum disulfide
(MoS₂), PTFE, or silicone) that reduce friction without using oil or grease.
They are often available as sprays where the solvent evaporates, leaving behind a thin, dry
lubricating film.

When to Use Dry Lubricants:

 On locks, threaded rods, and hinges

 For small parts where grease can cause clogging
 In high-temperature or high-pressure environments
 Where cleanliness is important (does not attract dust)

When Not to Use Dry Lubricants:

 On surfaces exposed to water or solvents, as the coating may wash away

 As a substitute for grease or oil in bearings or long-term lubrication

Summary Table
 Lubricant Main Feature Best For Avoid Using When
Type
Grease Long-lasting, seals Bearings, gears, High-speed or very hot
well machines areas
Oil Easy flow, cools Hinges, engines, tools Dirty or wet conditions
parts
Penetrating Loosens rust Stuck bolts, old parts Long-term lubrication
Oil
Dry Lubricant Clean, dust-free Locks, rods, high-temp Wet or solvent-exposed
areas surfaces

Choosing the right lubricant depends on:

 Operating temperature
 Load and speed conditions
 Environmental factors (dust, moisture, cleanliness)
 Type of motion (continuous, intermittent, or oscillating)

Proper lubrication ensures longer life, smooth operation, and reduced wear of machine
components.

Lubrication Methods

Purpose of Lubrication

 The main purpose of lubrication is to reduce friction and wear between moving
surfaces.
 A thin film of lubricant (oil or grease) separates the surfaces, reducing metal-to-metal
contact.
 Proper lubrication ensures:
o Smooth and efficient operation
o Longer component life
o Protection from corrosion and overheating

Common Lubricants
  Oil – used in high-speed or continuous systems
 Grease – used where frequent lubrication is difficult

Basic Structure of a Lubrication System

A typical lubrication system includes:

 Pumping element – forces lubricant through the system

 Lubricating tank – stores oil or grease
 Electrical control device – controls timing and flow
 Dividers and distributors – direct flow to various points
 Pipes and fittings – distribute lubricant to machine parts

Screw Down Grease Cup Lubricator Figure 3.6(a)

Construction

Figure 3.6(a)

 Made of:
o Lubricator body/cup – stores grease
o Knurled cap – used to push grease down
o Threaded hole/nozzle – connects to bearing or lubrication point

Working Principle

 Grease is stored in the cup.

 By turning the knurled cap manually, grease is forced through a small hole
(capillary) into the bearing or engine part.
 Provides manual lubrication as needed.

Figure 3.6a shows the screw down grease cup lubricator. It has a lubricator body / cup to hold
grease. A knurled cap is screwed over the top portion of the lubrication body. The lower part
of the body has a threaded nipple to be fitted with the bearing or machine parts to be lubricated.
The operation of the lubricator is very simple. The grease is kept in the body. It can be operated
manually by turning the knurled cap. The amount of grease is pushed in through the capillary
to the engine parts to be lubricated. Such lubricators have been found in flour mills, agriculture
equipment.
Applications

 Used in flour mills, agricultural equipment, and simple machinery.

Improved Type: Tell-Tale (Spring-Loaded) Lubricator Shown in Figure 3.6(b)

 Has a spring-loaded plunger operated by a knob.

 Grease is forced under spring pressure through a grub screw to the lubrication
point.
 The knob acts as a tell-tale indicator – shows the grease level from a distance.

Figure 3.6b shows the improved version of the screw cap lubricator (sometimes called Tell-
Tale Lubricator). It forces the grease by spring pressure exerted through a plunger attached
with the knob. The flow of grease is accelerated with the help of a knob which moves the
plunger downward pushing the grease through grub screw. The knob attached with the piston
acts as a tell-tale which is visible from a distance and indicates the level of grease.

Advantages:

 Constant pressure lubrication

 Easy to monitor grease level
Pressure Grease Gun

Overview

 Common tool in workshops and industries.

