Science and Tech - (Part 03) Compilation Notes PD
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partydk1612Compilation of
Daily Class Notes
Science and Technology
List of Lectures
1. The Universe
2. Astronomical Science
3. Events and Elements of The Universe
4. Standard Model of Particle Physics
5. Space Science- Basics
6. Launch Vehicles and Satellites
7. Types of Satellites
8. Types of Satellites (Part - 02)
9. Interplanetary Missions
10. Space Tech-Impact, and Issues
11. Space Pollution and Impact of ISRO
12. Space Pollution, and Impact of ISRO (Part 02)
13. Information and Communication Technology-Basics
14. Mobile and Internet Technology
15. Internet Technology and Super Computers
16. Cybersecurity and Supercomputers
17. Supercomputers
18. Quantum Computer
19. Blockchain Technology
20. Blockchain Technology and Quantum Computer
21. Extended Reality and Nuclear Technology Basics
22. Defence Technology
23. Defence Technology (Part-02)
24. Nuclear Technology
25. Nuclear Technology (Part 02)
26. Intellectual Property
27. Intellectual Property Rights (Part-02)
28. Intellectual Property Rights (Part 03)
29. Health Diseases & Vaccination
30. Robotics
Science and Technology
Lecture 01: The Universe
Universe:
Keywords:
● Astrophysics:Astrophysics is the application of physics to study celestial Bodies.
● Cosmology: Itis the study of the origin & developmentof the universe.
Big Bang Theory
● The Big Bang theory is the most accepted model for understanding the birth of the
universe. It refers to the gigantic explosion of matter and energy that was about 13.8
billion years ago.
● Singularity: Initially all spaces were contained in a singlepointofveryhighdensityand
hightemperaturefromwhichtheentireuniversehasbeenexpandinginalldirections.This
point of origin is known assingularity.
How big is our universe?
● Earth’suniversehas1sunalongwith8planets,multiplemoonsofeachplanet,asteroids,
etc. millions of stars form a galaxy. We are living in the Milky Way.
● Milky Way contains billions of stars(around100-400billionapproximately).Thisgalaxy
can be defined as a cluster of galaxies or a supercluster of galaxies like the Virgo
supercluster.
● Beyond the supercluster, we have our universe where there are billions of galaxies.
Saraswati is the recently found supercluster.
● ThetheoryoftheExpandingUniverseHypothesis(EUH)wasproposedbyEdwinHubble.
ThereasonwhyEUHandtheBigBangTheoryarestillconsideredbyscientistsisbecause
of the discovery and understanding of:
○ CosmologicalRedshift:Allthegalaxiesaremovingawayfromusdependingonthe
redshift based on Doppler’s effect.
○ Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR): This is relic radiation, the
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leftover radiation from the Big Bang. It represents the oldest light in the universe.
○ Gravitational Waves
Did you Know?
Doppler Effect:
● A phenomenon where the perceived frequency of a sound wave changes due to relative
motion between the source and observer.
○ The pitch of the sound is higher when the source of sound is approaching. The
pitch of the sound is lower when thesourceofsoundisdeparting.Example:The
characteristic sound of a motorcycle buzzing is an example of the Doppler effect.
○ When weobserve
any distant Star
from some other
Galaxy it seems
to appear Redas
seen in Red
Shift.
○ It means that a
particular Star is
moving away from us. Since this Redshiftisobservedeverywhereintheuniverse,
We conclude that the Universe is EXPANDING.
○ This whole observation is based on the Doppler Effect.
Solar System
● The International Astronomical Union (IAU) was founded in 1919. Its mission is to
promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects, including research,
communication, education, and development, throughinternational cooperation.
● The International Astronomical Union (IAU) classifies planets and other celestial bodies,
except satellites in our solar system into three categories:planets,dwarfplanets,and
small solar system bodies (SSSBs).
Planets:
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● Aplanetisacelestialbodythatisinorbitaroundthesun.Ithassufficientmassforits
self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium
(nearly round) shape. It has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
● Thesolarsystemhaseightplanets:Mercury,Venus,Earth,Mars,Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus,
and Neptune.
● Venusisthehottestplanetinthesolarsystem.VenusisthesecondplanetfromtheSun
but is still hotter than Mercury.
○ This is because the atmosphere is very thick and is made up of greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide. It also has traces of nitrogen, and thecloudson
Venus are made up of sulphuric acid.
Dwarf Planets:
● Dwarf Planet is a celestial body that is in orbit around the sun.
● Ithassufficientmassforitsself-gravitytoovercomerigidbodyforcessothatitassumes
a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape.
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● It has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit which means it has not become
gravitationallydominantanditsharesitsorbitalspacewithotherbodiesofasimilarsize.
It is not a satellite.Examples:Ceres, Pluto, Eris,etc.
Small Solar System Bodies(A
ll other objects exceptsatellites):
● These are orbiting the sun and shall collectively be known assmallsolarsystembodies.
The small bodies in the solar system include comets, asteroids, objects in the Kuiper
Belt, etc.
Terrestrial and Jovian Planets:
● TerrestrialandJovianPlanetsareseparatedbyasteroidbelts.Theinner,rockyplanetsare
Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars.
● These worlds also are
known as terrestrial
planetsbecausetheyhave
solid surfaces.
● The outerplanetsaregas
giants Jupiter and
Saturn, and ice giants
Uranus and Neptune.
● These are called Jovian
planets that do not have solid surfaces. Instead, they are composed primarily of
hydrogen and helium, with traces of methane, ammonia, water, and other gases in
their atmospheres.
Moons or Natural Satellites
● Moons are bodies that orbit planets and asteroids in the solar system. Most of the
majorplanetsexceptMercuryandVenushavemoons.ThisisbecauseMercuryissoclose
to the Sun and its gravity, it wouldn’t be able to hold on to its own moon.
○ AnymoonwouldmostlikelycrashintoMercuryormaybegointoorbitaroundthe
Sun and eventually get pulled into it.
○ Why Venus doesn’t have a moon is a mystery for scientists to solve.
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● Jupiter(95moons)andSaturn(146moons)havethemostmoons. Jupiteralsohasthe
biggest moon (natural satellites) inoursolarsystem,Ganymede.OneofSaturn'smoons,
namedTitan, even has its own atmosphere, which isvery unusual for a moon.
Exoplanets
● Exoplanets are planets outside of our solar system that usually orbit other stars in our
galaxy.
Stars
● Massive self-luminous celestial body of gas that shines by radiation derived from its
internal energy sources. The energy is produced in the star using nuclear fusion reactions.
Asteroid Belt
● Asteroid belt is a torus-shaped (circular) region inthesolarsystemcenteredaroundthe
sun between 2.2 and 3.2 astronomical units (AU). The width of the asteroid belt is 1 AU.
○ Roughly spans the space between the orbits of planets, Mars and Jupiter.
Astronomical Unit is approximately the average distance between the Earth and
the Sun (about 150 billion metres).
Asteroid vs Meteorite vs Meteor vs Meteorite vs Comets
● Asteroid:Asteroidsarelarge,rockybodiesinspacethatorbittheSunanddonothaveany
atmosphere. Although asteroids orbit the Sun like planets, they are much smaller than
planets. Some asteroids have their
own moons.
○ The largest asteroid is Ceres
(950 km diameter).
○ Three Types: There are
divided into three types:
■ Found between Mars
and Jupiter asteroid
belt.
■ Trojan Asteroids:
Share orbit with
larger planets
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■ Near Earth Asteroids:They have an orbit of 1.3 AU.
● Meteoroids:Meteoroidsaremuchsmallerrockybodiesinspacethatorbitaroundthesun.
They are smaller than asteroids and contain metallic fragments.
● Meteors: Most meteoroids that enter Earth’s atmospherearesosmallthattheyvaporize
due to friction of the atmosphere and never reach the planet's surface. They create
beautiful trails of light, sometimes known as “shooting stars''.
○ Meteor Shower: Scientists estimate that about 48.5 tons ( 44 tonnes or 44,000
kilograms)ofmeteoriticmaterialfallsonEartheachday.Almostallthematerialis
vaporizedinEarth'satmosphere,leavingabrighttrailfondlycalled"shootingstars."
Several meteors per hour can usually be seen on any givennight.Sometimesthe
number increases dramatically—these events are termed meteor showers.
● Meteorites: They can be small asteroids or large meteoroids that survive the earth’s
atmosphere and reach the earth’s surface.
○ MeteoritesinIndia:Indiahasthreeofthesemeteorimpactcraters–Ramgarhin
Rajasthan, Lonar in Maharashtra and Dhala in Madhya Pradesh. These meteor
impact craters are called Astroblemes. When translated from Greek, they mean
star wound.
■ Lonar Crater Lake:
Lonar Crater Lake
(Buldhana district,
Maharashtra) was
identified as a
unique g eographical
site by C J E
Alexander, a British
officer, in 1823.
Lonar is
approximately 1.2 km in diameter,
➢ LonarLakeinMaharashtraistheonlycraterlakeinIndia.In2020,
Lonar Lake was added to the list of recognized Ramsar sites
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■ Dhala Crater: It is located in Shivpuri district in Madhya Pradesh and is
theoldestandthelargestimpactcraterinIndia.DhalaCraterisamassive
11 km in diameter, making it the largest in Asia.
■ RamgarhCrater:AlargemeteoritefellonEarth,some110kmfromKotain
Rajasthan, and formed an unusualcraterwithadiameterofapproximately
10 km. Its diameter is 3.5 kilometres.
omets:Cometsarelikedirtysnowballsmainlymadeupoficeandfrozencarbondioxide
● C
with some dust and organic molecules left over from the formation of the solar system.
○ Halley's Comet: A "periodic" comet, it returns to Earth's vicinity about every 75
years, makingitpossibleforapersontoseeittwiceintheirlifetime.Itwaslast
here in 1986, and
it is projected to
return in 2061.
The comet,
officially called
1P/Halley, is
named after
Englishastronomer
Edmond Halley.
● KuiperBelt:Itisaregion
of space with bits of
rocks,ice,comets,anddwarfplanetsstartingfromadistanceof30AUandspreadingup
to 1000 AU.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 02: Astronomical Science
Asteroid:
● The meaning of asteroid is starlike.
● It is a large rocky body in space orbiting around the sun and they do not have an
atmosphere.
● Asteroidsaresmallrockybodiesthatorbitthe
Sun,primarilyfoundintheasteroidbelt(150
Million Km) between Mars and Jupiter.
● Mercury does not have an atmosphere and
Venushasasulfuricacid(95%carbondioxide)
a tmosphere.
● Some asteroids may have their own moons.
● SomefamousasteroidsincludeCeres(thelargestandspherical,whichisalsoclassified
as a dwarf planet), Vesta, and Pallas.
Types of asteroids:
● Asteroid belt:
○ They found between Mars and Jupiter.
● Trojan Asteroids:
○ TheTrojanasteroidsarelocatedattheLagrangepoints4and5ofthesunJupiter
system
○ At 60 degrees extending between Jupiter and the sun on both sides over the
revolution orbit of Jupiter.
● Near Earth Asteroid:
○ Asteroids pass very close (1.3 AU) to the Earth.
○ For example, Apophis is a well-known near-Earth asteroid, largely due to its
potential to pass close to Earth and its relatively large size.
○ Some of the near-earth asteroids are
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■ Eros: Eros is a relatively large near-Earth asteroid that orbits between
Earth and Mars. It was the first asteroid to be visited by a spacecraft
(NASA’s NEAR Shoemaker mission) in 2000,anditssurfacewasstudied
in great detail.
■ Bennu: Bennu is currently the subject of NASA's OSIRIS-REx mission,
which aims to return samples from the asteroid to Earth.
■ Ryugu: Ryugu is a near-Earth asteroid and is the target of Japan’s
Hayabusa2 mission, which successfully returned samplesto Earth in 2020.
Meteoroid:
● They are much smaller Rocky bodies in space.
● It is a smaller piece of interplanetary object like Asteroid or comet.
Meteor:
● Mostmeteoroidsthatentertheearth'satmospherearesosmallthattheyvaporizeinthe
Mesosphereand later layers of the Atmosphere & neverreach the earth's surface.
● Due to friction from the Earth's Atmosphere, they get burned and converted into ashes.
● They are also known as Shooting Star and Meteor Shower, which are when many small
meteoroids enter the atmosphere of the earth simultaneously.
