Course Title: AIR TRAFFIC AND WEATHER

Course Code: BAE755B

Course Type: Open elective
Semester: 7th semester
Year: 2025-26
Contact Hours/ week : L-T-P : 3:0:0
Dept of AE

By
Varsha N
Assistant Professor
Acharya Institute of Technology
 Syllabus
Module-1
The earth’s atmosphere, ISA, Temperature, Atmospheric Pressure and Altimetry, Wind, moisture,
cloud formation, precipitation, Stable and Unstable Air, clouds, Air masses and Fonts.
Module-2
Turbulence, Icing, Thunderstorm, High Altitude Weather, Arctic weather, Fuel freezing in Arctic
Weather, Tropical Weather

Module-3
Problems- Traffic, Weather, Congestion, adverse weather on traffic flow, Air traffic flow
management, Airport capacity, Traffic Management Overview
Basic Traffic Management Techniques and Terms Ground Delay Programs (GDP) Time-based Flow
Management (TBFM) Traffic Management Advisor (TMA) Airspace Flow Programs (AFP) Ground
Stops (GS) Adaptive Compression (AC) Integrated Collaborative Rerouting (ICR) Delay Tier
Dept of AE Information Operational Information System (OIS)
Module-4
Weather Tools De-icing/Anti-icing Severe Weather Avoidance Plan (SWAP), ICAO, Routes Preferred
Routes Coded Departure Routes (CDR) National Playbook Flow Evaluation Area (FEA)/Flow
Constrained Area (FCA), Global air-traffic management
Module-5
Call signs, Technology, Air Navigation Service providers and Air traffic service providers, Privatization
ATC regulations Weather Conditions Worldwide, METAR, Cloud reporting Abbreviation. NOTAM
 Recommended Text Books
T1. Mastering the Systems: Air Traffic Control and Weather by Richard L. Collins
T2. Aviation Weather for Pilots and Flight Operation Personnel Gordon Press Publishers

Recommended Reference Books

R1. New Concepts and Methods in Air Traffic Management by Amedeo R Odoni, Springer
R2. Air Traffic Control by Max Mulder , published by InTech

Dept of AE Recommended E-material and Weblinks

W1. [Link]
support-laboratories
 Module-1
The Earth's atmosphere
An atmosphere contains the air that we breathe and is a blanket of gases that surrounds Earth. It is held near
the surface of the planet by Earth’s gravitational attraction. A barometer is used to measure air pressure.
Argon, oxygen and nitrogen from the three main constitutions of the atmosphere.

Definition
“Atmosphere is a protective layer of gases that shelters all life on Earth, keeping temperatures
within a relatively small range and blocking out harmful rays of sunlight.”

Features of the Atmosphere:

Helps retain the sun’s heat and prevents it from escaping back into space.
Dept of AE Protects life from harmful radiation from the sun.
Plays a major role in Earth’s water cycle.
Helps keep the climate on Earth moderate.
There is no boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The atmosphere gets less dense
and denser until it “blends” into outer space
 Layers of Atmosphere
What do you see when you stand outside and look up? A blue sky? A group of clouds?
At night you might see a crescent moon, stars, a satellite. What you are not seeing,
however, is the complexity of our atmosphere.
The atmosphere has five distinct layers that are determined by the changes in
temperature that happen with increasing altitude. Layers of Earth’s atmosphere are
divided into five different layers as:
•Exosphere
•Thermosphere
•Mesosphere
•Stratosphere
Dept of AE •Troposphere
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 Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer in the atmosphere. It extends upward to about 10 km
above sea level starting from ground level. The lowest part of the troposphere is called the
boundary layer and the topmost layer is called the tropopause. The troposphere contains 75%
of all air in the atmosphere. Most clouds appear in this layer because 99% of the water vapour
in the atmosphere is found here. Temperature and air pressure drop as you go higher in the
troposphere. When a parcel of air moves upwards it expands. When air expands it cools. Due
to this reason, the base of the troposphere is warmer than its base because the air in the
surface of the Earth absorbs the sun’s energy, gets heated up and moves upward as a result of
which it cools down.
Stratosphere
Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere which extends from the top of the troposphere to
about 50 km (31 miles) above the ground. The ozone layer lies within the stratosphere. Ozone
Dept of AE molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun and convert it
into heat. Because of this, unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere gets warmer the higher you
go!

