CAPES NOTES

Objective #1: Explain the concept of problem solving

A problem can be defined as an obstacle which makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal,
objective or purpose; while problem-solving is a systematic approach to defining the problem
and creating different solutions to correct the problem.

Objective #2: Describe the stages of the problem-solving process

Stages:
1. Define the problem
2. Analyze the problem (using tools, such as questionnaires, interviews, observation,
reviewing documents)
3. Identify and evaluate possible solutions
4. Select and justify the optimal solution
5. Implement
6. Review

Objective #3: Describe the role of information in the solution of real-life problems

Identification of the information necessary for the solution of personal, commercial, scientific
and social problems.

Categorization of information as essential, desirable, extraneous or cosmetic in the solution of a

problem.

Essential Information- Information becomes extremely important based on the purpose it will
serve or the problem that it will be used to solved. Information is also considered essential when
delivered in a timely manner, is factual and reliable.

Desirable Information- Information becomes desirable once it appears useful or helpful in

solving the problem.

Extraneous Information-

Cosmetic Information

Objective #4: Explain how information can be used to solve real-life problems
Criteria for rejecting or accepting a piece of information including:
● Bias- Bias is one way in which information may be rejected. Bias will occur as a result of
not utilizing valid or factual sources to retrieve information. Relying on one source is said
to be biased, as other means were not exploited to carry out further investigation or make
adequate comparison.

● Accuracy- Accurate information is said to truthful or correct information. In accepting

information, the researcher has to ensure that whatever information is being collected is
actually true. Various methods can be implemented to check for information accuracy.

● Cultural context- Cultural context looks at the society in which persons live and how
their culture can affect their behaviour and their opportunities. Base on their background
or way of life, the provided solution may not be effective to solving their current
problem; but rather worsen it. Information being sources will be based on the values and
attitudes that matter to these persons and about how they formed.

● Completeness- Incomplete information is not considered to be valid, as there is some

information that may be useful to solving the problem missing. One should ensure that
the information is complete, so that it does not become difficult or take a longer time to
solve the problem.

● Currency of information- Outdated information will not be effective in solving a

problem. Persons should ensure that the information being collected is current and useful
in modern society. Outdated information may actually be the reason why the problem
was not solve or got worse.

● Refereed and unrefereed sources- Refereed sources are those are experts in their field
and their work have been reviewed by various experts who have the authority to fairly
judge their work. Unrefereed sources on the other hand, are those which did not receive
any peer or expert review or fair judging. As such, information from refereed sources are
normally considered to be unbiased and accurate to be used by others.

● Characteristics of information on the Internet

Objective #5: Analyse the role of information in fulfilling the goals of an individual or
organization

Information used in decision-making and problem-solving

Capitalising on opportunities.
SDLC

CAPES NOTES

Objective #5: Explain the Various Stages of the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC),

and Software Engineering

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used by the software industry to design,

develop and test high quality software. The SDLC aims to produce a high-quality software that

meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within times and cost estimates,

provide strong management controls over the projects, and maximize the productivity of the

systems staff. It consists of a detailed plan describing how to develop, maintain, replace and alter

or enhance specific software.

1. Planning

2. Analysis

3. Design

4. Development

5. Testing

6. Implementation

7. Review/Maintenance
SDLC

SDLC Stages includes:

STAGE 1-Planning
This is the first stage in the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC). The purpose of this stage
is to identify whether or not a new system is required. It is a preliminary plan (or feasibility
study) to find out the scope of the problem; define the problem and also to determine the
solutions to the problem. At this stage, steps are made to foresee the events to take place in
implementing a software.
Deliverables (Output of the stage)
o Problem Statement- Clearly identify the problem that exists
o Feasibility Report/ Risk Assessment (Interviews, Questionnaire, Observation,
review/investigation of printed material)
o Gantt Chart- is a project plan showing breakdown of tasks and timeline.
o Rapid Application Development (RAD)

STAGE 2- Analysis

The needs of the end users is analyzed to ensure that the new system can meet their expectations.

It involves detailed understanding of all important facts of the business area under investigation

or feasibility. This is one such aspect which is used to identify some underlying factors that

contributes to the problem. This requires data collection from a verity of sources such as

questionnaires, forms, interviews, study of existing documents. It can be involved the direct

observation in the organization and collected documents to understand the whole existing

system.