Meteorite:
● Ameteoriteisasolidpieceofdebrisfromanasteroid,comet,ormeteoroidthatsurvives
its passage through Earth's atmosphere and lands on the surface.
● Meteorites are often mistaken for meteors, but the difference lies in the stage of their
journey: meteors are the streaks of light you see when a meteoroid burns up during
atmospheric entry, whilemeteoritesare the actualfragments that reach the Earth.
Comets:
● Comets are fascinating celestial objects that are often described as "dirty snowballs"
becausetheyaremadeofamixtureoficecrystals,frozengases,carbondioxide,dust,and
other organic compounds left over after the formation of our solar system.
● Most of the Comets are found in the Kuiper Belt.
● For example, Halley's Comet passes near the Earth every 76 years time visible in 1986.
● Structure of comet:
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○ Nucleus(orCore):Thenucleusofacometismadeofamixtureofrock,dust,and
frozengases(likewater,carbondioxide,methane,andammonia).Itisusuallyquite
small—typically just a few kilometers in diameter.
○ Coma: As a comet approaches the Sun, the heat begins to vaporize the frozen
gasesandicesinthenucleus,creatingacloudofgasanddustarounditcalledthe
coma. This coma can be quite large—up to 100,000 km (62,000 miles) across,
sometimes even larger than the size of Earth.
○ Tail: Thecomaandthesolarwindpushthegasanddustawayfromthenucleus,
forming a tail. The tail always points away from theSunduetothepressureof
sunlight and solar wind.
■ There are two types of tails:
■ IonTail:Composedofchargedparticles(ions)thatarepushedawaybythe
solar wind. This tail often appears blue and is straight.
■ DustTail:Composedofsmalldustparticlesthatreflectsunlight,givingita
more curved appearance. This tail often appears white or yellowish.
○ Orbit: Comets usually have highly ellipticalorbits,meaningtheytravelfromthe
outer solar system (far from the Sun) to close to the Sun. The most famous
comets—like Halley’s Comet—take decades or centuries to complete one orbit.
Comets that have relatively short periods (less than 200 years) are called
short-period comets, while those with longer orbital periods are known as
long-period comets.
Steller Cycle:
● Nebula: Astar'slifebeginsin
a nebula, which is acloudof
gas and dust. The materialin
the nebulaismostlyhydrogen
and helium, but it can also
contain heavier elements and
compounds.
● Protostar: A protostar is an
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earlystageintheformationofastar.Duringthisphase,thestarisn'tyethotenoughto
initiatenuclearfusion,butitcontinuestocontractandheatup.Thecoretemperatureof
a protostar rises to around 10 million K (Kelvin), and once it reaches this temperature,
nuclear fusionbegins, and the star enters the main sequence stage.
● Main Sequence:
○ Themainsequenceisthelongestphaseinastar'slife,whereitspendsmostofits
existence.
○ In this phase, the protostar converts into the main sequence star.
○ For our Sun, this phase lasts around 10 billion years.
○ Inthisphase,starsburnhydrogenintoheliumvianuclearfusion,whichreleasesa
tremendous amount of energy. This equals theenergyofgravityandfusionforce,
keeping the star stable.
● Red Giant or Supergiant Stage:
○ Asastarexhaustsitshydrogenfuelinthecore,fusionslowsdown.Gravitybegins
to win out over the pressure
fromfusion,causingthecoreto
contract.
○ Asthecorecontracts,theouter
layers expand, and the star
becomes a red giant (for low-
tomedium-massstars)orared
supergiant(for massive stars).
○ The red giant is 100 times bigger than the main sequence stars.
○ During this phase, stars may begin fusing helium into heavier elements (like
carbon and oxygen) in a process known ashelium shellburning.
● Nuclear Fusion and Shell Burning:
○ In the red giant or supergiant phase, the core is primarily composed of heavier
elementslikecarbonandoxygen,andtheouterlayersaremademostlyoflighter
elements likehydrogen and helium.
○ The helium flash occurs in low-tomedium-massstars(lessthanabout8times
the mass of the Sun), where the helium in the core ignites suddenly and
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dramatically.
○ Moremassivestarsundergomorecomplexcyclesoffusion,burninghelium,carbon,
neon, and evensilicon, creating heavier elementsin the process.
● End of the Life Cycle: The death of a star depends heavily on its mass. Here’s a
breakdown of the different outcomes for stars of various masses:
○ For Low- to Medium-Mass Stars (like our Sun):
■ PlanetaryNebula:Asfusionslows,theouterlayersofthestarareexpelled,
forming a planetary nebula. The core that remains becomes a white
dwarf, a small, dense remnant of the star.
■ White Dwarf: A
white dwarf is a
hot, dense object
that no longer
undergoes fusion.It
slowly cools and
fades over billions
ofyears.Overtime,
it will become a
black dwarf, a
cold, dark remnant.
Oursunwillconvert
into a white dwarf because it is a medium dwarf.
○ For High-Mass Stars (greater than 8 times the mass of the Sun):
■ Supernova:Whenamassivestarhasfusedheavyelementslikesiliconinto
iron, it cannot generate enough energy to supportits core against gravity.
➢ This leads to a supernova, an explosive death in which the star
releasesanenormousamountofenergy,outshininganentiregalaxy
for a short time.
■ Neutron Star:Afterthesupernova,iftheremainingcoreisbetweenabout
1.4to3solarmasses,itbecomesaneutronstaraverydenseobjectmade
mostly of neutrons.
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➢ Neutron stars are composed mainly of neutrons and are produced
after a supernova, forcing the protonsandelectronstocombineto
produce a neutron star.
➢ Aneutronstarisverydense(amassofthreetimestheSuncanfit
in a sphere of just 20km in diameter).Ifitsmassisanygreater,
itsgravitywillbesostrongthatitwillshrinkfurthertobecomea
black hole.
➢ ChandrasekharLimit:itisthemaximummassatwhichastarnear
theendofitslifecyclecanbecomeawhitedwarfandabovewhich
the star will collapse to form a neutron star or black hole.
■ BlackHole:Afterthesupernova,iftheremainingcoreisbetweenabout1.4
to 3 solar m
asses, itbecomesaneutronstar—averydenseobjectmade
mostlyofneutrons.Ifthecore’smassexceeds3solarmasses,itcollapses
into a black hole, an object with a gravitational field so strong that not
even light can escape from it.
➢ Blackholesdistortthespacearoundthemandcansuckneighboring
matter into them including stars.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 03: Events and Elements of The Universe
More forms of Stars
Cepheids
● Cepheids are among the brightest stars in the universe.
● Theyundergoregularcyclesofbrighteninganddimmingovertime.
The regularity of these brightness fluctuations makes them highly
reliable for measuring time intervals(nature’s clock)
Pulsars
● Pulsars are rapidly rotating neutron stars that blast radiation
pulses from seconds to milliseconds.
Extra Edge
● Neutron Stars: These are the remnants of massive starsthat exploded in supernovae. A
neutron star is extremely dense and compact.
● Radiation Pulses: As the neutron star rotates, itemits beams of radiation along its
magnetic poles. If the beam is aligned with Earth, we observe it as periodic pulses of
light or radio waves.
Events in Our Universe
Gamma Ray Burst (GRB)
● GRBs are extremely energetic explosions that occur in distant galaxies and are the
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brightest electromagnetic events knownin the universe.
● GRBs can occur in four primary events:
○ DuringSupernovaExplosions:Whenamassivestarexhaustsitsfuelandcollapses
into a black hole, producing a long GRB.
○ Neutron Star Collisions: When two neutron stars collide, they release immense
energy in the form of short GRBs.
○ Black Hole Mergers: The collision and merging of black holes can also produce
gamma-ray emissions.
○ BlackHole-NeutronStarCollisions:Whenablackholemergeswithaneutronstar,
it results in short GRBs.
● GRBs can be of two types:
○ Short GRBs: They last from few milliseconds to 2 seconds. Typically associated
with events like neutron star mergers.
○ Long GRBs: they last from 2 seconds to several minutes. Often linked with
supernova explosions.
● GRBs cannot be seen from the naked eye. NASA's Fermi Gamma-Ray SpaceTelescope
placed in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is used to detect and measure GRBs.
Gravitational Waves
● This idea was first proposed in Einstein’s theory of general relativity.Itproposedthat
these wavespropagatethroughspace,carryinginformationaboutthedynamiceventsthat
generated them.
Space-time curve→
● Thespace-time curverefers to a graphical or
mathematical representation of an object's motion
through both space and time.
● Thelarge central sphere(probably representing a
massive celestial body like the Sun) creates adeep
curvaturein space-time.
● Thesmaller spheres(possibly planets or moons)
follow curved paths due to the space-time
distortion created by the larger mass.
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● The more massive an object, thedeeper the curvatureit
creates.
● Smaller objects (such as planets) move in curved paths
(orbits) around larger ones due to this curvature. This is
why the planets orbit the Sun rather than moving in
straight lines
● GravitationalWavesareripplesinthefabricofspace-time,causedbysomeofthemost
violentandenergeticprocessesintheuniverse,forexample-themergingofblackholes,
spinning neutron stars orbiting each other, etc.
● Theypropagateatthespeedoflightthroughspace-timeandcarryinformationabouttheir
origin, such as the nature and characteristics of the astrophysical event.
● Gravitational Waves are measured by the Laser Interferometer G
ravitational-Wave
Observatory (LIGO)- a global network of laboratories designed to detect gravitational
waves.
● These facilities are located at→ LIGO Hanford Observatory (USA), LIGO Livingston
Observatory (USA)along withsister facilities inItaly, Germany and Japan.
● Two perpendicular arms, each 4 km long, are used to detect the interference patternof
laser beams. When gravitational Waves pass, they stretch or compress one arm, creating
measurable interference patterns
-15
● LIGO can detect distortions as small as10 mwhichis approximately the size of a proton.
LIGO India Project
● TheIndiangovernmentin2023approvedtheconstructionoftheLIGOobservatoryinthe
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Hingoli district in Maharashtra.
LISA Project
● Similar to LIGO, the LISA project aims to detect gravitational waves. However, LISA is
designedtooperateinspaceratherthan
on Earth.
● LISAconsistsofthreespacecraft→One
mother spacecraft and two daughter
spacecraft. The spacecraft are arranged
inanequilateraltriangle,witheachside
measuring2.5 million kilometers.
● Theproject,ajointcollaborationbetween
NASA andESA,isexpectedtolaunchin
mid-2030.In2015,aprototypemissioncalledLISAPathfindersuccessfullytestedthecore
technologies required for LISA. A planned evolution of the LISA project, known as the
Evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA), is expected to bring advanced
capabilities to gravitational wave detection by 2030.
Elements of Universe.
● Only 5% of the universe
consists of observable
matter (ordinary matter),
whichincludeseverythingwe
can see and detect, suchas
stars, planets, and galaxies.
● Darkmatter:DarkMatteris
a mysterious and invisible
substance that does not
interact with electromagnetic radiation, making itundetectablethroughtelescopes.Dark
Matter constitutes about25%of the total universe.
○ It is invisible because it neither emits nor absorbs light or any form of
electromagnetic radiation.
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○ Itsexistenceisinferredthroughitsgravitationaleffectsonvisiblematter,suchas
stars and galaxies. It interacts with the rest of the universe only throughgravity.
● DarkEnergy:DarkEnergyisahypotheticalforceresponsiblefortheacceleratedexpansion
of the universe. It acts as a repulsive force that counteracts gravity. It drives the
expansionoftheuniverse,leadingtogalaxiesmovingfurtherapartovertime.DarkEnergy
makes up about70%of the universe.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 04: Standard Model of Particle Physics
Gravitational Lensing
● It is a phenomenon where the
pathoflightfromadistantobject
is bent by the gravitationalfield
of a massive object, such as a
black hole, galaxy, or galaxy cluster.
● This bending of light can cause
distant objects to appear
distorted, magnified, or even
duplicated, depending on the
alignment of the observer, the lens (massive object), and the light source.
Standard Model of Particle Physics
● The Standard Model of Physics is the theoretical framework that describes the
fundamental particles and their interactions. It explains how the universe works at the
smallest scales.
● All the particles existing in the universe can be classified into two heads:
1. Particles of Matter (Fermions):
○ Fermions are the building blocks of matter. They are divided into two
subcategories:
■ Quarks (6 types): Up, Down, Top, Bottom, Charm, Strange. Quarks
combinetoformhadrons,suchasprotons(composedof2upquarksand
1 down quark) and neutrons (composed of 2 down quarks and 1 up quark).