 Used to apply grease under pressure directly to machine parts.
 Can be powered by hand, air, or electricity.

The grease gun is one of the most common tools you'll see in your shop or manufacturing plant.
Grease guns have three ways in which they can be powered: by hand, air or electricity. Aside
from these variations, the hand-powered (or manual) grease guns can either be manufactured
with a lever or a pistol grip. The benefits to each of these depend primarily on the intended
application and the lubrication technician’s personal preference. One other major variation to
the grease gun is how the grease is to be loaded: by suction fill, cartridge or bulk.

Types of Grease Guns

1. Manual (Lever Type):

o Most common
o Supplies about 1.28 g per stroke
o Operated by hand lever
2. Manual (Pistol Grip):
o One-hand operation
o Supplies about 0.86 g per stroke
o Used in compact areas
3. Pneumatic (Air-Operated):
o Works using compressed air
o High delivery rate
o Ideal for industrial use
4. Battery-Powered (Cordless):
o Works like pneumatic type but powered by battery
o Portable and convenient
Anatomy of a Grease Gun

Component Function
Lever/Trigger Pumps grease from barrel to hose
Barrel Houses grease tube or bulk grease
Grease Tube (Cartridge) Replaceable grease container
Hydraulic Coupler Connects hose to grease fitting
Head of Grease Gun Contains valves and pathways
Filler Nipple Point for filling grease
Air Release Nipple Removes trapped air after refilling
Spring & Plunger Apply pressure on grease tube
Follower Rod & Handle Pull back plunger during cartridge change
Flexible Hose / Fixed Tube Delivers grease to lubrication point
Splash Lubrication

Principle

 Commonly used in internal combustion (IC) engines.

 Oil is stored in a closed crankcase up to a certain level.
 Crank pin or scoop attached to the connecting rod dips into oil and splashes it onto
moving parts.
The method is well known and generally used for the lubrication of internal combustion engine
components. The closed crank case holds the lubricating oil up to such level that the crank pin
dips into the oil. In each revolution of crank, the pin dips in the oil and splashes on the surface
of cylinder liner, piston, gudgeon pin, piston rings, and crank shaft bearing. The excess
splashed oil returns back to the crank case. Figure 3.9 shows that splash lubrication system has
been used for the lubrication of single cylinder internal combustion engine.

A scoop is connected in the lower part of the big end of the connecting rod. When engine runs
and the lower part of the big end comes down nearer to the oil level, a scoop attached with the
big end dips in oil and splashes the oil from oil trough engine parts to be lubricated. It is the
simplest and cheapest method of lubrication.

 Lubricates:
o Cylinder liner
o Piston and rings
o Gudgeon pin
o Bearings

Features

 Simple and inexpensive

 Self-acting (no pump required)
 Excess oil drains back into the crankcase
Applications

 Used in single-cylinder engines, small compressors, and gearboxes.

Gravity / Drip Feed Lubrication

Working Principle

 Suitable for low-speed, low-load bearings.

 Oil stored in a small reservoir drips slowly onto the bearing by gravity.
 Flow rate controlled by a needle or conical valve.
 Transparent reservoir allows visual check of oil level.

Some bearings are installed in systems where low loads and low-to-moderate speeds are
expected. This type of bearing requires small quantities of oil, applied at regular intervals. In
the past, this type of lubrication was predominantly performed by hand, as is still the case in
some applications. However, applying lubrication by hand poses several risks such as under-
or over-lubricating the bearings and missed lubrication schedules. Drip feed lubrication
systems are commonly used in these applications to supply the correct amount of oil at the
correct intervals. Gravity feed systems, consist of a loosely covered cup or manifold of oil
placed above the bearing that meters out oil at a set interval. The supply to the bearing is
controlled by a needle or conical valve, and can be adjusted as necessary. A drip feed reservoir
can be connected to only one bearing, called a single point system, or connected by pipes or
ducts to several bearings, which is referred to as a multiple point system. A drip feed system
can also be pressurized to supply oil to a bearing system under pressure. The reservoir is
partially or completely transparent, and is refilled by hand when it reaches a certain level.

