1. Spoken vs.
Written Language
While both serve communication, they differ significantly in acquisition, prestige, and
structure.
Aspect Spoken Language Written Language
Acquisition Natural; acquired in early childhood Requires systematic instruction
without formal instruction. and practice; builds on speech.
Transient; historically preserved only Permanent; can be preserved for
Persistence
by memory until recording tech. millennia (e.g., libraries).
High variety in regional dialects and High pressure toward a single
Standardization
pronunciation. written norm/standard.
Often viewed as "informal" or Associated with political,
Prestige
inferior in literate societies. economic, and educational power.
New Example: The "Job Interview"
Spoken: You use verbal cues, tone, and slang like "Yeah, for sure." This is
dynamic but disappears once said.
Written: Your CV uses formal, standardized English. It is a permanent record
the recruiter can study later.
2. Speech Act Theory: Austin and Searle
A Speech Act is an utterance that serves a functional purpose—doing something with words.
A. Performatives vs. Constatives
Constative: Describes a state of affairs. It is evaluated based on Truth Value (is it
true or false?).
o New Example: "The coffee is cold." (This describes the temperature and can
be proven true or false).
Performative: Performs an action through the act of speaking. It is evaluated by
Felicity (was it successful?).
o New Example: "I bet you ten dollars it will rain." (By saying this, you have
officially entered into a wager).
B. Felicity Conditions
For a performative to "work" (be felicitous), certain conditions must be met:
1. Preparatory: The speaker must have the authority and the context must be right.
2. Sincerity: The participants must mean what they say.
3. Essential: The utterance must count as the performance of the act.
3. The Three-Part Structure of Speech Acts
1. Locutionary Act: The literal meaning; the actual words and grammar used.
2. Illocutionary Act: The intention or "force" behind the words (request, command,
promise).
3. Perlocutionary Act: The effect on the listener (compliance, offense, persuasion).
New Example: "Watch out for the wet floor!"
Locutionary: A warning about a slippery surface.
Illocutionary: Warning/Directing the person to walk carefully.
Perlocutionary: The listener slows down and avoids falling.
4. Direct vs. Indirect Speech Acts
Direct: The literal meaning matches the intention (e.g., "Pass the sugar" as a
command).
Indirect: The intention is implied through context or politeness.
o New Example: "Are you still using that stapler?"
o Direct Meaning: A question about the current status of the object.
o Indirect Meaning: A request to borrow the stapler.
5. Coherence: The Logic of Text
Coherence is achieved when a text is organized logically and makes sense. It involves
Causality Relations in the "Textual World".
Causality Relations & Time
Category Definition New Example Time Relation
Cause "The storm knocked down the
Event A creates the Forward: Cause
power lines; the city was in the
condition for Event B. → Result
dark."
Event A makes Event B "She found her keys, so she Forward: Enable
Enablement
possible but not certain. could finally leave for work." → Action
A rational response to an "I was hungry, so I made a Forward: Reason
Reason
earlier event. sandwich." → Action
Category Definition New Example Time Relation
An earlier event is done "He practiced daily to win the Backward: Goal
Purpose
to achieve a later goal. marathon." ← Action
6. Cohesion: The "Glue" of Writing
Cohesion refers to the linguistic devices (the "surface features") that link sentences together.
Reference Sub-categories
Exophoric: Refers to something outside the text.
o Example: "Look at that!" (Pointing to a bird).
Anaphoric: Refers back to something mentioned earlier.
o Example: "Sarah arrived late. She missed the intro." (She refers back to
Sarah).
Cataphoric: Refers forward to something coming later.
o Example: "When he arrived, John saw the mess." (He refers forward to John).
Other Cohesive Tools
Substitution: Replacing a word with another (e.g., "I have a red pen. Do you want
one?").
Ellipsis: Omitting words because the meaning is understood (e.g., "Where are you
going?" "To the mall.").
Lexical Cohesion: Using synonyms or repetition (e.g., "The dog barked. The hound
was hungry.").