■ Leptons(6types):Electron,ElectronNeutrino,Muon,MuonNeutrino,Tau,
Tau Neutrino. These particles include the electron, which plays a crucial
role in atoms, and neutrinos, which arealmost massless particles.
2. Particles of Forces (Bosons):
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○ These particles are the force carriers of the universe, mediating the interactions
between other particles.
○ The name Bosons is named after Satyendra Nath Bose, a pioneer of quantum
mechanics and statistical physics. They are further divided into:
■ Vector Bosons (Gauge Bosons):Mediate forces between particles.
➢ Gluon: Mediates the strongnuclearforce(bindsquarksinprotons
and neutrons).
➢ Photon:Carriersoftheelectromagneticforce,responsibleforlight
and other electromagnetic phenomena.
➢ W andZBosons:Mediatetheweaknuclearforce(responsiblefor
radioactive decay, e.g. beta decay).
➢ Graviton:Hypotheticalcarriersofthegravitationalforce(stillunder
theoretical investigation).
■ Scalar Bosons: It is also called Higgs Boson. Also known as the "God
particle".ItprovidesmasstootherparticlesthroughtheHiggsmechanism.
It is named after physicist Peter Higgs, who, along withothers,proposed
the mechanism that explains how particles acquire mass.
Neutrinos
● NeutrinosaresubatomicparticlesintheStandardModelofphysics.Theyareoftencalled
"ghost particles"becausetheyrarelyinteractwithmatter,makingthemverydifficultto
detect.
● They have neutral (0 electric charge) with mass extremely small but nonzero.
● Sinceneutrinosrarelyinteractwithmatter,theyrequiremassiveundergrounddetectors,one
such detector is the Large Hadron
Collider:
○ The Large Hadron Collider
(LHC), located at CERN,
Switzerland, is a 27 km
(17-mile) circular particle
accelerator built 175 meters
underground. Operational since
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2008, it can accelerate protons to very high speed making it the most powerful
collider in the world.
○ India has been collaborating with the European OrganizationforNuclearResearch
(CERN)since1991.IndiabecameanAssociateMemberofCERNon16thJanuary
2017.
Proton:
● Composition:2 Up Quarks+1 Down
Quark2
● Charge Calculation:
2×(+2/3)+1×(−1/3)=+1
● The proton has an overallpositive
charge.
Neutron:
● Composition:2 Down Quarks+1 Up
Quark2
● Charge Calculation:
2×(−1/3)+1×(+2/3)=0
● The neutron has an overallneutral
charge.
Chargeless→Neutrinos, Z boson, gluon, photons, HiggsBosons
Space Technology
Orbits
● An orbit is the trajectory that a satellite traces around a celestial body due to the
gravitational forces acting upon it.
● Forces acting on satellite:
○ Gravitational Force→ The force exerted by the Earth on the satellite pulling it
toward the center of the planet. Acts radially inward.
○ Centrifugal Force → The outward force experienced by the satellite due to its
circular motion around the Earth. Acts radially outward.
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○ Whenthegravitationalforceequalsthecentrifugalforce,thesatellitedoesnotfall
toEarthorescapeintospace.Thisisdonebythespeedofthesatellite.Velocity
is directly proportional to the centrifugalforce.Fasterspeedsgeneratealarger
outward force, balancing the inward gravitational pull.
○ Thesatellite must travel at a specific speedto maintaina stable orbit.
○ If the speed is too low,thesatellitewillspiralbacktoEarthduetogravitational
pull. If the speed is too high, it may escape Earth's gravitational influence.
● Types of orbits:
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Science and Technology
Lecture 05: Space Science- Basics
Space Technology- Multiple Dimensions
● Space Exploration:
○ Remote Sensing: Using satellites to
collect data about Earth's surface.
○ Communication: Space-based
communication systems (e.g.,
satellites for broadcasting, internet,
and telephony).
○ Weather Forecasting: Satellites help
in predicting weather and climate
patterns.
○ Navigation: GPS and other positioning systems enabledby satellites.
○ Astronomical Satellites: Observing celestial bodiesand deep space.
● Space Missions:
○ Chandrayaan: India's lunar exploration mission.
○ Shukrayaan: Planned mission to Venus.
○ Gaganyaan: India's human spaceflight mission to belaunched in 2025.
○ Mangalyaan: India's Mars Orbiter Mission.
○ Aditya L1: Mission to study the Sun.
○ These space missions are sent through launch vehicles → PSLV (Polar Satellite
LaunchVehicle),GSLV(GeosynchronousSatelliteLaunchVehicle),LVM-3(Launch
Vehicle Mark-3),RLV-TD(Reusable Launch Vehicle-TechnologyDemonstrator).
○ ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) is responsible for conducting space
exploration and missions in India, which have social, geographical, political, and
economic impacts on the country.
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● Space Diplomacy: International cooperation in space missions, partnerships between
countries, and treaties on space usage
● SpacePollution: Spacepollution,alsoknownasorbitaldebris,referstotheaccumulation
ofhuman-madeobjectsinEarth'sorbitthatnolongerserveausefulpurpose.Thisincludes
defunctsatellites,spentrocketstages,andfragmentsfromcollisions.Thenegativeeffects
of space debris can be seen in the environment and future missions.
● Space Economy: R
epresents the economic aspects of space technology, including
industries involved in satellite production, space research, and commercial space travel.
● Privatisation of Space Technology: The involvement of private companies in space
technology, such as commercial satellite launches, space tourism, and privatisedresearch.
Private space companies intheUSAare→SpaceX(FoundedbyElonMusk),BlueOrigin
(Founded by Jeff Bezos), etc. Private space companies in India incluse→ Skyroot
Aerospace, Agnikul Cosmos, Dhruva Space, etc.
Timeline of Space Exploration in India
● Indian Space Research Program:
○ LedbyVikramSarabhai,itaimedtopromotethedevelopmentapplicationofspace
scienceforsocio-economicdevelopment.Itadvocatedthatouterspacebeusedonly
for peaceful purposes. It focussed on building self-reliant operational space services.
● 1962- INCOSPAR Formation:
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○ Indian National Committee for Space Research(INCOSPAR)wasledbyVikram
Sarabhai. The aim of INCOSPAR was to formulate ISRP.
● TERLS (Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station)
○ Established to support ISRP (Indian Space Research Program). First sounding
rocket launch from Thumba.
● 1969 – Formation of ISRO
○ IndianSpaceResearchOrganisation(ISRO)wasofficiallyformedon15thAugust
1969. It superseded INCOSPARtoformulateIndia'snationalspaceprogram.Itwas
kept under the Department of Atomic Energy.
● 1972 – Establishment of the Department of Space (DoS)
○ DoS was set up under the Prime Minister's Office (PMO). ISRO was brought
under DoS to ensure structured governance.
Commercialisation and Promotion of Space Technology
● Antrix Corporation Ltd. (1992)
○ The commercial arm of ISRO for foreign markets. Provides space services to
governmentandprivatecustomers.AwardedMini-Ratnastatusin2008.Itfocuses
on commercialisationandpromotionofspaceproducts,consultancyandtechnology
transfer. Itoperates as a Central Public Sector Enterprise(CPSE) under DoS.
New Space India Ltd. (NSIL) – (2019)
●
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○ CommercialandmarketingarmofISROforthedomesticmarketwhichiswholly
owned by the Government of India under DoS. It focuses on manufacturing
satellites and launch vehicles. It markets ISRO's space products to domestic
customers.
● IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion & Authorisation Centre) – (2020)
○ A single-window clearance and authorisation agency for space technologies. It
regulates private sector participation in space a ctivities. The responsibilities
include approving space launches, establishing launchpads, buying and selling
satellites, promoting new space industrial clusters and formulating rules and
regulations for space activities. It works under Department of Space (DoS).
● Indian Space Association (ISpA) – (2021)
○ A non-profit consortium of private space players in India, acting as a unified
voiceforprivatespaceagencies.Itpromotesindustrycollaborationandsupportsthe
growth of the private space sector. Tagline-‘Bhumandalse Brahmand Tak’
● May 2023 – Indian Space Policy
○ Clear role allocation of ISRO tofocusesonresearch,planetarymissionsandnew
space technologies.
○ Government of India (GoI), DoS: Supervises commercial space activities through:
■ Antrix(for international commercial operations).
■ IN-SPACe(for private sector authorisation).
■ NSIL(for domestic commercialisation)
○ Increased Private Sector Participation: Encourages startups and industries to
developspacetechnologies.Allowsprivatecompaniestoownandoperatesatellites,
launchvehiclesandspaceservices.NSILhandlesdomesticcommercialisation,Antrix
manages international operations.
○ Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in space technology allows up to 100%
investmentinthesector.However,certainlimitationsapply:74%FDIispermitted
forsatellite manufacturing,while49% FDIis allowedforlaunch systems.
Orbit
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● An orbit is the trajectory that a satellite traces around a celestial body due to the
gravitational forces acting upon it.
● The farther asatelliteisfromEarth,
the greater its coverage (i.e., it can
observe a larger portion of Earth's
surface. However, the image quality
decreases with increasing altitude
becausethesatelliteisfurtherfromthe
surface.
● Inordertocountergravity,velocityofsatellitesaremaintainedsothatgravitationalforce
can be neutralised.
Velocity ↑ ∝ Centrifugal Force ↑
● Lower altitude → Higher speed → Stronger gravity → Shorter revolution time.
● Higher altitude → Slower speed → Weaker gravity → Longer revolution time.
● LEO satellites complete an orbit in ~90 minutes because they are closer to Earth and
must travel faster. Geosynchronous/Geostationary satellites (GSO) have a 24-hour
period, appearing stationary relative to Earth's surface.
Classification of orbits
Orbits can be classified into three types:
On the basis of shape:
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On the basis of altitude:
● Low Earth Orbit (upto 2000 km):
○ It is the region of space closest to Earth, ranging from altitudes of 200 kilometres
to 2,000 kilometres.
○ Applications of LEO:
■ Remote Sensing:Used for Earth observation, mapping,and monitoring of
natural resources.
■ Weather Forecasting: Monitors climate patterns, storms,and atmospheric
conditions.
■ International Space Station (ISS):Orbits between350 km - 400 km.
Supports scientific research and astronaut missions.
■ Gaganyaan Mission: India's first human spaceflightmission (planned in
LEO).
■ Astronomical Satellites are placed in this region. Example:Hubble Space
Telescope(5
60 km altitude)
● Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) (2000-35786 km)
○ Applications of MEO
■ Navigation Systems (GPS, GNSS, etc.):Satellite Constellationsprovide
global positioning services. Used for navigation, military applications, and
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tracking. Various navigation systems of the world are:USA → GPS (Global
Positioning System), Russia → GLONASS, China → BeiDou, Europe →
Galileo, India → NavIC (operates in GEO & MEO orbits).
● Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO)
○ It is positioned at an altitude of35,786 kmaboveEarth's surface.
○ It has an orbital period of approximately 24 hours, which matches Earth's
rotation.
○ Theyareinclinedorbit(notnecessarily
over the equator). However,
o
geostationary orbits have 0
inclination appears fixed overasingle
location on Earth.
○ Used as a communication satellite
for TV broadcasting, internet services,
and military communication.
● High Earth Orbit (HEO): It ventures far beyond the bustling realm of LEO, MEO, and
GEO, reaching altitudes exceeding 35,786 kilometers.
○ The orbital period exceeds24hours,allowingthesatellitetocoveravastregion
of space, making it ideal for deep-space missions.
○ High Earth Orbit (HEO) satellites are used for astronomical observation,
deep-space research, and cosmic radiation studies, w
ith examples like the James
Webb Space Telescope (JWST).
○ They also support planetary exploration and interplanetary missions, such as
Chandrayaan (Moon Mission) and Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter).
● Halo Orbit:
○ Positioned around Lagrange Points (L1, L2, etc.)
where gravitational forces between the bodies
balance perfectly.
○ Remains somewhat stationary with respect to Earth.
○ For example - Aditya-L1 (Solar Observation Mission)
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● Polar Orbit:
○ ItisasubsetofLowEarthOrbit(LEO),thisorbithasaperiodofapproximately
90 minutesand follows a nearly90° inclination to the equator.