Deliverables (Output of the stage)

o UML
o Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)
o Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)
o Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools
o Process Definitions
SDLC

o Project Dictionary

STAGE 3- Design

In this process the primary object is to identify user requirements, specifications and to build a

system that satisfies these requirements. In other words, at this stage, describes how the intended

system will accomplish the task of solving business problems. Design of the system is mainly the

logical design that can be sketch on a paper or on a computer (prototype). It includes physical

design elements, describes the data to be inputted.

Deliverables (Output of the stage)

o Data Dictionaries
o Entity- Relationship Diagrams
o Flow Charts
o Systems Inputs, Processing, Outputs (IPO CHART)and User Interface
o Hardware, Software, Databases, telecommunications, Personnel
o System Design Documentation/ Procedures

o Joint Application Development (JAD)

STAGE 4- Development

This phase is where the real work begins; the start of productions. Development is a phase where

detailed design is used to actually construct and build the system. In this phase the system is

decided whether to buy commercial software or to develop new customized program with the

help of the programmers. The choice depends upon the cost of software and cost of

programming.

Deliverables (Output of the stage)

o Hardware Specifications
o Software Specifications
SDLC

o Design Strategies
o User Interface
o Implementation Schedule

STAGE 5-Testing

Testing is a process of making sure that the program performs the intended task. Once the system

is designed it should be tested for validity, normally by Quality Assurance (QA) Professionals.

During this phase the system is used experimentally to ensure that software does not fail and it

will work according to its specification. It is tested with special test data.

Deliverables (Output of the stage)

o Hardware Specifications
o Software Specifications
o Program Listing
o Test Plans
o Implementation Schedule

STAGE 6- Implementation

Implementation is the process of converting from the old system to the new system. This phase

of development consists of installing hardware, programs, collecting data and organizing people

to interact with and run the system. In this phase user actually starts using the system therefore it

also involves training of users and provides friendly documentation.

Deliverables (Output of the stage)

o Working System (Computer system)

o Implementation Schedule/ Plan

o Program listing & Documentation

SDLC

o Final Test Plan (Master Test Plan)

o Operating Procedures (System Requirement Plan)

o Clerical Procedures

STAGE 7- Review/ Maintenance-

It is the process of incorporating changes in the implemented existing system.
 Enhancement: Adding new functions or additional capability of the system.
 Adaptation: Customizing the software to run in a new environment.
 Correction: Correcting the bugs in the existing software.

Deliverables (Output of the stage)

o Working System Maintenance (H & S)
o Operational System modified & Documented as required
o User Training/ Guidelines

Objective #6: Discuss the tools used in the different Stages of the (SDLC)

 Questionnaires- These consisted of both open-ended and closed- ended questions

normally issued to persons to receive feedback regarding an idea that will be

implemented/ introduced.

 Interviews – This is a primary method of collecting information firsthand and can be

done formally or informally (face-to-face/ Telephone)

 Observation- This is also a primary means of obtaining information, where persons

arrive on-site to see and document important details related to a project.

 Flow Charts- These refers to graphical representation, showing step by step process of

how to solve a problem.

SDLC

 ER diagrams –Entity Relationship (ER) diagrams, also known as ERDs or ER Models,

refers to a type of flowchart that illustrates how entities, such as people, objects or

concepts relate to each other within a system. ER diagrams are normally implemented to

design or debug relational databases. They use a defined set of symbols such as

rectangles, diamonds, ovals and connecting lines to depict the interconnectedness of

entities, relationships and their attributes.

 Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools- CASE tools are set of software

application programs, which are used to automate SDLC activities. CASE tools are used

by software project managers, analysts and engineers to develop software system.

 GANTT charts- GANTT chart is a horizontal bar chart, frequently used in project

management, which provides a graphical illustration of a schedule that helps to plan,

coordinate, and track specific tasks in a project. A Gantt chart is constructed with a

horizontal axis representing the total time span of the project, broken down into

increments (for example, days, weeks, or months) and a vertical axis representing the

tasks that make up the project (for example: conduct research, choose software, install

software).

 Data flow diagrams- A data flow diagram (DFD) maps out the flow of information for

any process or system. It uses defined symbols like rectangles, circles and arrows, plus

short text labels, to show data inputs, outputs, storage points and the routes between each

destination.