Mesosphere
Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere and it extends to a height of about 85 km (53 miles)
from the ground. Here, the temperature grows colder as you rise up through the mesosphere.
The coldest parts of our atmosphere are located in this layer and can reach –90°C.
 Thermosphere
Thermosphere lies above the mesosphere and this is a region where the temperature increases
as you go higher up. The temperature increase is caused due to the absorption of energetic
ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from the sun. However, the air in this layer is so thin that it
would feel freezing cold to us! Satellites orbit Earth within the thermosphere. Temperatures in
the upper thermosphere can range from about 500° C to 2,000° C or higher. The aurora, the
Northern Lights and Southern Lights, occur in the thermosphere.

Exosphere
Exosphere is the final frontier of the Earth’s gaseous envelope. The air in the exosphere is
constantly but gradually leaking out of the Earth’s atmosphere into outer space. There is no
clear cut upper boundary where the exosphere finally fades away into space.

Dept of AE Ionosphere
The ionosphere isn’t a distinct layer unlike other layers in the atmosphere. The ionosphere is a
series of regions in parts of the mesosphere and thermosphere where high-energy radiation
from the Sun has knocked electrons loose from their parent atoms and molecules.
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 What Would Happen if the Earth’s Atmosphere Disappeared?
Have you ever wondered what would happen if the Earth lost its atmosphere? Here is a
breakdown of what could happen:
•Birds and planes would fall from the sky. Although we can’t see air, it has a mass that
supports flying objects.
•The sky would turn black. The sky gets its colour blue due to the atmosphere. Gases and
particles in Earth’s atmosphere scatter sunlight in all directions. Blue light is scattered more
than other colours because it travels as shorter, smaller waves. This is why we see a blue sky
most of the time.
•There would be no sensation of sound. Although you could feel vibrations from the ground
you wouldn’t hear anything. Sound requires a medium to travel.
•All the water bodies such as rivers, lakes and oceans would boil away. Boiling occurs when
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the vapour pressure of a liquid exceeds external pressure. In a vacuum, the water readily boils.
•Organisms that breathe air to survive would die.
 Composition of Atmosphere – Gases in the Atmosphere

The atmospheric composition of gas on Earth is largely conducted by the by-products of

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the life that it nurtures. Dry air from earth’s atmosphere contains 0.038% of carbon
dioxide, 20.95% of oxygen, 78.08% of nitrogen and 0.93% of argon. Traces of hydrogen,
neon, helium, nitrous oxide, ozone and other “noble” gases, but generally a variable
amount of water vapour is also present, on average about 1% at sea level.
 What is Temperature

•Definition: Measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.

•Scalar quantity.
•Indicates how hot or cold an object is.

Importance of Temperature
•Affects physical and chemical changes.
•Crucial in weather forecasting, medicine, industry, cooking,
etc.
•Influences states of matter (solid, liquid, gas).
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Temperature Scales
•Celsius (°C) – Common in most countries.
•Fahrenheit (°F) – Used mainly in the USA.
•Kelvin (K) – SI unit, used in scientific research.
•Conversion formulas:
• °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9
• K = °C + 273.15
 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

DIURNAL VARIATION
Diurnal variation is the change in temperature from day to night brought
about by the daily rotation of the Earth. The Earth receives heat during
the day by solar radiation but continually loses heat by terrestrial radiation. Warming and
cooling depend on an imbalance of solar and terrestrial radiation. During the day, solar
radiation exceeds terrestrial radiation and the surface becomes
warmer. At night, solar radiation ceases, but terrestrial radiation continues and cools the surface.
Cooling continues after sunrise until solar radiation again exceeds terrestrial radiation.
Minimum temperature usually occurs after sunrise, sometimes as much as one hour after. The
continued cooling after sunrise is one reason that fog sometimes forms shortly after the sun is
Dept of AE above the horizon. We will have more to say about diurnal variation and topographic surfaces