System Types

 Single Point System: One reservoir per bearing

 Multiple Point System: One reservoir supplies several bearings via pipes
 Pressurized Drip System: Uses slight pressure for steady flow
Advantages

 Simple and low-cost

 Adjustable oil feed rate

Applications

 Used in light machinery, small motors, and textile machines.

Wick Feed Lubrication Shown in Figure 3.11

Construction and Working

 Consists of:
o Glass oil reservoir

o Central pipe and threaded nipple connected to the machine

o Cotton wick hanging inside the oil

Working:
  The cotton wick absorbs oil and feeds it drop-by-drop to the bearing by siphon
action.
 Oil flow depends on the wick material and vibration of the machine.
 A wire hook allows removal of wick when not in use.

Figure 3.11 show the assembled drawing of wick feed lubricator. The working of this lubricator
is based on the siphon principle. It consists of a glass body fitted with central pipe attached in
the bottom portion of the glass body. The lower portion of the body has the provision to fix the
threaded nipple to the machine components and the machinery to be lubricated. The threaded
nipple will have an oil hole through which the oil drops down. A cotton wick hangs about 40
mm below the oil level. The cotton wick gets soaked in the oil. The oil is dripped off by gravity
and vibration caused by the motion of the machine components. The flow rate depends on the
type and twist of the rope. A wire hook is provided to take out the wick when machine is in
idle conditions. Wick feed lubricators are used for the lubrication of slides, guides, spindles,
and plain bearings.

Applications

 Used for slides, spindles, guides, and plain bearings.

Advantages
  Continuous lubrication
 Simple and reliable
 No need for frequent attention

Side feed lubricator

A side feed lubricator is a mechanical device used to supply a controlled amount of

lubricant—generally oil—to moving machine components such as bearings, gears, or sliding
surfaces. As the name indicates, the lubricating oil is delivered from the side of the machine
component rather than from the top or bottom.

It typically consists of an oil reservoir, feed tube, needle valve, and sight glass. The oil level
and flow rate can be regulated manually using the needle valve, and the sight glass helps
monitor the drip rate visually. Lubrication takes place by gravity or by slight pressure
difference, ensuring a continuous and reliable supply of oil to the required area.

Side feed lubricators are widely used in machine tools, textile machinery, and rotary equipment
where consistent lubrication reduces friction, prevents wear, and enhances the service life of
components.
Advantages:

 Simple construction and easy maintenance

 Flow rate can be easily adjusted
 Effective for continuously running equipment

Ring Oil Lubricator Shown in Figure 3.13

Construction

 Consists of:
o Oil trough below the shaft
o Metallic ring loosely fitted over the rotating shaft

Working

 As the shaft rotates, the ring also rotates and picks up oil from the trough.
 The oil is carried to the top of the bearing and flows down through grooves.
 Excess oil returns to the trough – making it a recirculating system.

Ring oil lubricator is shown in Figure 3.13. It consists of an oil trough to keep sufficient oil in
it. The trough acts as storage of oil and is placed below the shaft to be lubricated. A metallic
ring hangs over the shaft and the bottom portion of the ring hangs in oil. When the journal
rotates, the ring also rotates and it carries oil from the oil bath and spreads the oil. The oil is
placed on top of the bearing. The oil is further distributed to the bearing through the oil grooves.
The excess oil spread drops down in the oil trough. The system is found suitable for slow-speed
horizontal shaft. For high-speed engine shaft, the ring slips due to excess centrifugal force
developed due to high rotation. In place of ring, steel chains can also be used. The sheet chains
carry more lubricating oil.

Applications

 Used for slow-speed horizontal shafts.