 Pseudocode- Pseudocode is one of the tools that can be used to write a preliminary plan

that can be developed into a computer program. Pseudocode is a generic way of

describing an algorithm without use of any specific programming language syntax.

SDLC

 Prototypes- A prototype is a simple working model of a product or information system,

usually built for demonstration purposes or as part of the development process. It

normally represents how a hardware or software will look at the final stance.

 Programming languages- A programming language is a set of rules that provides a way

of telling a computer what operations to perform. Programming languages allows humans

to communicate with computers.

 Review/Investigation of printed material-

 Process models- A software process model is a simplified representation of a software

process. Each model represents a process from a specific perspective. Process models

includes:

o Waterfall Model

o Iterative Model

o Spiral Model

o V-Model

o Big Bang Model

 Object models- An object model is a logical interface, software or system that is

modeled through the use of object-oriented techniques.

 Decision tables - A decision table is used to represent conditional logic by creating a list

of tasks depicting business level rules. Decision tables can be used when there is a

consistent number of conditions that must be evaluated and assigned a specific set of

actions to be used when the conditions are finally met.

 Decision trees- A decision tree is a graph that uses a branching method to illustrate every

possible outcome of a decision.

What is System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)?
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a series of phases or stages that
provide a framework for the development and management of an
information system. It encompasses the entire process from the initial
planning and system concept to system implementation, maintenance,
and eventual retirement. Phases of System Development Life Cycle
include:
 Phase 1: Planning: In this phase, the scope of the project and
the requirements for the software are determined.
Deliverables in this phase include a project plan,
requirements document, and a project charter.
o Identifying the need for a new system.
o Defining project scope, objectives, and constraints.
o Establishing the feasibility of the project.

 Phase 2: Analysis: In this phase, the requirements gathered in

the planning phase are analyzed and translated into a
detailed design. Deliverables in this phase include a detailed
design document and a system proposal.
o Gathering and analyzing user requirements.
o Understanding existing business processes.
o Creating system specifications.

 Phase 3: Design: In this phase, the detailed design is used to

create a blueprint of the software. Deliverables in this phase
include a software design document, system architecture,
and flow diagrams.
o Developing the system architecture.
o Designing the user interface.
o Creating detailed technical specifications.

 Phase 4: Implementation: In this phase, the software is

developed and coded. Deliverables in this phase include
source code, executable code, and unit test results. The
software is deployed in the production environment.
 Deliverables in this phase include installation instructions
and user manuals.
o Coding and programming.
o Unit testing of individual components.
o System integration and testing: In this phase, the
software is tested for bugs and to ensure that it
meets the requirements. Deliverables in this phase
include test cases, test results, and a test plan.

 Phase 5: Maintenance: In this phase, the software is

maintained and updated as necessary. Deliverables in this
phase include bug fixes, updates, and new features.
o Continuous support, updates, and improvements.
o Handling bug fixes and enhancements.
o Evaluating and adapting the system to changing
requirements.

It's Important to note that the phases of the SDLC are not always linear and may overlap.
The System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a structured process used by software
engineers to design, develop, and test high-quality software systems. The stages of SDLC guide
the project from its initial concept to the maintenance of the finished product. Below is a
breakdown of each stage, its deliverables, and how software engineering fits into this framework:
1. Feasibility Study
 Purpose: To evaluate whether the project is viable and worth pursuing in terms of
technical, economic, legal, operational, and schedule feasibility.
 Deliverables:
o Feasibility Report: This report outlines the project's feasibility in various aspects,
including costs, benefits, and risks.
o System Proposal: A recommendation on whether the project should move
forward, with options and justifications.
2. System Analysis
 Purpose: To gather and analyze business requirements, understand existing systems, and
determine the specific needs of the new system.
 Activities:
o Interviews, surveys, and observations with stakeholders.
o Requirements analysis to define system functionality and features.
 Deliverables:
o Requirements Specification Document (RSD): A detailed list of functional and
non-functional requirements.
o Use Case Diagrams: These diagrams show how different users will interact with
the system.
o Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) or Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERDs): These
represent the flow of data or the relationships between entities in the system.
3. System Design
 Purpose: To design the system's architecture, databases, user interfaces, and any other
technical details needed to implement the solution.
 Activities:
o High-level system design: Designing the overall system architecture.
o Detailed design: Developing detailed specifications for software components,
databases, and user interfaces.
 Deliverables:
o System Design Document: Contains the architecture, database schemas, user
interface designs, and detailed technical specifications.
o Database Diagrams (e.g., ERD): Shows how data is structured in the system.
o User Interface Prototypes: Mock-ups or wireframes of how the system will look
to users.
o Project Plan: Detailed timeline, resources, and risk management strategies.
4. Development (Coding)
 Purpose: To convert the design specifications into actual software by writing code for
various system components.
 Activities:
o Coding and unit testing of individual modules.
o Integration of the modules into a unified system.
 Deliverables:
o Source Code: The written software in programming languages.
o Test Scripts: Unit and integration testing scripts developed to test individual
components and their interactions.
5. System Testing
 Purpose: To ensure the system works according to requirements and to identify and fix
any defects.
 Activities:
o Unit testing, integration testing, system testing, and user acceptance testing
(UAT).
o Verification of whether the system meets user requirements.
 Deliverables:
o Test Plan and Test Cases: Detailed plans outlining the testing strategy,
scenarios, expected results, and actual results.
o Bug Reports: Reports listing defects found during testing and their status.