SEASONAL VARIATION
In addition to its daily rotation, the Earth revolves in a complete orbit around the sun
once each year. Since the axis of the Earth tilts to the plane of orbit, the angle of
incident solar radiation varies seasonally between hemispheres. The Northern
Hemisphere is warmer in June, July, and August because it receives more solar
energy than does the Southern Hemisphere
 VARIATION WITH LATITUDE
The shape of the Earth causes a geographical variation in the angle of incident
solar radiation

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 VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE
This decrease of temperature with altitude is defined as lapse rate

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 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND ALTIMETRY
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere.
Since air is not solid, we cannot weigh it with conventional scales. Yet, Toricelli proved
three centuries ago that he could weigh the atmosphere by balancing it against a
column of mercury. He actually measured pressure converting it directly to weight

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Dept of AE Why do we use mercury in the barometer? Mercury is the
heaviest substance available which remains liquid at
ordinary temperatures. It permits the instrument to be of
manageable size. We could use water, but at sea level the
water column would
be about 34 feet high.
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 PRESSURE VARIATION

Altitude

Atmospheric pressure decreases as

altitude increases. This is because air
pressure is a result of the weight of the
air above a given point, and at higher
altitudes, there is less air above,
leading to lower pressure. The
relationship is not linear, with the
decrease being more rapid at lower
Dept of AE altitudes and slowing down at higher
altitudes
 Temperature
Like most substances, air expands as it
becomes
warmer and shrinks as it cools. Figure 11
shows
three columns of air---one colder than
standard,
one at standard temperature, and one warmer
than standard. Pressure is equal at the bottom
of each column and equal at the top of each
column.
Therefore, pressure decrease upward through
Dept of AE each column is the same. Vertical expansion
of the warm column has made it higher than
the column at standard temperature.
Shrinkage of the cold column has made it
shorter. Since pressure decrease is the same
in each column, the rate of decrease of
pressure with height in warm air is less than
standard; the rate of decrease of pressure
with height in cold air is greater than standard.
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 Pressure Analyses

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We plot sea level pressures on a map and draw lines connecting points of equal
pressure. These lines of equal pressure are isobars. Hence, the surface map is an
isobaric analysis showing identifiable,
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 ALTIMETRY
Measurement of an aircraft’s height above a reference level using atmospheric pressure
Principle of Operation:
•Based on the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) model
•Uses a barometric altimeter to convert measured pressure into altitude
Purpose:
•Determines safe separation from terrain and other aircraft
•Ensures compliance with airspace regulations
•Critical for navigation and landing approachess
Types of Altitudes:
•Indicated Altitude: Read directly from the altimeter
•Pressure Altitude: Above the standard datum plane (29.92 inHg / 1013.25 hPa)
•True Altitude: Actual height above mean sea level
Dept of AE •Absolute Altitude: Height above ground level
•Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for temperature
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 Absolute Altitude
Height Above the Ground
Absolute altitude is your height above the terrain directly beneath you, measured in
feet above ground level (AGL).
Absolute altitude changes constantly as terrain elevation changes, unlike indicated or
true altitude, which use sea level as a reference. This altitude matters most when flying
at low levels, such as during take-off, landing, or obstacle avoidance.
Pilots often rely on radar altimeters (RADALT) or GPS systems to determine their
precise absolute altitude, especially in low-visibility conditions.
Why It Matters: Absolute altitude is crucial for safe landings, obstacle clearance,
and low-level flight operations like search and rescue or helicopter missions.