 For high-speed shafts, steel chains are used instead of rings (carry more oil and resist
slipping).
Advantages

 Simple automatic lubrication

 No pump required
 Continuous oil circulation

Summary Table
Method Lubricant Operation Type Typical Applications
Used
Screw Down Grease Grease Manual Flour mills, farm tools
Cup
Tell-Tale Grease Cup Grease Spring-loaded Medium-duty machines
Pressure Grease Gun Grease Manual / Air / Workshops, heavy machinery
Battery
Splash Lubrication Oil Automatic Engines, gearboxes
Drip Feed Oil Gravity-fed Light bearings, small motors
Wick Feed Oil Capillary action Spindles, guides, plain
bearings
Ring Lubrication Oil Self-acting Slow-speed shafts
Corrosion
Corrosion is defined as a natural degradation process in which pure metals are gradually
transformed into undesirable compounds when they react with substances present in the
environment, such as water, oxygen, or other atmospheric gases. This process begins at the
exposed surface of the metal and gradually spreads into the bulk material, weakening it over
time.

Chemically, corrosion results in the formation of more stable compounds such as metal oxides,
hydroxides, and sulphides. A common example is the rusting of iron, where iron reacts with
moisture and oxygen to form iron oxides. This reaction is usually spontaneous and
irreversible, meaning the metal continues to deteriorate unless prevented.

Corrosion is generally an undesirable phenomenon because it negatively affects the

mechanical and structural properties of metals. For instance, iron is valued for its strength and
rigidity, but once rusted, it becomes brittle, flaky, and loses its load-bearing ability. Since
corrosion mostly occurs on surfaces exposed to the environment, it is considered a diffusion-
controlled process.

To protect metals, several preventive techniques are used, such as:

 Passivation, where a protective oxide layer is formed to block further attack,

 Chromate conversion, commonly used on industrial components.

However, it is important to note that some corrosion mechanisms are not easily visible and may
progress internally, making them less predictable.

From another perspective, corrosion can be considered an electrochemical process because it

involves redox reactions between metals and environmental agents like oxygen, water vapour,
and sulphur dioxide. Metals that are high in the reactivity series, such as iron and zinc, corrode
easily because they have a higher tendency to undergo oxidation. Conversely, metals
positioned lower in the reactivity series, such as gold, platinum, and palladium, show excellent
resistance to corrosion due to their low oxidation potential.

An interesting exception is aluminium. Although it is a reactive metal, it does not corrode

extensively. This is because it forms a thin, tightly adhering layer of aluminium oxide on its
surface, which acts as a protective barrier, preventing further corrosion.
Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)

Rusting is the most common corrosion of iron when exposed to air and moisture.

 It is an electrochemical process.
 Iron forms hydrated iron oxides (rust), which are flaky and non-protective.
 Presence of salt (like in seawater) accelerates the reaction.

Moisture (H2O) + Oxygen (O2)

┌─────────────────────┐

│ Water Droplet │

└─────────────────────┘

│ │

│ │

Cathode Anode

(Reduction) (Oxidation)

Fe(s) → Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻ (Anode)

Electrons flow through

iron surface to cathode

O2 + 2H2O + 4e⁻ → 4OH⁻ (Cathode)

Fe²⁺ + 2OH⁻ → Fe(OH)₂ → Fe₂O₃·xH₂O (Rust)

Corrosion Layers on Copper

Atmosphere
(O2, CO2, SO3, H2O)
↓
┌────────────┐
 │ Copper (Cu)│
└────────────┘
│
Forms Cu2O (Red layer)
│
Oxidizes to CuO (Black)
│
Reacts with CO2 + H2O
↓
Cu2(OH)2CO3 (Blue)
(Malachite – Blue/Green)

+ SO3 + H2O
↓
Cu4SO4(OH)6 (Green)
(Brochantite – Green)
Silver Tarnishing
Air containing H2S gas
↓
┌─────────────┐
│ Silver (Ag) │
└─────────────┘
↓
2Ag + H2S → Ag2S (Black layer)
↓
Thin black film = Tarnish

Other Examples

 Zinc corrosion forms white zinc chloride (ZnCl₂) in the presence of oxygen or
hydrochloric acid.
 Tin corrosion can form black tin hydroxide complexes such as Na₂[Sn(OH)₂].