○ Asitmovesfrompoletopole,itprovidescompleteglobalcoverageovertime.Used
for weather forecasting, environmental monitoring, and reconnaissance satellites
● Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSO):
○ It is a type of polar orbit where the satellite
remains in a sunlit zone, never entering Earth's
shadow.
○ It follows a dawn-to-dusk path, ensuring
consistent lighting conditions.
○ Additionally, it maintains a fixed local time,
meaning it passes over the same location at the
same time daily. Also known asdawn to dusk orbit.
● Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO):
○ It is an ellipticalorbit(intermediateorbit)rangesinaltitudefromapproximately
1,000 km at perigee to 35,786 km at apogee.
○ It serves asafuel-efficienttransferpath,helpingsatellitestransitionfromLow
Earth Orbit (LEO) to Geostationary Orbit (GEO) or High Earth Orbit (HEO).
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Science and Technology
Lecture 06: Launch Vehicles and Satellites
Note:Disadvantage of Polar Orbit Satellite → It isvery complex to maintain the orbit.
ISRO Launch Vehicles (Rockets)
1. Sounding Rockets
● Introduced in the 1960s, sounding
rockets were used for atmospheric
studies.Itwasusuallyoneortwo-stage
solid-fueled rockets.
● Rohini Series (RH Series) was India’s
first indigenous-sounding rocket family.
● The first RH-75 rocket was developed
in 1965 and launched from TERLS
(Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station).
2. Launching Rockets
SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle)
● SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle) was India’s first experimental
launch vehicle which was first launched in 1980.
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● Specifications:Liftoffmass→17tonnes,payloadcapacity→40–50kg,range→LowEarth
Orbit , stage→4, type of fuel→ all solid fuel
● It successfully launched theRohini satellite into Low Earth Orbit
(LEO).
ASLV (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle)
● Low-cost intermediate satellite.
● The first launch took place in 1987, while the first successful launch
occurred in 1992.
● Specifications:lift-off mass→40 tonnes, payload capacity→ 50 kg. It
is a 5-stage solid fuel rocket with a height of 23.5 meters, designed to
operate in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
● It used strap-on boosters to increase lift capacity for the first time.
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle)
● It is referred to as the "Workhorse of ISRO" because of its
high success rate and versatility. It was India’s first fully
functional satellite launch vehicle.
● Specifications:Lift-offMass→320tonnes,PayloadCapacity→
1750 kg to LEO (LowEarthOrbit/PolarOrbit)and1425kgto
GTO (Geostationary Transfer Orbit), Stages & Fuel Used→
Stage 1 (S1) with solid fuel, Stage 2 (S2) with liquid fuel
(Vikasengine),Stage3(S3)withsolidfuelandStage4(S4)
with liquid fuel.
● Nambi Narayanan was one of the key developers of Vikas
Engine.
● The first Indian launch vehicle will use liquid fuel.
● First Launch in 1993 (Failed), but successfully launched in
1994.
● PSLV versions:There are 5 versions of PSLV→
○ PSLV (Base Configuration)- Standard version.
○ PSLV-CA (Core-Alone Version)- No strap-on boosters.
○ PSLV-XL- Uses extended strap-on boosters for higherperformance.
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○ PSLV-HP(Under Development)- A high-performance version.
○ PSLV-3S (Under Development) - 3-stage variant, removing PS2 & strap-on
boosters.
● PSLV has launched over 350 foreign satellites. It indicates the reliability of PSLV.
● Some of the most famous space missions using PSLV:
○ Chandrayaan-1 (2008)
○ Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission, 2013)
○ AstroSat (India's first space telescope, 2015)-AstronomicalStaellite
○ Aditya-L1 (Solar Mission, 2023)
○ XPoSAT (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite, 2024)
● PSLV helped India develop the NAVIC navigation system bysuccessfullydeployingIRNSS
satellites.
Fuels used in launch vehicles
● Solid→ HTPB (Hydroxyl-Terminated Polybutadiene)
● Liquid→ UMMH (Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine) orUDMH (Unsymmetrical
Di-Methyl Hydrazine).
GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle)
● GSLVisdesignedtolaunchheavysatellitesintoGeostationaryTransferOrbit(GTO)and
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO).
● It is India's advanced launch vehicle compared to PSLV, featuring aCryogenic Upper Stage.
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○ Russia initially agreed to provide Cryogenic Technology, but after the USSR's
disintegration (1991), Russia refused to transfer technology due topressurefrom
theUS.Russia later agreed to give7 readymade cryogenicengines.
○ Indiaused5cryogenicenginesforitslaunchmissionsandin1994withthehelpof
2 readymade cryogenic engines India started an
upper-stage cryogenic development program.
○ IndiadevelopeditsindigenousCryogenicEngine,first
successfully used in 2014, making India the 6th
country in the world to develop this technology
independently.
● Variants of GSLV:
○ GSLV Mk I- Theoretical in nature and was never
made.
○ GSLV Mk II - Initial versions with foreign-supplied
cryogenic engines
○ GSLV Mk III- A more powerful version, renamed
LVM-3 (Launch Vehicle Mark-3).
● Specification:3Stages→1stStage(S1)withsolidfuel,2nd
Stage (S2) with liquid fuel (Vikas Engine), 3rd Stage (S3) with cryogenic engine;
Boosters→ S200 boosters for additional thrust.
● GSLV Mk II Specifications: Lift-off Mass→ 414 tonnes; Payload Capacity→ 6000 kg in
LEO (Low Earth Orbit), 3000 kg in Sun-Synchronous Orbit, 2500 kg in GTO
(Geostationary Transfer Orbit) used for launching Communication Satellites.
● First GSLV launch (2001): Used a Russian-supplied cryogenic engine.
GSLV Mk III (Launch Vehicle Mark 3)
● ItisIndia’sheaviestandmostpowerfulrocket.Itisdesignedforlaunchingheavypayloads
into space, including future human spaceflight missions (Gaganyaan).
● Specifications: Lift-off Mass→ 640 tonnes; Payload Capacity→ 10000 kg in LEO (Low
Earth Orbit) and 5000 kg in GTO (Geostationary Transfer Orbit).
● Stages and fuels: Stage 1 (S1) features two large S200 solid-fueled boosters, which
provide theinitialthrust.Stage2(S2)istheLiquidCoreStage(L110),poweredbythe
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Vikas Engine using liquidpropulsion.Finally,Stage3(S3)is
the Cryogenic Upper Stage (C25) fueled by liquid hydrogen
and oxygen.
● Famous missions:
○ Chandrayaan-2 & Chandrayaan-3: Chandrayaan-2
(2019):AttemptedsoftlandingontheMoonbutfaced
challenges.Chandrayaan-3(2023):Successfullylanded
ontheMoon,makingIndiathefirstcountrytolandon
the lunar South Pol
○ Gaganyaan Mission (Manned Space Mission -
Expected 2025): India's first human spaceflight
missionwilluseLVM-3tocarryastronautstoLowEarthOrbit(LEO),poweredby
theCE-20 Cryogenic Enginefor efficient propulsion.
● Advantages of LVM-3
○ India achieved self-reliance
in satellite launches after
the development of LVM-3
and cryogenic engines.
○ All future missions related
to interplanetary launches
can be done with the help
of LVM 3.
○ It will boost commercial
launches and will support
economic growth. Example-
UK’sOneWebsatelliteswere
launched using LVM-3.
○ It will boost the scientific image of the Image and boost international recognition.
SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle)
● SSLV(SmallSatelliteLaunchVehicle)isdesignedforquickandcost-effectivelaunches
of small satellites.
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● It follows a "Launch on Demand" concept, meaning it can be rapidly assembled and
deployed.
● Itisa3-stage,all-solidfuellaunchvehicledesignedforsmallsatellites,withapayload
capacity of 10 kg to 500 kg. It can reach up to500km in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
● Developed by NewSpace India Limited (NSIL), the SSLV features quick assembly in
under 72 hours, making it acost-effective and highlyflexible launch system.
● Thefirst SSLV launchtook place in2022.
NGLV (Next Generation Launch Vehicle)
● NGLV (Next Generation Launch Vehicle) is being developed to replace GSLV Mk II.
● It will incorporate ISRO's first-ever Semi-Cryogenic Engine.
● Designed forlong-distance and human spaceflight.
Cryogenic Engine Semi-cryogenic Engine
● A cryogenic engine uses extremely ● Fuel:Special-grade kerosene (stored
low-temperature fuel for high efficiency. at normal temperature).
● Fuel:Liquid Hydrogen (H₂) at -253°C. ● Oxidiser:Liquid Oxygen at (-183°C)
● Oxidiser:Liquid Oxygen (O₂) at -183°C. ● First development by a private Indian
company→AGNIKUL
Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
● RLV is India's experimental spaceplane
concept developed by ISRO to create
cost-effective and reusable space missions.
● Pushpak (Reusable Spaceplane) acts likea
mini space shuttle, designed to return to
Earth after launching the payload.Itwillbe
launched by anHS-9 rocket.
● RLVscanreducelaunchcostsby90%comparedtoexpendablerockets.Indiawillprovide
low-costsatellitelaunchservicesforforeignclients,increasingitscompetitiveness.RLVs
could enable space tourism, similar to what Blue Origin, SpaceX, and Virgin Galactic are
developing.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 07: Types of Satellites
Note:Recently ISRO has usedre-ignition technologywith the help ofVikas Engine.It will be
easier to built complete reusable launch vehicle.Solid fuel once ignited cannot be stopped in the
mid, or if stopped cannot be reignited.
Classification of Satellites
Remote Sensing Satellites
● Remote sensing is a process by whichphysical andchemical changes of an object or its
properties are analysedwithout coming in close contactwith the object and analysing the
same from a remote location by using different forms of electromagnetic waves (such as
microwave, infrared, and radio waves).
● Remote Sensing (RS) satellites are categorised into two types:
○ Passive Remote Sensing (RS) Satellites
■ Thesesatellitesrequiresunlight,aclearskyand
good weatherfor proper functioning.
■ They can operate only during the daytime when
sunlight is available.
■ Example: CartoSat (satellite that captures
high-resolution images using a camera).
○ Active Remote Sensing (RS) Satellites
■ These satellitesdo not require sunlight or a clear
sky.They can function during bad weather conditions
and nighttime.
■ Technology Used→Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR), which sends signals and collects reflected
data to form images.
■ Example:RISAT(Radar Imaging Satellite), which is
used for all-weather surveillance.
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■ They are advanced, accurate and givemultipurposeand high resolution
images that can be used for both civilian and military purposes.
Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS)
● India launcheditsfirstIRSsatellite,
IRS-1A, in1988.
● Today, India operates one of the
largest numbers of civilian remote
sensing satellitesin the world.
● The IRS series consists of
approximately 20 satellites, used
for applications like agriculture,
forestry, land mapping, and disaster
monitoring. Examples- Cartosat,
Risat, etc.
● Cartosat:
○ Dedicated to mapping of cities and villages
for infrastructure development.
○ Provides high-resolution imagery for urban
planning, rural development, and geographic
mapping.
● ResourceSat
○ Helps in the management of natural
resources.
○ It is used for monitoring agricultural fields, assessingforestcover,planningtree
plantations and identifying mining areas. By using its data we can also predict
agricultural productivity and planning of resource utilisation.
● OceanSat / SCATSAT
○ Dedicatedformanagementsurveillance,mappingandearlywarningsystemincoastal
regions.
○ It provides information to fishermen about fish availability and ocean conditions.
● HYSIS (Hyper Spectral Imaging Satellite)
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○ This technology, based on visible and infraredwaves.Itcanrecogniseandanalyse
specific objectsby differentiating them from theirsurroundings.
○ It has diverse applications, including agriculture monitoring, water resource
management, military operations and mining exploration.
● RISAT (Radar Imaging Satellite)
○ Provides all-weather imaging, particularly useful for defense and disaster
management. Uses SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) technology and can function
during night and bad weather.
○ Variants→ RISAT-1 – it lacked SAR. Later RISAT-II was launched in2009with
SAR imported from Israel. SAR was indigenously built and launched in 2011 with
RISAT-I.
○ G. Madhavan Nair gave following reasons for its launch→ Kharif crop protection,
flood situation monitoring, disaster management, Border surveillance (but not a
"spy satellite").
● The nomenclature of these satellites has recently b
een revised. In future, all remote
sensing satellites will be called EOS (Earth Observation Satellites). They contain both
active as well as passive RS.
○ EOS-01 –Used for agriculture, forestry, and disastermanagement.