Pressure Altitude
Dept of AE Your Standardised Height in the Atmosphere
Pressure altitude is the altitude your aircraft would be at in the International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA), based purely on air pressure. It is the height above
the standard pressure level of 1013 hPa (29.92 inHg), regardless of actual weather
conditions.
Pilots calculate pressure altitude by setting the altimeter to 1013 hPa and reading the
displayed altitude. ATC assigns pressure altitude when transitioning to flight levels (FL),
so all aircraft can use the same reference point and avoid conflicts due to local pressure
changes.
It is used in performance calculations, as aircraft manufacturers use pressure altitude to
determine climb rates, fuel burn, and take-off/landing distances.
 Pressure altitude is the altitude your aircraft would be at in the International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA), based purely on air pressure. It is the height above
the standard pressure level of 1013 hPa (29.92 inHg), regardless of actual
weather conditions.
Pilots calculate pressure altitude by setting the altimeter to 1013 hPa and reading
the displayed altitude. ATC assigns pressure altitude when transitioning to flight
levels (FL), so all aircraft can use the same reference point and avoid conflicts due
to local pressure change
Density Altitude
The Altitude That Affects Performance
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature and air density
variations. It represents how high the aircraft “feels” like it’s flying due to
Dept of AE atmospheric conditions.
High temperature, low pressure, and high humidity increase density
altitude, making the air thinner, or less dense. This reduces engine power, climb
rate, and lift, significantly affecting take-off and landing performance.
Hot and high-altitude airports (like those in Spain, Switzerland, or the Alps) often
have dangerously high density altitudes, requiring longer runways and reduced
aircraft loads.
Pilots use performance charts to adjust take-off speeds, fuel calculations, and
required runway lengths based on density altitude.
Why It Matters: Density altitude is crucial for safety in take-off and landing,
particularly in hot, high, and humid conditions where reduced aircraft performance
 Flight Level (FL)
Standardized Altitudes for High-Altitude Operations
A Flight Level (FL) is a standardized altitude reference used in aviation, measured
in 100-foot increments above the standard datum plane (1013.25 hPa / 29.92
inHg). Unlike traditional altitude, which is based on local air pressure (QNH), flight
levels provide a consistent altitude reference across all airspace, reducing errors
caused by changing atmospheric conditions.

•Indicated Altitude – What you see on the altimeter when set to local pressure
(QNH).
•True Altitude – Your actual height above mean sea level (MSL), is crucial for
terrain clearance.
•Absolute Altitude – Your height above ground level (AGL), is essential for takeoff,
Dept of AE landing, and obstacle awareness.
•Pressure Altitude – The altitude based on standard pressure (1013 hPa), used
for performance calculations and transitioning to flight levels.
•Density Altitude – Pressure altitude corrected for temperature, impacting aircraft
performance, especially in hot and high conditions.
•Flight Levels (FL) – Standardised altitude references above the transition level,
ensuring safe airspace separation at high altitudes.
•Transition Altitude & Transition Level – The points where pilots switch between
local QNH and standard pressure settings.
 Altimeter setting
Altimeter settings in aviation refer to the atmospheric pressure value set on an
altimeter to indicate an aircraft's height above a reference surface, such as sea
level or the airfield. These settings ensure accurate altitude or height information
during different phases of flight. There are three main altimeter settings: QNH, QFE,
and QNE (also known as the standard setting).
QNH: This setting indicates the aircraft's altitude above
mean sea level (MSL). When the altimeter is set to QNH
and the aircraft is on the runway, it will display the airfield's
elevation. QNH is obtained by correcting a measured QFE
(see below) to sea level.

QFE: This setting indicates the aircraft's height above the

Dept of AE airfield elevation (or touchdown point). When the altimeter
•QNH: Altimeter reads is set to QFE, it will read zero when the aircraft is on the
altitude above Mean Sea runway.
Level (MSL)
•QFE: Altimeter reads QNE: This setting is the standard atmospheric pressure
altitude above a specific setting (1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inHg) and is used when
airfield (height AGL) flying at or above the transition altitude.
•QNE: Standard setting
(1013.25 hPa / 29.92 inHg) Transition Altitude: This is the altitude where the altimeter
used above transition setting changes from QNH to QNE (or vice versa). It
altitude for flight levels varies by location
 Why are altimeter settings important?
•Accurate altitude indication:
Proper altimeter settings ensure that the altimeter displays the correct altitude or height,
which is crucial for maintaining safe separation from terrain and other aircraft.
•Terrain clearance:
When flying at or below the transition altitude, using QNH ensures accurate terrain
clearance by referencing the aircraft's altitude above sea level.
•Airspace management:
Using QNE (standard setting) at higher altitudes helps with efficient airspace
management and prevents conflicts between aircraft operating at different altitudes.
•Preventing accidents:
Incorrect altimeter settings can lead to dangerous situations, such as flying too low or too
high, potentially causing controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) or other accidents.
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 ALTIMETRY

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 Pressure altitude is the altitude indicated on an altimeter when it's set to the
standard sea-level pressure (29.92 inHg or 1013.25 hPa). It essentially represents
the altitude in a standard atmosphere where the observed pressure would be the
same. This value is crucial for aircraft performance calculations, especially in non-
standard atmospheric conditions
Density altitude is a key concept in aviation, representing the altitude at which an
aircraft "feels" it is flying, based on air density. It's not just the actual altitude but a
combination of altitude, temperature, and pressure that affects aircraft
performance. High density altitude, often due to high temperatures or high
altitudes, reduces aircraft performance, making takeoff and landing more
challenging.

