evolution 01st May 2026

Introduction
All species have arisen through the process of disease-causing genes in order to control
evolution. This process involves a series of changes hereditary diseases.
that cause species to emerge, adapt to the
environment, and also become extinct. Evolution is Theories of the origin of life
the study of changes in the heritable characteristics There are different explanations on how life
of a population over successive generations. originated on the earth. Origin of life is the most
controversial topic in Biology. There are several
What is to be covered?
theories that explain the possible mechanisms by
At the end of this chapter, you will have covered the which life originated. The following are some of
following sub-topics. these theories:

i. The concept of organic evolution i. Special creation theory

ii. Theories of the origin of life This theory states that, the earth and all
iii. Theories of organic evolution organisms living on it were created in their
iv. Evidence of organic evolution. present form by God. This is the most
widespread and popular theory. This belief is
The concept of Organic Evolution found in holy books of most major religions in
Organic evolution is the gradual change in the the world. For example, in Islamic studies, it has
heritable characteristics of biological populations been stated that God created heaven and the earth
over successive generations. Continuous in six distinct phases and Adam from a sounding
evolution over many generations results in the clay. In Christianity, it is believed that, God
development of new species. Likewise, failure to created the universe, plants, animals and Adam
adapt to the environmental changes can often as the first human beings in six natural days.
lead to extinction. Extinction is the dying out or
termination of one or several species. It plays an Strengths of the special creation theory
important role in the evolution of life because it i. It provides an explanation of the origin of life
opens up opportunities for new species to based on religious belief or faith.
emerge. ii. It encouraged scientists to think and speculate
about how life began on Earth.
Importance of studying organic evolution iii. It played an important role in early thinking
Evolution and its underlying theories are before scientific explanations were developed.
important due to the following reasons:
Weaknesses the special creation theory
i. Evolution and its associated theories help to i. It lacks scientific evidence to support its
understand the origin of organisms especially claims.
human beings and the relationships with ii. It is based on faith rather than observation or
other living organisms. experimentation.
ii. Evolution and its associated theories help to iii. Fossil records show that different organisms
explain how different species are genetically appeared at different times, which contradicts
related. the idea of a single creation event.
iii. Knowledge of evolution helps us to
understand how species change over time and
ii. Spontaneous generation theory
how they adapt to the changes. The theory of spontaneous generation states that
iv. Knowledge on the theories of organic living things arose from non-living materials on a
evolution help to solve biological problems number of distinct occasions. This theory is also
that impact human lives. For example, known as abiogenesis.
researchers study the evolutionary history of
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Abiogenesis is the hypothetical process in which life This means that life did not originate on earth,
is generated from non-life. This happens when there rather it originated somewhere in the universe
are favourable conditions and that no causal agent and then brought to earth as readymade material.
such as parents are needed. This was explained by The theory was put forward by Richter (1865)
the Greek philosopher Aristotle who believed that who proposed that life reached the earth with
certain particles of matter contained active principles cosmic dust in the form of spores, germs or other
which could produce living organisms under simple particles from the unknown parts of the
favourable conditions. Examples of active principles universe. Since the condition of earth were
include fertilised eggs, seeds, sunlight, wheat, supportive, these spores grew and evolved into
decaying meat, and mud. There are several different organisms.
observations supporting this theory. For example,
hair of horse tail dipped in the water gives rise to the Strengths of the Cosmozoic theory
horse hair worm called gordius. Another evidence is i. It suggests that life exists beyond Earth and
that fly larvae (maggots) tend to develop on rotten could have been transferred to our planet.
meat. ii. It is supported by findings where scientists
reported fossil-like microorganisms in
Strengths of the Spontaneous generation theory meteorites (e.g., studies around 1961).
i. It attempts to explain how life can arise from iii. It provides an alternative explanation for the
non-living matter (abiogenesis). presence of life on Earth.
ii. It was supported by early observations, such iv. It broadens scientific thinking about life in
as maggots appearing on rotten meat. the universe and the possibility of
iii. It encouraged early scientific and extraterrestrial life.
philosophical thinking about the origin of
life. Weaknesses of the Cosmozoic theory
iv. It was promoted by influential thinkers like i. It is unlikely that living organisms can
Aristotle, giving it credibility at the time. survive extreme conditions in space (cold,
v. It is based on observable natural phenomena, dryness, and ultraviolet radiation).
which made it convincing in ancient times. ii. It does not explain how life originated, only
how it may have arrived on Earth.
Weaknesses of the Spontaneous generation theory iii. It lacks a clear mechanism for how life was
i. It is based on incorrect interpretation of transported from space to Earth.
observations (e.g., maggots actually come iv. There is no strong experimental or scientific
from fly eggs, not meat itself). evidence supporting the theory.
ii. It lacks experimental and scientific evidence. v. It does not specify the exact source (planet
iii. The idea of “active principles” is vague and or location) where life began.
not scientifically defined.
iv. Later experiments (e.g., by scientists like iii. Steady state theory
Louis Pasteur) disproved spontaneous According to steady state theory, the earth has no
generation. origin. It has always been able to support life and
v. It ignores the role of reproduction in it has undergone very small changes since then.
producing new organisms. The theory also explains that life had no origin
and it has always been supported on earth. Thus,
ii. Cosmozoic theory the living organisms had no origin, they only
The theory states that life on the Earth was change their members by increasing or
brought from outer space in the form of spores decreasing or they become extinct.
which grew and evolve into different organisms.
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Strengths of the Steady state theory iii. It is supported by experiments like those of
i. It correctly recognizes that Earth supports Stanley Miller and Harold Urey, which
life. showed that organic molecules can form
ii. It acknowledges that life and the environment under early Earth conditions.
undergo gradual changes over time. iv. It promotes critical thinking and scientific
iii. It presents a continuous view of life rather investigation.
than sudden appearance. v. It provides a logical explanation of how
simple molecules could gradually become
Weaknesses of the Steady state theory more complex.
i. It contradicts the law of biogenesis, which
states that life comes from existing life. Weaknesses of the Biochemical or naturalistic
ii. It assumes that life has no origin, which is theory of origin of life
scientifically questionable.
iii. It does not explain where life existed before i. It does not clearly explain how the
the formation of Earth. “primordial soup” was formed under natural
iv. It cannot be tested experimentally if life is conditions.
assumed to have no beginning. ii. It cannot fully explain the origin of the
genetic code and information in DNA.
iii. It fails to describe the exact transition from
v. Biochemical or naturalistic theory of
complex organic molecules to living cells.
origin of life
This theory was suggested by the Russian scientist iv. Some of its processes are theoretical and not
Alexander Oparin and British geneticist J.B.S. fully demonstrated in real-life conditions.
Haldane. The theory states that life arose on Earth
because of physical and chemical reactions of
naturally occuring elements and molecules. These
molecules gradually accumulated in the oceans and
formed a hot primordial soup. The cooling of the
primordial earth favoured reactions among the
gaseous molecules such as carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and oxygen. The reactions led to the
formation of simple organic compounds, such as
amino acids, nucleic acid and sugars. The
nucleotides and nucleic acid that are the main
components of all living cells marked the beginning
of life. The theory was demonstrated by Stanley L.
Miller and Harold C. Urey through the Miller-Urey
experiment. Draw Figure 4.3

Strengths of the Biochemical or naturalistic

theory of origin of life
i. It is scientific in nature and can be tested
experimentally.
ii. It recognizes the importance of organic
molecules such as amino acids and proteins
as the basis of life.

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