6. Implementation
 Purpose: To deploy the system into the actual environment where end-users will start
using it.
 Activities:
o System installation and configuration.
o Data migration from old systems, if applicable.
o User training and support.
 Deliverables:
o Conversion Plan: A strategy to switch from the old system to the new one (e.g.,
parallel, direct, phased, or pilot conversion).
o User Manuals: Documentation for end-users explaining how to operate the
system.
o Technical Manuals: Documentation for developers and system administrators on
maintaining and troubleshooting the system.
o Training Plans: Plans for training users and administrators.

7. Review (Maintenance)
 Purpose: To monitor the system’s performance, address issues, and make necessary
improvements or upgrades.
 Activities:
o Continuous monitoring of system performance.
 o Fixing bugs or adding new features.
 Deliverables:
o Maintenance Plans: A schedule for ongoing updates and fixes.
o Post-Implementation Review Report: A review of the project’s success, lessons
learned, and recommendations for future projects.
Software Engineering in SDLC:
Software engineering principles are applied throughout the SDLC to ensure the software is
reliable, efficient, scalable, and maintainable. These include:
 Modularization: Breaking down the system into smaller, manageable components.
 Documentation: Maintaining clear documentation for each phase to ensure traceability.
 Version Control: Using tools like Git for code management.
 Quality Assurance (QA): Incorporating testing, code reviews, and validation processes.
Each stage is essential for the overall success of the project, and the deliverables at each phase
ensure that the development stays on track and meets the business goals.
Here’s a clear and detailed explanation of the tools used in the different stages of the System Development Life
Cycle (SDLC) — including what each tool does and at which stage it’s commonly used:

1. Feasibility Study and Analysis Stage

🔹 Questionnaires

 Purpose: Collect information from a large number of users quickly.

 Use: Determine user needs, opinions, and system requirements.

 Example: A questionnaire asking staff how they currently record customer orders and what challenges they
face.

🔹 Interviews

 Purpose: Gather detailed, qualitative data directly from users and stakeholders.

 Use: Understand existing problems, requirements, and expectations.

 Example: Interviewing managers to find out what kind of reports they need from the new system.

🔹 Observation

 Purpose: Watch how users perform their tasks in real settings.

 Use: Identify workflow inefficiencies or issues users may not mention in interviews.

 Example: Observing a cashier processing transactions to detect unnecessary steps.

🔹 Review/Investigation of Printed Material

 Purpose: Examine existing documentation or reports.

 Use: Understand current procedures, data sources, and system design.

 Example: Reviewing sales records, forms, and policy manuals to gather system requirements.

2. Design Stage

🔹 Entity Relationship (ER) Diagrams

 Purpose: Show how data entities relate to each other in the system.

 Use: Database design and logical data modeling.

 Example: Drawing an ER diagram to show relationships among Students, Courses, and Enrollments in a
school database.

🔹 Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs)

 Purpose: Illustrate how data moves through the system and how processes transform data.

 Use: System design and process analysis.

  Example: A DFD showing how customer orders are entered, processed, and stored.