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 The Altimeter
The easiest way to determine pressure altitude is to set 29.92 on the altimeter and
read it. This method doesn’t require any math, but what about when you’re outside
of the cockpit?

In that case, we can use the pressure altitude formula or a flight computer.

The Pressure Altitude Formula

There are two pressure altitude formulas you should be aware of, the detailed
formula (precise but complicated) and the rule of thumb formula (accurate enough
and easy).

Let’s cover the rule of thumb formula first, as you’ll likely use it in the wild.
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Rule of Thumb Pressure Altitude Formula (Most Practical)
The rule of thumb formula for pressure altitude is:
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 Wind
Wind is caused by uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Because the
earth's surface is made up of different types of land and water, the earth absorbs the
sun's heat at different rates. One example of this uneven heating is the daily wind
cycle.
It is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun. It
does not have much substance—you cannot see it or hold it—but you can feel its
force. It can dry your clothes in summer and chill you to the bone in winter. It is
strong enough to carry sailing ships across the ocean and rip huge trees from the
ground. It is the great equalizer of the atmosphere, transporting heat, moisture,
pollutants, and dust great distances around the globe. Landforms, processes, and
impacts of wind are called Aeolian landforms, such as sand dunes and Loess
deposits, which are deposits of silt.
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Differences in atmospheric pressure generate winds. At the Equator, the sun
warms the water and land more than it does the rest of the globe. Warm
equatorial air rises higher into the atmosphere and migrates toward the poles.
This is a low-pressure system. At the same time, cooler, denser air moves over
Earth’s surface toward the Equator to replace the heated air. This is a high-
pressure system. Winds generally blow from high-pressure areas to low-
pressure areas.
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 The boundary between these two areas is called a front. The complex relationships
between fronts cause different types of wind and weather patterns

Wind Zones

The Earth contains five major wind zones: polar easterlies, westerlies, horse
latitudes, trade winds, and the doldrums.

Polar Easterlies
Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the east.
They emanate from the polar highs, areas of high pressure around the North and
Dept of AE South Poles. Polar easterlies flow to low-pressure areas in sub-polar regions.

Westerlies
Westerlies are prevailing winds that blow from the west at midlatitudes. They are fed
by polar easterlies and winds from the high-pressure horse latitudes, which
sandwich them on either side. Westerlies are strongest in the winter, when pressure
over the pole is low, and weakest in summer, when the polar high creates stronger
polar easterlies.
 Horse Latitudes
The horse latitudes are a narrow zone of warm, dry climates between
westerlies and the trade winds. Horse latitudes are about 30 and 35 degrees
north and south. Many deserts, from the rainless Atacama of South America
to the arid Kalahari of Africa, are part of the horse latitudes.

Trade Winds
Trade winds are the powerful prevailing winds that blow from the east across
the tropics. Trade winds are generally very predictable. They have been instrumental
in the history of exploration, communication, and trade. Ships relied on trade winds to
establish quick, reliable routes across the vast Atlantic and, later, Pacific Oceans. Even
today, shipping depends on trade winds and the ocean currents they drive.

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Doldrums
The place where trade winds of the two hemispheres meet is called
the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The area around the ITCZ is called
the doldrums. Prevailing winds in the doldrums are very weak, and the
weather is unusually calm.
 Moisture
Moisture is the presence of a liquid, especially water, often in trace amounts. Moisture
is defined as water in the adsorbed or absorbed phase.

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 Moisture in the air, also known as humidity, refers to the amount of water vapor
present in the atmosphere. It's a key factor in weather and climate, and also
affects our comfort and even the condition of objects around us. High humidity
means more water vapor is present, while low humidity indicates dry air.