○ EOS-02 – EOS-TD (Technology Demonstrator) for SSLV-1 (Small Satellite Launch
Vehicle).
○ EOS-03
○ EOS-04– High-resolution all-weather satellite.
○ EOS-06
○ EOS-07– Launched in February 2023 via SSLV
● NISAR (NASA ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar)
○ Thissatellitewillstudynaturalprocessanddistributionofecosystem.Itwillhelpin
monitoringchangesinlandsurfaces,icesheetsandnaturalhazardslikeearthquakes
and tsunamis.
○ Ithasdual-BandSAR(SyntheticApertureRadar)Technology.NASAwilldevelopthe
L-Band SAR (longer wavelength, better penetration through vegetation and soil).
ISROwilldeveloptheS-BandSAR(shorterwavelength,usefulforstudyingsurface
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changes).
Communication Satellites
● INSAT (Indian National Satellite System)→Launchedin1983anddevelopedwiththe
helpofUSA.Multipurposesatellitewhichwasusedforcommunication(AllIndiaRadio-AIR,
Doordarshan-DD, Telecom)andweatherforecasting.
INSAT satellites functionedtill 2002.
● Since 2002 Direct-To-Home (DTH) services like
Tata Sky, Star Services, etc. were started by Tata.
Later Tata launched its o wn satellite called Star
Service.
● After 2002 dedicated satellites were introduced:
○ GSAT (Geo-Stationary Satellite) for
communication.
○ METSAT(Meteorological Satellite) for weather forecasting(later renamed to INSAT)
○ After 2020, GSAT are renamed asCMS (CommunicationSatellite).
● Payload of Communication Satellites:
○ Transponder→ Atwo-waydevice
that facilitates uplink (data
upload) and downlink (data
receive). Used in TV
broadcasting, internet services,
telecommunication. Multiple
transponders are used to handle
large-scale communication.
Transponder ⇒ Transmitter + Responder
○ Types of Transponders (Microwave Frequencies)
■ S-Band (2 GHz – 4 GHz)
■ C-Band (4 GHz – 8 GHz)
■ Ku-Band (12 GHz – 18 GHz)
■ Ka-Band (26.5 GHz – 40 GHz)
■ Higher frequency enables faster data transmission but is also more
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susceptible to interference from bad weather conditions
○ The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is responsible for allocating
frequencybandsforcommunicationsatellitesanddefiningradiochannelranges,such
as 87.5 MHz – 108MHzforFMradio.ITUhasallocated1GHz-50GHzfrequency
for communication satellites. This range is known asSatellite Command Frequency.
● Note→ In IndiaKubandismostpopularasitusessmallantennaandisusefulforDTH
(Direct-to-Home) broadcasting and VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal)
communication (used in rural ATMs, education, news reporting vans).
● Examples of Communication Satellite:
○ GSAT-24 (Launched June 2022)/ CMS 02 → Entire capacity of this satellite is
being used by Tata Play DTH.
○ GSAT-7 Series (Dedicated for Defense)→
■ GSAT-7 (2013) – First defense communication satellite, known as Rukmini.
Supports Navy (INS Vikramaditya, INS Arihant, destroyers, submarines,
frigates).
■ GSAT-7A(2018)–DedicatedtotheAirForce,thissystem,knownas"Angry
Bird",allocates 30% of its bandwidth to the Army.
■ GSAT-7B (Upcoming)– Will be dedicated toArmy.
○ GSAT-9 (South Asian Satellite) → Originally called the SAARC Satellite, this
projectsupportsIndia's"NeighborhoodFirst"policybyprovidingfreeservicestoall
South Asian countries except Pakistan,with a totalproject cost of ₹200 crores.
● Importance of Communication Satellites
○ Role in Telecom Regulation and Expansion→ Communication satellites have b
een
instrumental in expanding telecom services to remote and rural areas. They have
facilitated mobile networks, internet services, and emergency communication systems.
○ Development of Public Information and Awareness Systems (PIAS)→Satellites
have been used for tele-education, enabling distance learning programs and virtual
classrooms. Government initiatives have effectively used satellite communication for
public awareness campaigns.
■ Example: Amitabh Bachchan's mass awareness for Pulse Polio Mission used
satellite-based broadcasting to reach every corner of the country.
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○ GrowthofDTH,VSAT,andSatelliteNews→Satellitecommunicationhasenhanced
DTHservices,VSATnetworks,and24x7newsbroadcasting,ensuringhigh-qualityTV,
secure connectivity, and real-time global coverage.
○ Enhanced Transparency and Governance→ Government agencies use satellites to
ensure transparency, efficiency and better coordination in administrative tasks.
■ Example: Lok Sabha TV and Rajya Sabha TV use satellite technology to
broadcast parliamentary proceedings, ensuring transparency in governance.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 08: Types of Satellites (Part - 02)
Classification of Satellites
Note:TheFirefly satellite constellationis a series of hyperspectral Earth observation satellites
developed byPixxel, an Indian space-tech startup.
● Its objective is to providehigh-resolution hyperspectral imagingfor environmental
monitoring, agriculture, climate change tracking, and disaster management.
● The first satellite,Shakuntala (TD-1), was launched aboard aSpaceX Falcon 9in April
2022. The second satellite,Anand, was launched viaPSLV-C54in November 2022.
Weather Satellites
● 1983 – INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) was launched with the help of the
USA Served as a multi-purpose satellite, including meteorology, telecommunication and
broadcasting.
● After 2002, India launched METSAT (Meteorological Satellite), its first dedicated
weather satellite, marking a shift towards a
specialised weather monitoring system.
● Laterafterthenewnomenclature,itisknownas
INSAT.
● India's weather satellites are launched into
Geostationary Orbit (GSO) or Polar Orbit
(Note-weatherforecastingsatellitesarelaunched
into GSO whereas earthobservationsatellitesare
placed in low earth orbit. )
● The payloads of India's weather satellites are divided intotwo main components:
ounder: A sounder is an instrument that measures the vertical profile of the
○ S
atmosphere, helping to determine parameters such as temperature and humidity.
○ Imager: The camera-based imaging system captures images of the Indian
subcontinent to monitor and track weather patterns.
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● Key weather satellites launched by India:
○ METSAT-1(2002):India'sfirstdedicatedweathersatellite.Markedthetransition
from using INSAT (multi-purpose satellites) to specialized meteorological satellites.
○ INSAT-3D(2013):Anadvancedmeteorologicalsatellitewithimprovedimagingand
atmospheric sounding capabilities.
○ INSAT-3DR (2016): An upgraded version of INSAT-3D. Provides continuous
monitoring for disaster management, weather forecasting, and environmental
studies.
○ INSAT-3DS(Feb2024):ThelatestadditiontoIndia'sadvancedweathersatellite
network. Works with ground stations to enhance meteorological data collection.
● The INSAT series (INSAT-3D, INSAT-3DR, INSAT-3DS) comprises advanced weather
satellitesequippedwithimagingcapabilities,atmosphericsensorsfortemperature,humidity,
and cloud cover, and real-time weather monitoring systems. These satellites work in
coordination withground stationstocollect and analysedata.
● While satellites provide imaging and meteorological readings, accurate weather
forecasting requires highcomputationalpower.Supercomputersareusedtoprocesslarge
datasets and predict future weather conditions. Forecasting is based on historical data,
making the processhighly complex.
○ Supercomputers Used for Weather Forecasting in India arePratyush and Mihir.
Navigation System Satellite
● Navigation satellites provide autonomous
geopositioning services, helping determine the
relative position of an object on Earth through
tagging with a navigation satellite receiver.
● The location is determined by latitude and
longitude.
● The payload includes a transponder, which
manages both uplink anddownlinksignalswithin
a single device, and an atomic clock, which
ensures precise timekeeping essential for accurate positioning.
● At least 3 satellites are needed for positioning a static object. However, at least 5
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satellites are required for a moving object to determinetheexactlocationatanygiven
time.
● Navigation satellites are classified intotwo categories:
○ GlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems(GNSS):Theseoperateatagloballeveland
require 24-28 satellites for full coverage. Their orbit is Medium Earth Orbit
(MEO).ExamplesincludeGPS(GlobalPositioningSystem)ofUSA,GLONASS–of
Russia, Galileo – European Union, COMPASS (BeiDou upgraded to BeiDou 2) –
China.
○ Regional Navigation Satellite Systems (RNSS): These operate within a specific
region, requiring 3-7 satellites. Their orbit is a Geostationary Orbit (GSO).
Examples include BeiDou – China, Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) –
Japan,NavIC(Navigation with Indian Constellation)– India.
GPS (Global Positioning System)
● It is the first global-level navigation satellite system.ItwasdevelopedbytheUSAin
1978primarily for military and defence applications.
● 1994Incident:TheAirTrafficControl(ATC)ofSouthKorealostradarsignals,leadingto
aflightcrashthatcausedthedeathof269people.Thisincidenthighlightedthecritical
need for accurate navigation and positioning systems.
● After1994,GPSsignalsweremadeavailableforcivilianuse,leadingtothedevelopment
of two distinct types of GPS signals.
○ Standard Positioning Signal (SPS) → For civilian use. Accessible to all users
worldwide. Used in navigation, transportation, and commercial applications.
○ Restricted Signal (RS) / Precise Positioning Signal (PPS) → Used only for
militaryanddefenceapplications.AccessislimitedtotheUSmilitaryanddefence
agencies. It was encrypted in nature.
● Issue faced by India: During the Kargil War(1999),IndiafacedGPSdatadenialbythe
USA, highlighting India's reliance on foreign navigation systems and the accuracy gap.
● GPS accuracy in India is 50m whereas its accuracy in other developed countries is 3m.
NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation)
● It is a Satellite-Based Navigation System (SBNS) developed by ISRO which was earlier
known as IRNSS.
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● It consists ofthree geostationary satellites and four geosynchronous satellites.
● The system covers India and
extends up to 1,500 km beyond
its borders, primarily
encompassing the South Asian
region.
● Overallaccuracy:Upto15meters.
Land accuracy: 10 meters. Sea
accuracy:20 meters.
● Payload :
○ Transponder– Facilitates uplink and downlink communication
○ Rubidium Atomic Clock –Ensures precise timekeeping
● Types of Services:
○ Standard Positioning Service (SPS):Available forcivilian applications.
○ Precise Positioning Service (PPS): Used for military and strategic applications,
offering higher accuracy with restricted access.
● NavIC satellites are divided intotwo generations:
○ 1st Generation Satellites: A total of nine IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation
Satellite System) satellites have been launched, out ofwhichsevenarecurrently
operational.
■ Designed as lightweight satellites, they were launched using the Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).
■ Payloads include Transponder for communication, S-band & L5-band
signalsfornavigationservices,andRubidiumAtomicClock,importedfrom
European companies, which ensures precise timekeeping.
○ 2nd Generation Satellites (NVS - Navigation with Indian Constellation
Satellites): India plans to launch three new-generationnavigationsatellitesto
enhance its regional positioning system.
■ ThefirstsatelliteinthisseriesisNVS-01isalreadylaunched,whichcomes
withseveraladvancedfeatures⇒SupportsL5BandandS-Bandfrequencies
for improved navigation services.
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■ Introduces the L1 Band, enhancing navigation services and compatibility
with wearable devices such as smartwatches andmobilephones.,equipped
withIndia’sfirstindigenouslydevelopedRubidiumAtomicClock,replacing
the previously imported versions.
GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation)
● GAGANisaSatellite-BasedAugmentedSystem(SBAS)thatenhancesGPSaccuracyin
Indian airspace, unlike NavIC, which is an independent navigation system.
● Its payload is integrated into Indian communication satellites (Com-Sat).
● It improves GPS navigation signals, enhancing their accuracy.
● It plays a crucial role in air traffic management by providing precise navigation for
aircraft. It is being developed jointly by the Airport Authority of India(AAI)andthe
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
Importance of Satellite Navigation System in India
● With the development of NavIC, India has achieved satellite sovereignty, reducing
dependence on foreign navigation systems like GPS and ensuring secure and reliable
positioning services for strategic and civilian applications.
● NavICisavailabletoSAARCnations,strengtheningIndia’sregionalinfluenceandserving
as a keycomponentofitsspacediplomacybyprovidingindependentnavigationsupport
to neighbouring countries.
● The use of satellite navigation systems in transport and aviation improves route
optimisation, saving both time and fuel, and leading to cost-effective and efficient
operations.