🔹 Process Models

 Purpose: Show the sequence and interaction of processes in the system.

 Use: Identify system functions and how they connect.

 Example: A model illustrating how data flows between billing, inventory, and payment systems.

🔹 Object Models

 Purpose: Represent the system using objects (with attributes and methods).

 Use: Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD).

 Example: A Customer object with attributes (Name, Address) and methods (PlaceOrder, MakePayment).

🔹 Decision Tables and Decision Trees

 Purpose: Represent decision rules logically.

 Use: System design, especially when decisions depend on multiple conditions.

 Example: A decision table showing discount eligibility based on membership level and purchase amount.

🔹 Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) Tools

 Purpose: Provide automated support for system development activities.

 Use: Used across analysis, design, and development stages.

 Example: Tools like Visual Paradigm or Lucidchart for creating DFDs and ERDs automatically.

🔹 GANTT Charts

 Purpose: Show the timeline of project activities.

 Use: Project planning and management across all stages.

 Example: A GANTT chart displaying start and end dates for each SDLC phase.

3. Development Stage

🔹 Flowcharts

 Purpose: Show the logic of a process or algorithm step by step.

 Use: Programming logic design and documentation.

 Example: A flowchart showing the steps for validating user login information.

🔹 Pseudocode

 Purpose: Describe algorithms using structured, plain English-like statements.

 Use: Planning program logic before coding.

🔹 Programming Languages

 Purpose: Used to write the actual software.

 Use: Implementation stage of the SDLC.

 Example: Writing code in Python, Java, C#, or JavaScript to build the system.

4. Implementation and Review Stage

🔹 Prototypes

 Purpose: Early working model of the system for user feedback.

 Use: Testing design ideas and collecting user reactions before full development.

 Example: A simple interface mock-up for an online booking system shown to users for feedback.

🔹 CASE Tools (Again)

 Purpose: Support implementation, testing, and documentation.

 Use: Generate program code automatically or maintain documentation consistency.

🔹 GANTT Charts (Again)

 Purpose: Monitor project progress and compare actual performance with planned timelines.
 CAPES NOTES

Objective #5: Describe data flow diagrams (DFD)

Define DFD
A data flow diagram (DFD) is one that demonstrates how data is processed by a system in terms
of inputs and outputs. As its name indicates its focus is on the flow of information; where data
comes from, where it goes and how it gets stored.

DFD symbols (elements)

Example
 Imagine you work in a small stock control environment where goods are bought and sold

 There are two job descriptions in our imaginary system: stock clerks and cashiers

 Stock Clerks ‘order’ and ‘receive’ goods

 Cashiers ‘sell’ goods

 An analyst has observed you and come up with the following diagram…

Data Flow Diagram Symbols

The DFD is a diagram that consists principally of four symbols, namely the entity, the process,
the data store and data flow. Please see table below with diagrams.

The following symbols are used in a data flow diagram:

Symbol Meaning Example

An entity.
A source
of data or
a
destination
for data.
 A process
or task that
is
performed
by the
system.

A data
store, a
place
where data
is held
between
processes.

A data
flow.

DFD LEVELS
Context Level DFD’s

A context level DFD is the most basic form of DFD. It aims to show how the entire system
works at a glance. There is only one process in the system and all the data flows either into or out
of this process. Context level DFD’s demonstrates the interactions between the process and
external entities. They do not contain Data Stores.
When drawing Context Level DFD’s, we must first identify the process, all the external entities
and all the data flows. We must also state any assumptions we make about the system. It is
advised that we draw the process in the middle of the page. We then draw our external entities in
the corners and finally connect our entities to our process with the data flows.

Below is an example of a Context Level DFD for a Fast-Food IS.

Level 1 DFD’s
Level 1 DFD’s aim to give an overview of the full system. They look at the system in more
detail. Major processes are broken down into sub-processes. Level 1 DFD’s also identifies data
stores that are used by the major processes.

When constructing a Level 1 DFD, we must start by examining the Context Level DFD. We
must break up the single process into its sub-processes. We must then pick out the data stores
from the text we are given and include them in our DFD. Like the Context Level DFD’s, all
entities, data stores and processes must be labelled. We must also state any assumptions made
from the text.

Below is an example of a Level 1 DFD.