Corrosion Rate

Corrosion rate indicates how fast a metal is being removed due to corrosion. It is an
important measure in material selection and design.

Corrosion Penetration Rate (CPR) Formula

Where:

 W = Weight loss after exposure (mg)

 ρ = Density of the metal (g/cm³)
  A = Exposed surface area
 t = Time of exposure (hours)
 K = Constant depending on unit system

Units

Two common units are used:

CPR Units Constant (K) Area Units

mpy (mils per year) 534 square inches
mm/year 87.6 square centimetres

Note: 1 mil = 0.001 inches

Acceptable corrosion rate:

 Less than 20 mpy (0.50 mm/yr) is generally considered safe for most engineering
applications.

Factors Affecting Corrosion

1. Presence of corrosive gases

o Gases such as CO₂, SO₂, SO₃ accelerate corrosion by forming acids or
aggressive compounds.
2. Moisture
o Water acts as an electrolyte; salt water increases corrosion due to ions that
speed up electrochemical reactions.
3. Impurities
o Presence of salts like NaCl increases conductivity and corrosion rate.
4. Temperature
o Higher temperature increases reaction rate and diffusion, thus accelerating
corrosion.
5. Nature of oxide layer
o Some metals form protective, adhesive oxide films, e.g.,
 Aluminium forms Al₂O₃, a protective barrier.
o Others form loose flakes that fall off exposing fresh surface, e.g.,
 Rusting of iron.
6. Acidic Environment
o Acids drastically increase corrosion rate by dissolving protective films and
increasing hydrogen ion concentration.

1. Crevice Corrosion

Definition:
A localized corrosion occurring in narrow gaps or confined spaces where stagnant solution
exists and oxygen concentration becomes low.
Mechanism (Steps):

1. Oxygen inside the crevice is depleted.

2. Metal inside becomes anodic.
3. Metal ions and chloride ions accumulate, lowering pH.
4. Passive film breaks and corrosion propagates.

Common Locations:

 Under gaskets
 Under washers
 Under bolt heads
 Lap joints

Materials affected:

 Stainless steels
 Aluminium alloys

Caused due to differential aeration (oxygen concentration cell).

2. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

A combined effect of:

 Tensile stress, and

 Corrosive environment

Leads to crack formation without significant plastic deformation.

Characteristics:
  Occurs at higher temperatures
 Initiates at pits
 Fine, branched cracks form

Examples:

 Austenitic stainless steels in chlorides

 Mild steel in alkalis (caustic cracking)
 Copper alloys in ammonia (season cracking)

3. Intergranular Corrosion (IGC)

Localized attack along grain boundaries due to impurity segregation or depletion of alloying
elements.

Example mechanism:

 In stainless steel, chromium carbide precipitates at grain boundaries.

 Area near boundary becomes chromium-depleted.
 Corrosion begins along boundaries.

Materials affected:

 Stainless steels (sensitization)

 Nickel alloys
 Aluminium alloys
4. Galvanic Corrosion

Occurs when two dissimilar metals are electrically connected in an electrolyte.

The more active (anodic) metal corrodes faster, while the noble (cathodic) metal gets
protected.

Example:

 Aluminium and steel in seawater → aluminium corrodes.

Prevention:

 Avoid dissimilar contact

 Electrical insulation
 Use of sacrificial anodes

5. Pitting Corrosion

Highly localized attack that creates small holes (pits) on the surface.

Characteristics:

 Difficult to detect
 Highly destructive
 Initiates at points of chloride attack
Example:
A water droplet on steel — pit forms at the centre (anodic spot).