● These systems assist in mapping precise timelines, and ensuring accurate time
synchronisation for various applications, including banking, telecommunications, and
scientific research.
● By enablingaccuratemappingandnavigation,satellitesystemsprovidenewopportunities
for tourism in remote and previously inaccessible areas, boosting local economies.
● Satellitenavigationplaysacrucialroleinresourcemanagementanddisasterresponseby
providing real-time tracking, aiding in search and rescue operations, and improving early
warning systems for natural disasters.
● Navigationsystemsareextensivelyusedinrailandtrafficmanagementtoenhancesafety
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and efficiency. For example, the Kavach system in Indian Railways utilises satellite
navigation to prevent collisions and ensure safer train operations.
Astronomical Satellite
● Astronomical satellites arespace-based observatoriesdesigned to study celestial objects,
cosmic phenomena, and the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere.
Astronomical Satellites of India
● AstroSat (2015):
○ Astrosat is India's first dedicated astronomical satellite, designed to study
celestial objects such as stars, galaxies, black holes, and nebulae. It isplacedin
Low Earth Orbit
(LEO) at an altitude
of 6
50 km and was
launched using the
PolarSatelliteLaunch
Vehicle (PSLV).
○ This multi-spectral
satellite is equipped
with telescopes that
observe in visible light, ultraviolet (UV) range, and X-ray range enabling detailed
astronomical observations.
● XPoSat (X-ray Polarimetry Satellite) – Launched on 1st Jan 2024
○ It is an Indian space observatory launched to study X-rays from distant
celestial sources such as stars. It willprovidedetailedinformationaboutthelife
cycle of stars (stellar cycle), neutron stars, and black holes.
○ XPoSat carries two key scientific instruments:
■ POLIX (Polarimeter in X-rays) →Measures polarisation of X-rays from
celestial sources.
■ XSPECT (X-ray Spectrometer and Timing instrument) →Measures the
X-ray spectrum of celestial bodies. Analyses timing variations of X-ray
sources to study dynamic astrophysical processes.
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○ Polarisationis the restriction of light waves to oscillate in a single plane, limiting
their vibration from multiple directions.
○ Polariseris an optical device or filter that
allows only specific orientations of light
waves to pass through while blocking
others. It helps in reducing glare, improving
contrast in photography, and studying the
properties of light in scientific applications.
○ XPoSatistheworld’sseconddedicatedX-raypolarimetrymission.Thefirstsuch
satellite was NASA’s IXPE (Imaging X-ray Polarimeter Explorer).
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Science and Technology
Lecture 09: Interplanetary Missions
Astronomical Satellite
Sun
● The Sun is4.6 billion years old.
● TheaveragedistancebetweentheSunandEarthis1AstronomicalUnit(AU)=150
million km.
● The Sun is divided intoinner and outer layers:
● Inner Layers of the Sun:
○ Core: The core is the source of heat where nuclear fusion occurs. Hydrogen
isotopesfusetoformhelium,releasingimmenseenergy.Thetemperatureinthis
region isapproximately 15 million °C.
○ Radiativezone:Intheradiativezone,energyfromthecoremovesslowlyoutward
throughradiation(electromagnetic).Ittakesthousandsofyearsforheat/energy
to pass through this zone.
○ Convective zone: The convective zone transports heat through convection
currents, where hot material rises, cools and then sinks. This zone creates
sunspots.
● Outer layers of the Sun:
○ Photosphere: It is visible layer of the Sun (all visible
light comes from this layer)whenseenfromnakedeyes
and the coolest partofitsstructure,withatemperature
ofapproximately5500°C.Sunspots,whicharedarkerand
cooler regions with intense magnetic fields, appear in
this layer. Sunspots appear from few days to months.
○ Chromosphere:Morethickandlessdenseascompared
tophotosphere.Itisringlikestructurewhichisvisible
during total solar eclipse.
○ Corona: Sun’s outermost layer, extending far into
space.Itappearsasaglowinghaloduringatotalsolar
eclipse. Brightest and least dense structure of sun
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made upofplasmawhichareescapingfromtheSun.itextendsuptomillionof
years.Visibleduringatotalsolareclipseasaglowinghaloaroundthedarkened
Sun
● Sunspot cycle→ The Sunspot Cycle lasts for
approximately 11 years and fluctuates between
two phases: Solar Maximum, characterised by
high sunspot activity, and Solar Minimum,
marked by low sunspot activity.
○ During the Solar Maximum, the Sun
experiences a significant increase in
sunspots. The next Solar Maximum is
expected in 2025. During this phase:
■ Solarwindincreases,causingahigherflowofchargedparticlesfromthe
Sun toward Earth.
■ Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) become more frequent, leading to
massive bursts of plasma and magnetic fields ejected from the Sun.
○ During a solar minimum, fewer sunspots appear on the Sun’s surface. The
intensity of the solar wind and the frequency of coronal mass ejections
(CMEs) decrease significantly. As a result, there is less impact on Earth’s
magnetic field, leading to reduced geomagnetic disturbances.
● Coronal Mass Ejection (CME): Amassiveburstofplasmaandmagneticfluxejected
fromtheSun’scorona.CMEscantravelthroughspaceandaffecttheEarth'smagnetic
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field, leading to disruptions in satellites,
GPS, and power grids.
● Solar Flares: Sudden bursts of energy
released from the chromosphere. It is
caused by the release of magnetic
energystored in sunspots.
● Solar Wind: A continuous stream of
charged particles (photons and
electrons) emitted from the Sun. The
interaction of solar wind with Earth's
magneticfieldcreatesauroras(Northern
and Southern Lights).
Aditya L1
● AdityaL1ispositionedatLagrangePoint1(L1).L1isa
gravitationallystablepointbetweentheEarthandthe
Sun, allowing thesatellitetoremaininafixedposition
relative to both. L1 is also known as parking spot in
space. L1 chosen because this location provides an
uninterrupted view of the Sun, free from Earth's
atmospheric interference.
● Orbit Type: Halo orbit
(orbits around L1).
● Distance from Earth: 1.5
million km (~1% of the
Earth-Sun distance).
● The satellite was launched
in 2023 by the Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle
(PSLV-XL) and was
developed by the Indian
Space Research
Organisation (ISRO).
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● Primary Objective: The mission studies various solar phenomena, including the Sun’s
behavior, temperature anomalies, CMEs, solar flares and solar winds, sunspot cycle, heat
radiation, particle flow, the Sun’s magnetic field,tostudyphotosphere,chromosphereand
corona, etc.
Payloads of Aditya L1
The spacecraft carries 7 scientific instruments to study the Sun systematically. These include:
● VLEC (Visible Emission Line Coronagraph)- Studiesthe corona using imaging and
spectroscopy.
● SUIT (Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope)- Observes the photosphere and chromosphere
in UV light.
● SoLEXS (Soft X-ray Spectrometer)- Analyses solarflares.
● HEL1OS (Hard X-ray Spectrometer)- Studies high-energyX-rays from the Sun.
● ASPEX (Solar Wind and Particle Analyser)- Measuressolar wind and its impact.
● PAPA (Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya)- Examinessolar particles and plasma.
● MAG (Magnetometer)- Measures the Sun’s magnetic field.
Interplanetary Missions
Sequence of Interplanetary Mission
● Earth Observatory- Observing Earth from space.
● Fly-by Mission- A spacecraft passes close to a celestialbody without entering orbit.
● Orbiter Mission- A spacecraft orbits around a celestialbody (e.g.,Chandrayaan-1).
● Probe Mission (Hard Landing) - A probe issenttocrashlandonthesurfacefordata
collection.
● Lander Mission- A spacecraft lands safely for surfaceexploration.
● Rover Mission- A mobile robot (rover) moves on thesurface for research.
● Sample Return Mission- Collects materials and returnsthem to Earth.
● Human Fly-by Mission- Humans orbit around a celestialbody but do not land.
● Human Mission- Humans land on and explore a celestialbody.
● Planet/Moon Station- Establishing a permanent basefor long-term missions.
● Human Settlements
Moon Missions
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Chandrayaan I (2008)
● Themissionwasacombinationofanorbiter
and a probedesignedforlunarexploration.It
successfully deployed a Moon Impact Probe
(MIP)for a hard landing atJawahar Point.
● Its achievements include confirming the
presence of water in ice form on the Moon.
Chandrayaan 2
● Chandrayaan-2 wasIndia'ssecondlunarmission,launchedin2019byISRO.Itaimedto
explore theMoon’s South Poleand demonstrate asoftlanding.
● Chandrayaan-2 had 2 modules→ orbiter module (lander + rover) and rover module. It
consisted ofthree components:anOrbiter, theVikramLander, and thePragyan Rover.
● TheprimarygoalofthemissionwastoachieveasoftlandingontheMoon’ssouthpole
(Lunar South Pole). This region was chosenbecauseitreceiveslesssunlight,increasing
the chances of water retention and remains largely unexplored, making it crucial for
future human missions.
● Sent to theMoonusingthe"Slingshot"
technique, where Earth's gravity isused
to gain momentum.
● It waspartially successful mission.
○ The Orbiter was successfully placed in lunar orbit and is still operational. It
continues to send high-resolution images and valuable scientific data.
○ The lander attempted a soft landing but crash-landed due deviation fromthe
planned trajectory and loss of communicationwithgroundcontrolduringthefinal
descent resulting in the Pragyan Rover never being deployed. It lost
communicationat2.1kmaltitudebeforelanding.ThesitewhereVikramcrashedis
now named"Tiranga Point".
Chandrayaan 3
● Chandrayaan-3isIndia’sthirdlunarexplorationmission,launchedin2023byISRO,with
the goal of achieving a successful soft landing on the Moon’s South Pole.
● The mission's objectives were to demonstrate soft landing capabilities for future lunar
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exploration, deploy the Pragyan rover to analyse lunar soil and surface properties and
study the Moon’s environmentincluding temperature anomalies and surface composition.
● It increased the landing size on lunar surface by mapping it.
● UnlikeChandrayaan-2,Chandrayaan-3didnothaveanorbiter.Themissionconsistedofa
Propulsion Module, which carried Vikram
Lander, which housed scientific
instruments and attempted a soft
landing; and the Pragyan Rover, a
six-wheeledrobotdesignedtoexplorethe
Moon’s surface and study its composition.
● It successful soft landedonnearsideof
lunar south in order to have direct
contactwithearth.TheSouthPoleregion
was chosen because it haspermanently
shadowed craters that may contain
water ice, crucial for future lunar
missions.
● Landing site is known as"Shiv-Shakti Point"
● Chandrayaan-3became the first mission to successfullyland on the Moon’s South Pole.
● Payloads:
○ Propulsion Module→ It consists
ofSHAPE(Spectro-Polarimetryof
Habitable Planet Earth) which
studies exoplanets and their
habitability.
○ Vikram Lander→ It consists
■ RAMBHA-LP: Measured
plasma (ions and
electrons) on the lunar
surface.
■ ChaSTE: Discovered
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temperature anomalies (~70°C instead of expected 20-25°C).
■ ILSA:Studied lunar seismic activity.
○ Pragyan Rover→
■ APXS (Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer)
■ LIBS (Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscope): Identified chemical
compositionof lunar soil. It detected presence of suphur on lunar surface.
● The Pragyan Rover discovered volcanic beadsintheAtkinsonBasin,revealingpastlava
activity which was few million years ago and offering key insights into the Moon’s
geological historyand potentialresourcesfor future exploration.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 10: Space Tech-Impact, and Issues
Note:
● Vikram Landeralong withPragyan rovertouched the lunar surface on23rd August
2023.Hence,23rd Augustof every year will celebrated asNational Space Day.
● Shiv Shakti Pointis the landing site ofChandrayaan-3on the Moon. It is located near
the Moon’ssouth poleand was named byPrime Minister Narendra ModionAugust 26,
2023. This site marksIndia’s first successful soft landingon the lunar surface.
Objectives of Chandrayan-3:
● Demonstration of soft landing:Successfully land onthe Moon without crashing, ensuring
safe deployment.
● Demonstration of rover activities:Test the rover’smovement, navigation, and data
collection on the lunar surface.
● Scientific exploration of the lunar surface:Analyzesoil, minerals, and temperature to
understand the Moon’s composition and environment.
Observation Made by Chandrayan-3:
● Lunar Surface Temperature Surprise:The lunar surfacetemperature atShiv Shakti Point
was expected to be 20-30°C,but it surprisinglyreached70°C.This discrepancy arose
despite its location near theMoon’s south pole, highlightingunexpectedthermal
conditions.