Algorithm & Programming

CAPES NOTES

Objective #7: Explain the concept of algorithm

An algorithm is a sequence of precise instructions for solving a problem in a finite

amount of time. An algorithm must be precise, unambiguous, give the correct solution in all and
eventually end.

Objective # 8: Identify the necessary properties of ‘well designed’ algorithms

Properties including:
 A general solution to the problem in a finite number of steps – There should be an exact
number of steps to be taken and has an end.
 Clearly defined and unambiguous- Every instruction should be precisely described and
clearly specified.
 Flow of control from one process to another- The instructions to be performed should
be performed from top to bottom/ in order.

Objective # 9: Identify ways of representing algorithms

Ways of representing algorithm

 Narrative- This type of algorithm involves, telling a story of how the problem will be
solved. It goes in-depth and produce more details than that of pseudocode.

 Flowcharts-
Flowcharts refer to graphical or symbolic representation of an algorithm or process. It is
the diagrammatic representation of the step-by-step solution to a given problem. Each
step in the process is represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of
the process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the
process flow direction. A flowchart typically shows the flow of data in a process,
detailing the operations/steps in a pictorial format which is easier to understand than
reading it in a textual format. A flowchart describes what operations (and in what
sequence) are required to solve a given problem.

 Pseudocode-
Pseudocode is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develops
algorithms. Pseudocode is an imitation computer program written using Mathematical
notations and English like statements, to describe the logics to solve a problem or carry
Algorithm & Programming

out a procedure. A pseudocode is used in place of symbols or flowcharts. It is used as a

guide to code the solution to the problem in a high language.

Objective # 10: Develop algorithms to represent problem solution

Control Structures

A structure is a basic unit of programming logic. A structure can be a sequence, a selection or a

loop (that is, repetition). The body of the algorithm is comprised of various structures.

Sequential structures are:

1. Input statements, for example,

a. Get num1, num2
b. Read price, tax-rate
c. Accept guess

2. Output statements, for example,

a. Print total-cost
b. Display average

3. Statements involving arithmetic operations, such as:

a. Sum = num1 + num2
b. Average = sum  2

4. Statements that assign values to variables, such as:

a. Count = 0
b. Maximum = 20

Selection structures are:

IF or IF-then-else statements. They allow decisions to be made, based on some condition that
evaluates to true. In the case of if-then-else, alternatives are executed if the condition is false.

a. If (A > B) then
Display A
b. If (age >= 50)
Print “Old”
Else
Print “Young”
Algorithm & Programming

Repetition or Loop structures allow statements to be repeated a fixed number of times or until
some condition evaluates to false. If the number of repetitions is known beforehand, the loop
structure is called a counted loop. For example,

c. Repeat 10 times:
Print “I am good-looking”
End-repeat

If the exact number of repetitions is unknown beforehand and is based upon some condition, then
the loop is called a conditional loop. For example,

d. While (price  0) do
Read price
Total = total + price
End-while

Objective # 11: Explain the concept of programming

A program is a list of instructions that is executed by a computer to accomplish a particular task.

Programming is instructing a computer to do something for you with the help of a programming
language.
A programming language is a set of rules that provides a way of telling a
computer what operations to perform.

 Stages in programme development- Check SDLC

 Programming paradigms
Programming paradigm refers to the fundamental style of computer programming. It serves as a
pattern or model for a programming language.
The main Paradigms are:
Programming Paradigms Description Programming Language
1. Imperative/ Algorithmic Commands show how the  FORTRON
computation takes place, step by  BASIC
step.  C
2. Functional Control flow is expressed by  Haskell Python
combining function calls, rather
Algorithm & Programming

than by assigning value to  Miranda

variables.  ML
 LISP

3. Object-Oriented Computation is effected by  Java

sending messages to objects;  C++
objects have state and behavior.  Eiffel
4. Procedural Imperative programming with  Pascal
procedural calls.  C
5. Declarative /Logic The programmer states only  SQL
what the result should look like,  Mercury
not how to obtain it.  PROLOG

Objective #12: Outline the interrelationship(s) between algorithms and programming

Algorithms as precursor to program development

Algorithms present solution to a problem in natural language/ algorithmic language format. It

does not deal with machine specific details. Program development on the other hand, is the
implementation of an algorithm to be run on a specific computer or operating system.