Pits can penetrate deeply and cause sudden failure.

6. Uniform (General) Corrosion

Corrosion spreads evenly across the entire surface.

Example:

 Rusting of steel plate in seawater

 Zinc dissolving in dilute sulphuric acid

This type is predictable and easiest to design against.

7. Hydrogen Grooving

Occurs in carbon steel exposed to concentrated sulphuric acid.

Mechanism:

 Hydrogen gas forms during corrosion

 Bubbles scrub off protective iron sulphate film
 Grooves/channels form along metal surface

Seen in acid-carrying pipelines.

8. Metal Dusting

Occurs in high-carbon activities where metals disintegrate into powder.

Mechanism:

 Carbon from CO deposits as graphite

 Metal converts to metal carbides (M₃C)
 Metal structure breaks into powder

Temperature range: 400–900°C

Common in petrochemical and syngas plants.

Affected Materials:

 Stainless steels
  Nickel alloys
 Ferritic steels

9. Microbial Corrosion / MIC

Corrosion influenced by microorganisms (bacteria, algae, fungi).

Key points:

 Forms pits under biofilms

 Creates corrosive local environment
 Accelerates other corrosion types

Types of microbes:

 Aerobic (need O₂): sulphur-oxidizing bacteria

 Anaerobic (no O₂): sulphate-reducing bacteria

Affected systems:
  Cooling towers
 Pipelines
 Fuel systems
 Storage tanks

Prevention:

 Biocides
 Mechanical cleaning
 Avoid stagnant water

10. High-Temperature Corrosion

Also called dry corrosion or scaling.

Occurs due to chemical attack at high temperatures (> 400°C).

Attack types include:

 Oxidation
 Sulphuration
 Carburization
 Chlorination
 Nitridation
 Deposit corrosion

Applications where found:

 Gas turbines
 Diesel engines
 Furnaces
 Boilers

Fuel impurities (e.g., vanadium salts) can form molten corrosive layers.

Results in:

 Scale formation
 Metal loss
 Change in mechanical properties

Effects of Corrosion

Corrosion can have a varying degree of effect on a lot of things. As such, it mainly causes waste of
natural resources. Additionally, it can further cause hazardous situations such as building structures
becoming weak and unstable, accidents caused by corroded parts as well as other unwanted failures
such as cracked pipelines, bridge collapsing, transport vehicle crashes or other catastrophes. It is
therefore important to check and prevent corrosion at all costs.

Prevention of Corrosion

Preventing corrosion is of utmost importance in order to avoid huge losses. The majority of the
structures that we see and use are made out of metals. This includes bridges, automobiles, machinery,
household goods like window grills, doors, railway lines, etc. While this is a concerning issue, several
treatments are used to slow or prevent corrosion damage to metallic objects. This is especially done
to those materials that are frequently exposed to the weather, saltwater, acids, or other hostile
environments. Some of the popular methods to prevent corrosion include;

1. Electroplating- It is a process in which a metal is coated with another metal's thin layer by
electrolysis.

2. Cathodic Protection- In this technique, two types of metals are used, one is base metal while
another is sacrificial metal. The base metal is connected with sacrificial metal in such a manner,
corrosion takes place in sacrificial metal and the base metal is protected. This happens because
sacrificial metal is more reactive, it will lose electrons easily as compared to the base metal. Thus, base
metal is protected.

3. Galvanization- It is a process which includes zinc and iron. It involves the dipping of iron into molten
zinc. Due to this process, iron is protected from being corroded.

4. Painting and Greasing- When the surface of any metal is painted or greased, it has no effect on the
atmospheric condition on them. Thus, they prevent corrosion.

5. Using Corrosion Inhibitor- It is a chemical which is added to the metal to lower the effect of
corrosion. 6. Make use of the Right Material- There are many materials which resistant to corrosion
like aluminium.