● Lunar Surface Element Profile: LIBS(Laser-InducedBreakdown Spectroscopy) detected
sulpher on the lunar surface, confirming its presencescientifically.
● Anorthosite Rock was Found:This rock is 4 billionyears old, and this rock is also one of
the bases of Earth's formation. It symbolizes as that the moon formation is due toGiant
Splat/Big Splat (Proof of this theory).
Important Moon Missions across the World:
● China’s Moon Mission:
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○ Chang’e 5:It is a sample return mission near the side of the moon.
➢ Observation:It landed nearAitken Basinand collectedsamples signify the
volcanic beads. Beads (Burnt beads)can be of twotypesImpact beads,
and Volcanic beads.
i. Impact beads (expected):This is formed due to theimpact of
some asteroids.
ii. Volcanic beads (Found):Volcanic activities are prominentat the
moon millions of years ago (Against the view of impact beads, and
existence of volcanic activities billions of years ago).
○ Chang’e 6:It is a sample return mission far side of the moon.C
hina's Chang'e-6
became the world's first spacecraft to bring back samples from thefar side of the
moon.
● Artemis Program:
○ NASA partnered with 3 space agencies:
➢ European Space Agency (ESA).
➢ Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).
➢ Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
○ Note:there are a total of 47 signatory countriesincluding India in the Artemis
Accord.
○ Artemis mission is divided into 4 parts:
➢ Artemis I:Successful uncrewed test flight (2022)to validate spacecraft
systems.
➢ Artemis II:Crewed lunarfly-by mission,scheduledfor2026,testing
deep-space travel.
➢ Artemis III:First crewed moon landing(Named Firstwomen, and first
Non-white).
➢ Artemis IV:First astronaut launched lunar gateway (Space station in lunar
orbit).
● Luna-25:It isRussia’s space Agency (ROSCOSMOS). It is launched inAugust 2023 to
strongly compete with Indian Chandrayan-3, and it wasfailed.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 11: Space Pollution and Impact of ISRO
History of Space Flights
th
● 12 April1961:YuriGagarinbecamethefirsthumaninspaceviaVostok-1(SovietUnion).
Hence,April 12is celebrated as theInternationalDay of Human Space Flight.
● 1984: Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian to travel to space on Salyut-7, a Soviet
orbital space mission.
Gaganyaan Mission
● Gaganyaan is part ofIHSP (Indian Human SpaceflightProgramme), initiated in2007.
● The missionaimstosend3astronauts("Gaganyatris")toLowEarthOrbit(LEO)for
3–4 daysand safely bring them back.
● Itsobjectivesare:
○ Demonstrate India's human spaceflight capabilities.
○ Conduct microgravity experiments in Earth's orbit.
○ Ensure successful crew module recovery and re-entry.
● Ifsuccessful,Indiawillbecomethe4thcountrytosendhumanstospaceaftertheUSA,
Russia and China.
● Itwillbelaunchedwithsomemodificationsin HLVM3rocket(modifiedLVM3)makingit
suitable for human flight and launch.
● Gaganyaan Mission is divided into three phases/ missions:
○ 1st Mission:Uncrewed flight(to test systems).
○ 2nd Mission: Test flight with "Vyommitra" (a
humanoid robot) to analyse exact flight pressure,
vibrations and environmental conditions that may
destroy human skull and perform corrections if reuqired.
○ 3rd Mission: Crewed mission (E
xpected launch:2025
end)
● Achievements till so far:
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○ Astronaut Training: Conducted with help from Roscosmos (Russia), NASA, and
other space agencies. Includes weightlessness simulation.
○ IADT (Integrated Air Drop Test):Tests the parachutedeceleration system.
○ PAT (Pad Abort Test): Evaluates the spacecraft’s emergencylaunch abort system.
○ Crew Abort Test:Simulates mission abort and safelanding during ascent.
○ Vyommitra (Humanoid Robot): Tests microgravity experiments and measures
pressure and vibrations.
○ Creation ofHuman Spaceflight Centre
○ Modern Space Suit Development for Astronauts.
● The mission consists of two modules:
○ Service Module:Contains control systems, propulsionmodule and scientific payloads.
○ Crew Module: This will be habitat for astronauts where astronauts will reside.It
will be secured with life-supporting technologies.
○ Together, they form the Orbital Module that will orbit the Earth.
● Four Indian Air Force pilotshave been
selected and trained for the mission:
○ Group Captain Ajit Krishnan
○ Group Captain Balakrishnan Nair
○ Group Captain Anand Pratap
○ Wing Commander Shubhanshu
Shukla
Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission - MOM)
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● India’s first interplanetary mission by ISRO.
● All components wereindigenously built.
● Project cost: ₹450 Cr (highly cost-effective). Compared to NASA’s MAVEN mission
(2013), which cost ₹4500 Cr.
MOM-1 (2013)
● Objective: To study the
atmosphere and surface of
Mars, including thepossibility
of habitability.
● India became the first
country tosuccessfullysend
a Mars mission on the first
attempt.
● Payload mass: 1350 kg.
● Launched byPSLV-C25.
● Indiabecamethe4thcountry
tosuccessfullysendamission
toMars,afterUSA,USSRand
European Space Agency.
Other Mars Missions
● MAVEN (2013 - NASA):A mission by NASA to study Mars'atmosphere and climate.
● Tianwen-1(2020-CNSA,China):AmissionbytheChinaNationalSpaceAdministration
(CNSA). It consists of an orbiter, lander, and rover. The rover is named Zhurong.
● Mars2020(NASA):Thismissionincludesarover(Perseverance)andarobotichelicopter
(Ingenuity). It is also part of the Sample Return Mission, whichaimstobringMartian
soil and rock samples back to Earth.
Future Mission for Mars→ Mangalyaan-2
● AmissionbyISRO(India)plannedasafollow-uptoMangalyaan(MarsOrbiterMission).
It will consist of an orbiter, lander, and rover.
Shukrayaan-1 (India’s Venus Mission)
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● VOM (Venus Orbiter Mission)→ An Indian mission aimed at orbiting Venus.
● Expected Launch Vehicle (LV): GSLV Mk II or GSLV MK-III (MK-III renamed as LVM-III)
● Expected Payload Mass: 2500 kg.
● India is planning to include 20 payloads.
● Objective:To study Venus’ atmosphere, structure,composition and surface conditions.
About Venus
● Known asEarth’s Twindue to its similar size anddensity.
● No moons.
● Atmosphere Composition:
○ 95% CO₂ (Carbon Dioxide), making it a greenhouse
gas-heavy planet.
○ H₂SO₄ (Sulfuric Acid) clouds and rain are present.
● Rotation Speed→One Venusian day = 243 Earth days
(very slow rotation).
● Hottest planetin our Solar System due to its thickatmosphere trapping heat.
● Presence of Sulphuric Acid due to clouds of H2SO4 and its rain.
Missions for Jupiter
JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer)
● It was launched by ESA (European Space Agency)
● Mission Goal:To study Jupiter’s three major icy moons→Callisto, Europa and Ganymede.
○ This mission will explore the possibility of subsurface oceans and potential
habitabilityof Jupiter’s icy moons
● Launch Year: 2023.
About Jupiter
● Jupiter is thelargestplanet in the solar system,with a mass
318 times that of Earth.
● It is agas giantmade mostly of hydrogen and helium.
● Hosts amassive stormlarger than Earth, which hasbeen
raging forover 350 yearswhich is calledGreat RedSpot.
Other Space Missions
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Voyager 1 and 2
● Voyager 1 launched on September 5, 1977 and Voyager 2 launched on August 20, 1977.
● BothmissionswereFlybyMissions,designedtoexploretheouterplanetsandthesolar
system.
● Voyager 1 flewpastJupiterand
Saturnbeforeheadingoutofthe
solar system in 2012.Itbecame
the first human-made object to
enter interstellar space
● Voyager 2 explored Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune,
aking ittheonlyspacecraftto
m
have visited all four outer
planets. It entered interstellar
space in 2018 and remains operational.
● Both carry Golden Record, a 12-inch gold-plated copper disc featuring a collection of
soundsandimagesthatshowcasethediversityoflifeandcultureonEarth.Designedas
atimecapsule,itservesasamessagetoanypotentialextraterrestrialcivilisationsthat
may come across the spacecraft.
● These spacecraft arethe most distant human-made objectssent from Earth.
Asteroids Probe
Osiris-REx (NASA)
● ASampleReturnMissiontoBennuAsteroid.ItreturnedtoEarthin2023withcollected
samples.
● ItwasrelaunchedasOsiris-APEXandsentonanewmissiontoexploreasteroidApophis
in 2029,which:
○ Will come near Earth in 2029 at 37,399 km.
○ Will be followed for 18 months for study.
● Former ISRO Chairman S. Somanath has shown interest in India’s first asteroid mission.
● Possible Planetary Defense System development.
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DART Mission (NASA - 2021)
● Planetary Defense System mission.
● Objective:Test asteroid deflection capability.
● In 2022, it successfully struck the asteroid Didymos anditsmoonDimorphos,proving
that asteroids can be redirected.
Psyche Mission (NASA)
● Target→ 16 Psyche, the heaviest known metal-rich asteroid.
● IthasperformedLaserTransferofData,whichenablesfasterspacecommunication.This
concept is based on Total Internal Reflection, similar to optical fiber communication.
Astronomical Observatories (Space Based)
Chandra X-Ray Observatory (NASA - 1999)
● A space telescope launched in 1999.
● Specialises in X-ray astronomy
Hubble Space Telescope (NASA + ESA)
● Operates in theUV to IR(Ultraviolet to Infrared)range.
● Located inLow Earth Orbit (LEO) at 545 km altitude.
● Named afterEdwin Hubble.
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)
● A collaboration betweenNASA, ESA and CSA (Canada).
● Placed at L2 (Lagrange Point 2) for deep space
observations.
● Recently observed agalaxy’sdeathfrom13billionyears
ago.
● Helps study light from theearlyuniverse,makingita
"time travel machine".
Astronomical Observatories (Ground Based)
Hanle Dark Sky Reserve (Ladakh, India)
● Located at Mt. Saraswati in Ladakh, this telescope is one of
theworld’s highest Infrared and Gamma Ray observatories.
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● Ladakh was chosen as the ideal location due to its:
○ Clear skies,providing excellent visibility for astronomicalobservations.
○ Dry atmosphere,which reduces atmospheric interference.
○ Minimal light pollution,ensuring optimal conditionsfor deep-space imaging.
○ Lack of monsoon influence, allowing year-round observations.
○ Low atmospheric water vapour, which enhances infrared and gamma-ray
detection.
Other Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO)
● Himalayan Chandra Telescope→ Works in the Opticalto infrared range.
● HAGAR Telescope→ High-Energy Gamma Ray Telescope.
● MACE Telescope (Major Astronomical Cherenkov’s Experiment)→Gamma Ray Telescope.
● GROWTH-India→ Robotic Telescope.
● All these observatories are managed byIndian Instituteof Astrophysics (IIA), Bangalore.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 12: Space Pollution, and Impact of ISRO
(Part 02)
SpaDeX:
● ISRO's Space Docking
Experiment (SpaDeX)
is crucial for India's
space ambitions,
aiding lunar missions
and space station
development.
● SpaDex is vital for
simulating the
Bhartiya Adrishaya station, enabling in-space refueling and cargo launches.
Space Pollution/Space Debris/Space Junk:
● Thesearethedysfunctionalsatelliteinspace,orcomponents,orpartsofthesatellite,
or itsfuel moving around Earth in space.
● In 1978, NASA’s‘B
igSky’Theorywasthenearuniversallyacceptedparadigmfordealing
withcollisionsoforbitingobjects.Underthistheory,spacejunkwasnotseenasamajor
threat, because space is so vast.
● Kessler Syndrome: In 1978, a NASA astrophysicist, Donald Kessler (along with B. G.
Cour-Palais) predicted thatby2000,fragmentsfromrandomcollisionsinlowEarthorbit
would become a significant source of small debris that would increase the likelihood of
still more collisions (like a domino effect). Over that time, the scenario he predicted
became known as theKessler Syndrome.
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○ The2009collisionbetweentheoperationalIridium-33satellitewiththeinactive
Cosmos 2251 satellite proved his theory. More than 1800 debris approx.10cm
and larger were produced.