Impact of Moisture:
•Weather: Humidity plays a crucial role in weather patterns, influencing
precipitation, cloud formation, and temperature.
•Comfort: High humidity can make it feel hotter and stickier, while low humidity
can lead to dry skin and respiratory irritation.
•Materials: Moisture can affect the condition of materials, causing corrosion in
Dept of AE metal or damage to wood.
 Water Moisture in the Air (Humidity)
The amount of water vapor in the air can range from trace amounts up to about 4%
by volume. Humidity is a term used to describe the relative amount of water vapor
dissolved in the air. In general terms, humid refers to moist air and arid refers to dry
air conditions.

Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. As warm, moist air cools,
the relative humidity increases. When air has reached the maximum amount or
water it can hold it is called saturated - this occurs when clouds form and
moisture condenses to for water droplets. As the air continues to cool, microscopic
water droplets grow in size and it may start raining! The atmospheric temperature
below which water droplets begin to condense is called the dew point. The dew
point is the temperature at which moist air reaches 100% saturation. Dew can form
Dept of AE on objects and consists of tiny drops of water that form on cool surfaces at night when
the atmospheric vapor condenses (such as on grass)
Weather reports frequently report the relative humidity. Relative humidity of
100% indicates that the dew point is equal to the current temperature when the air
is holding the maximum amount of water vapor (it is saturated), and water vapor will
begin to condense into water droplets, forming fog (clouds). Moist air is less dense
than dry air. This explains why moist are rises to form clouds.
 Cloud Formation

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 THE PRECIPITATION LADDER
11. PRECIPITATION
10. DROPLET GROWTH
9. BUOYANCY/CLOUDINESS
8. CONDENSATION
7. SATURATION
6. HUMIDIFICATION
5. COOLING
4. EXPANSION
3. ASCENT
2. DIRTY AIR
1. WATER VAPOR

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 Ascent and Expansion are two of the main processes that result in the cooling of an air parcel in which clouds will form.
We mostly think of moving air as wind flowing horizontally across the surface. But air moving vertically is extremely
important in weather processes, particularly with respect to clouds and precipitation. Ascending air currents take us up
the Precipitation Ladder. (Where descending currents are present, we come down the Ladder with processes reversing
until we are finally left with water vapor and dust in an air mass.)
There are four main processes occurring at or near the earth's surface which give can rise to ascending air: convergence,
convection, frontal lifting and physical lifting.
Convergence occurs when several surface air currents in the horizontal flow move toward each other to meet in a common
space. When they converge, there is only one way to go: Up. A surface low pressure cell is an example of an area of
convergence and air at its center must rise as a result.
Convection occurs when air is heated from below by sunlight or by contact with a warmer land or water surface until it
becomes less dense than the air above it. The heated parcel of air will rise until it has again cooled to the temperature of
the surrounding air.
Frontal lifting occurs when a warmer air mass meets a colder one. Since warm air is less dense than cold, a warm air mass
approaching a cold one will ascend over the cold air. This forms a warm front. When a cold air mass approaches a warm
one, it wedges under the warmer air, lifting it above the ground. This forms a cold front. In either case, there is ascending
air at the frontal boundary.
Dept of AE Physical lifting, also known as orographic lifting, occurs when horizontal winds are forced to rise in order to cross
topographical barriers such as hills and mountains.
Whatever the process causing an air parcel to ascend, the result is that the rising air parcel must change its pressure to
be in equilibrium with the surrounding air. Since atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, so too must the pressure
of the ascending air parcel. As air ascends, it expands. And as it expands, it cools. And the higher the parcel rises, the
cooler it becomes.
Now that we have begun cooling the air parcel, we are almost ready to form a cloud. We must continue to cool the parcel
until condensation is reached. The next several rungs of the Precipitation Ladder describe the processes through to the
condensation of liquid water.
As the air cools, its relative humidity will increase - a process Day terms humidification (Rung 6). Although nothing has yet
happened to change the water vapor content of the air, the saturation threshold of the air parcel has decreased as the air
cooled. By decreasing the saturation threshold, the relative humidity increases. Cooling is the most important method for
increasing the relative humidity but it is not the only one. Another is to add more water vapor through evaporation or
mixing with a more humid air mass.
 Clouds are formed when air
contains as much water vapor
(gas) as it can hold. This is
called the saturation point,
and it can be reached in two
ways. First, moisture
accumulates until it reaches
the maximum amount the
volume of air can hold. The
other method reduces the
temperature of the moisture
filled air, which in turn lowers
Dept of AE the amount of moisture it can
contain. Saturation,
therefore, is reached through
evaporation and
condensation, respectively.
When saturation occurs,
moisture becomes visible
water droplets in the form of
fog and clouds.
 Clouds are visible masses of water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the
atmosphere. They form when water vapor in the air condenses, meaning it changes
from a gaseous state to a liquid or solid state. This condensation happens when air
rises and cools, or when warm, moist air meets colder air. Clouds play a vital role in
Earth's weather and climate, influencing temperature, precipitation, and the amount
of sunlight reaching the surface

Ten Basic Clouds

High-Level Clouds
Cirrus (Ci), cirrocumulus (Cc), and cirrostratus (Cs) are high level clouds.
They are typically thin and white in appearance, but can appear in a magnificent
array of colors when the sun is low on the horizon
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 Low-Level Clouds
Cumulus (Cu), stratocumulus (Sc), stratus (St), and cumulonimbus (Cb) are low
clouds composed of water droplets. Cumulonimbus, with its strong vertical updraft,
extends well into the high level of clouds.

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 Stable air and Unstable air

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 In the atmosphere, stable air resists vertical movement while unstable air readily
rises. Stable air is characterized by a temperature profile where the air cools slower
with height, leading to a tendency for air parcels to sink back down if
displaced. Unstable air, on the other hand, cools faster with height, causing rising
air parcels to continue ascending, potentially leading to cloud formation and
precipitation

Stable Air:
•Temperature Profile: Cools slower with height than the surrounding air.
•Vertical Motion: Resists vertical motion; air parcels tend to sink back down if
displaced.
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•Weather: Associated with clear skies, light winds, and limited cloud development.
•Pollution: Can trap pollutants near the surface due to lack of mixing.
•Examples: Fog and temperature inversions are examples of stable atmospheric
conditions
 Unstable Air:
•Temperature Profile: Cools faster with height than the surrounding air.
•Vertical Motion: Encourages vertical motion; air parcels tend to rise if
displaced.
•Weather: Associated with cloud development (especially cumulus and
cumulonimbus), precipitation, and potentially thunderstorms.
•Pollution: Helps disperse pollutants through vertical mixing.
•Examples: Thunderstorms and strong convective activity indicate unstable
conditions

Dept of AE Factors Affecting Stability:

•Temperature:
•The rate at which temperature decreases with height (lapse rate) is a key
factor.
•Moisture:
•Moisture content in the air influences stability, particularly when air is lifted and
condensation occurs.
•Wind Shear:
•Changes in wind speed and direction with height can contribute to instability
 Air masses and Fronts
Air masses and fronts are fundamental concepts in understanding weather
patterns. Air masses are large bodies of air with relatively uniform temperature and
humidity, formed over source regions like oceans or continents. When air masses
with contrasting characteristics meet, they form boundaries called fronts, which are
associated with distinct weather changes.

Air Masses:
•Definition:
Air masses are huge volumes of air with uniform temperature and moisture characteristics.
•Source Regions:
They develop over source regions with specific temperature and moisture properties. Common types
include:
Dept of AE •Maritime Tropical (mT): Warm and moist, forming over tropical oceans.
•Maritime Polar (mP): Cool and moist, forming over high-latitude oceans.
•Continental Tropical (cT): Warm and dry, forming over subtropical continents.
•Continental Polar (cP): Cold and dry, forming over high-latitude continents.
•Continental Arctic (cA): Very cold and dry, forming over Arctic regions.
 Types of Fronts:
•Cold Front: A cold air mass pushes under a warm air mass, forcing the warm air to rise,
often leading to heavy showers and thunderstorms.
•Warm Front: A warm air mass moves over a cold air mass, leading to gradual lifting of the
warm air and potential for widespread, light precipitation.
•Stationary Front: Neither air mass advances, leading to prolonged cloudiness and
precipitation.
•Occluded Front: A faster-moving cold front overtakes a warm front, lifting both air masses
aloft.

Dept of AE
Dept of AE
Dept of AE
Dept of AE