Steps Taken to Resolve Space Pollution:
● OrbitalDebrisProgram,1995:World’sfirstdebrismitigationguidelinebyNASA.Itstated
after a satellite is defunct, the satellite must re-enter Earth’s atmosphere within 25
years.
● Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), 1993. It is recognized as
the preeminent international technical organisation for all issues associated with orbital
debris.
○ Members:InMoscow,thefirstformalIADCTermsofReferencewassignedbythe
headsofthefourdelegationsfromESA,Japan,NASA,andRussia.TheIADCgrew
rapidly with the addition of the space agencies of China in 1995, France, India,
and the United Kingdom in 1996, Germany in 1997, Italy in 1998, Ukraine in
2000, Canada in 2010 and South Korea in 2014.
○ Objective: IADC frameplansandpoliciesregardingthelongtermsustainabilityof
space sector
○ 42nd Meet: On 16th April 2024, at the 42nd Inter-Agency Space Debris
Coordination Committee (IADC) annual meet heldintoBengaluru,ISROmadea
declaration to achievedebris-free space missionsby 2030.
● GraveyardOrbitConcept:Graveyardorbitisadistantlylocatedorbitwheredysfunctional
satellites of GSO (Geosynchronous Orbit) are pushedto minimise space pollution.
● Tether (Japan): It is an experimental space tether mission by Japan, designed to test
electrodynamic tether technology for satellite propulsion and debris removal.
● CubesailTechnology:ItisdevelopedbytheUnitedKingdom.Inthistechnologyanareaof
repulsion can be generated around the satellite which will minimise the chances of
debris collision.
● Project NETRA by India: In 2019, ISRO initiated Project NEtwork for space object
TRacking and Analysis (NETRA) which is an early warning system in spacetodetect
debris and other hazards to Indian satellites.
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○ When in place, NETRA will give India its own capability in space situational
awareness (SSA) like the other space powers — which is used to ‘predict’
threats from debris to Indian satellites.
○ Under NETRA, ISRO plans to put up many observational facilities: connected
radars, telescopes, data processing units and a control centre. They can, among
others,spot,track,andcatalogobjectsassmallas10cm,uptoarangeof3,400
km, and equal to a space orbit of around 2,000 km.
Note:
● XPoSat, launched on January 1, 2024, aboard PSLV-C58, is India's first
dedicated X-ray polarimetry mission and azero-debrisspace mission.
● The PSLV Orbital Experiment Module (POEM) mission is an ISRO initiative
conducting various space-based experiments.
○ The POEM mission decelerated for three months before gradually
enteringEarth's atmosphere, collecting data duringthis period.
Impact of ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation):
● Social Impact:
○ It supports knowledge growth throughDTH, VSAT, telecom,and mobile networks.
○ In agriculture, it aids awareness ofsoil health,crop insurance, land management,
and forest resource depletion.
● Geographical Impact:
○ SupportsINSAT data, IMD weather forecasting, satelliteresearch, rescue
operations, andGAGAN forflight safety, and fuelefficiency.
Space Economy:
● In 2023, theglobal space economywas$630 billion(WEF, McKinsey) and is projected to
reach$1.8 trillion by 2035. India's space economywas$8–9 billionin 2023 and is
expected to exceed$44 billion by 2035. India spends0.05% of GDPon space, while the
USA spends 0.25%.
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Why Space Economy is Advancing in India?
● Cost-Effective Approach:ISRO’sLVM3 launch costs $54 million, while NASA’s similar
launch costs$2 billion(e.g., MOM-1).
● Privatization & Liberalization:Expansion ofAntariksha Corporation Ltd., NSIL, increased
private sector participation (Agnikul, Dhruva), and100% FDI capin space.
● Responsible Approach:PSLV C58 (XPoSat-zero debris),NETRA ensuring sustainability and
orbital debris monitoring.
● Space for Social Good:GSAT-9 (South Asian Satellite),NavIC, GSAT-24 aiding education,
navigation, and regional cooperation.
● Supporting Demographic Dividend:YUVIKA program nurturesyoung scientists, fostering
India’s future space research talent.
Challenges in the Development of Space Economy:
● Limited Budget Allocation:India spends0.05% of GDPon space, far lower than global
leaders.
● Technological Challenge:Imports exceed exports 12times(FY 2021-22), limiting
self-reliance in space technology.
● Human Resource Challenge:Brain drainreduces skilledworkforce, affecting innovation and
long-term space development.
● Commercialization Backdrop:Private sector involvementis growing but stilllags behind
global commercialization efforts.
● Space Manufacturing:Limited domesticproduction capabilitiesincrease reliance on
foreign technology and components.
● Human Space Transport:Gaganyaan mission progressing,but India lacksregular human
spaceflight capabilities.
● Space Tourism:No dedicated infrastructure yet forcommercial space travellikeBlue
Origin, SpaceX, Virgin Galactic.
● High-Altitude Platforms:India lackspermanent spacestationslike ISS (USA) or
Tiangong (China).
Note:India’s space sector economic share in the worldis2-3 percent.
What Can be Done/Wayforward:
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● Space Diplomacy & Soft Power:Using space collaboration to strengthen international
relations, enhance global influence, and establish strategic leadership.
● Space-Based Sustainability Leadership:Promoting responsible space usage, debris
management, and eco-friendly missions for long-term sustainability and leadership.
● Space Tourism & Commercialization:Encouraging private investment, infrastructure
development, and policy reforms to enable space tourism and economic expansion.
● Space Education & Awareness:Strengthening STEM education,research programs, and
public outreach to inspire future scientists and boost space sector participation.
● Neighbourhood First Policy:Assisting neighboringcountries with satellite services,
promoting regional cooperation, and strengthening diplomatic ties.
● Cheaper Space Alternatives for Developing Nations:Providing cost-effective satellite
solutions to third-world countries, enhancing their space capabilities affordably.
● Countering China’s Space Advancements:Addressingthreats from China's anti-satellite
capabilities through ISRO-DRDO’sMission Shakti (ASAT)defense strategy.
Note:
● UN-COPOUS (Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space):Oversees international
space cooperation, ensuring peaceful and sustainable space exploration.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 13: Information and Communication
Technology-Basics
Information and Communication Technology (ICT):
● Under this we will discuss:
○ Communication Technology:Fundamentals of communicationsystems.
○ Mobile & Telecom:Evolution from 1G to 6G, LTE, VoLTE.
○ Computer Technology:Supercomputers, quantum computing,cloud computing,
cybersecurity threats.
○ Internet Technology:Broadband, Web 1.0 to 3.0, Internetof Things (IoT).
○ Emerging Technologies:AI, display technologies, virtualreality (VR), augmented
reality (AR).
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
● Range of all electromagnetic waves is
based onfrequency and wavelength.
● Types of Electromagnetic Radiation:
○ Radio Waves:
➢ Used for broadcasting
radio and television
signals.
➢ Have thelongest
wavelength and lowest
frequency.
○ Microwaves:
➢ Used in cooking (microwave ovens),radar, telecommunication, and other
signal transmissions.
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➢ Shorter wavelength than radio waves but higher energy.
○ Infrared Radiation:
➢ Transmits heat from sources like thesun, fires, and radiators.
○ Visible Light:
➢ Allows objects to be seen with thehuman eye.
➢ Composed of different colors, represented byROYGBIV(Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet).
○ Ultraviolet (UV) Rays:
➢ Absorbed by theskin, responsible for sunburns.
➢ Used influorescent tubes.
○ X-rays:
➢ Used to view the internal structure of bodies and objects.
○ Gamma Rays:
➢ Used in medicine tokill cancer cells (radiotherapy).
Telecommunication:
● Telecommunicationisthetechnologyofsendingsignals,messagesandinformationover
long distances using electronic equipment, radio, telephone, etc.
● Telecommunication can be done by two types:
○ WiredCommunication(GuidedMedia):Theyareusuallyfasterthanwireless.Itis
also more secure. It requires a lot of cables and ports.
○ This can be different types:
➢ Copper wirethat was used in old telephones.
➢ Co-axial wireseen in TV communication.
➢ Optical fibresee in Wi-Fi internet connections.
○ Wireless Communication (Unguided Media): Usually slower than wired and less
secure. It is far less complicated.
○ This can be of different types:
➢ Radio Waves:
i. Long Radio Waves likeFM.
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ii. Short Radio Types likeBluetooth, wi-fi.
➢ Microwaves
➢ Infrared, for example: Night vision, CCTV, Remote
➢ Visible Lightlike Li-fi.
Optical Fibre:
● Optical fibre can transmit data by the passage of lightthroughthintransparentfibre
madeupofsilica/glass,wheredataistransmittedviatheprocesscalledTotalInternal
Reflection (TRI).
● This technology transmits data without any considerable intensity loss over very long
distances.
● It can carryinternet, telephone, TV signals, etc.
Wireless Networks:
Near Field Communication (NFC):
● It is a set ofshort-range wireless technology within a distance of 4 cm or less.
● Thistechnologyisasimplesetupwhichoffersalowspeedconnectionthroughasimple
touch gesture.
● It can store data between5 to 12 kb.
● It is working on a radio frequency ofapproximately13.5 MHz.
● No internalenergy source or batteries are required.
● It fulfils its energy demand from theradio frequencyof the sensors.
● They are being used formetro or bus cards, contactlesspayment, physical access, etc.
Radio-frequency Identification (RFID):
● RFIDisatypeofNFCwithspecificphysicaldatatoestablishanidentityofapersonor
object.
● There are two types such as:
○ Passive RFID:It requires no external power source.Example, FASTag
○ Active RFID:It require power sources likesmall batteries.
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Bluetooth:
● The name, Bluetooth dates back more than a millennia to KingHaraldBluetooth
Gormsson who was well known for two things:
○ Uniting Denmark and some parts of Norway.
○ His dead tooth, which was a dark blue/grey colour, and earned him the nickname
Bluetooth.
● Logo:The Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging theYounger Futhark runes(Hagall) (ᚼ)
and (Bjarkan) (ᛒ), Harald’s initials.
● Bluetooth is ashort range wireless voice and datacommunication.
● It usesshort wavelength radio waves(or ultra highfrequency radio waves).
● Bluetooth works on2.4 GHz frequency up to a range of 100 metres long.
● Bluetooth SIG (Special Interest Group) is the standard organisation to oversee
development and licensing of bluetooth technology.
● Bluetooth works upon theMaster-Slave concept.
○ Bluetooth SIG released the latest Bluetooth version5.4 in February 2023.
● Note:
○ APersonalAreaNetwork(PAN)connectsdeviceswithinashortrange.Examples:
Bluetooth, Infrared, and USB.
○ Now-a-days one to many connection are also possible in latest version of
bluetooth.
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity):
● Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology thatallowsdevices(laptop,printers,etc)to
either interface with each other or interface with the internet.
● It allows the connected devices toexchange informationcreating a network.
● Its maximum range is300 metres and it works at afrequency of 2.45 - 5 Ghz.
● The wi-fi router sometimes comeswith dual band.
● As frequency increases,data transmission speed rises,but coverage decreases.
● Note:wi-fiisnotaninternetservice,itisjustaradiowavethroughwhichinternetis
transferred.
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● Hotspot:Itisaphysicallocationwherepeoplecanobtaininternetaccesstypicallyusing
Wi-Fi technology.
● Wi-FiDirect:ItisaWi-Fistandardforpeer-to-peerwirelesscommunicationwithoutan
intermediary wirelessaccess point or router or internetconnection by using Wi-Fi.
○ It contains apart of device which can emit wi-fisignal.
○ Nowadays,printers, ACs, fans, and bulbs support Wi-FiDirect.
Li-Fi (Light Fidelity):
● Li-Fi isabidirectionalwirelesssystemthattransmits
data via LED or infrared light.
● It only needs a light source with a chiptotransmit
an internet signal through light waves.
● Visible light communication systems use the visible
light spectrum only. But Li-Fi also uses infrared.
● Thisis100timesfasterthanWi-Fi.Ithasaspeedof
224 Gbps.
● Li-Fi offers better security because light signals (waves) will not cross physical or
opaque barriers.
White-Fi:
● White Wi-Fi is referred to as
White-Space Wi-Fi or Super Wi-Fi.
● It is a method for creating wireless
networks within analog TV broadcast
frequenciesasopposedtotheusual2.4
GHz frequency.
● It uses the unused spectrum in
frequencies used for broadcasting of
television signals.
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Satellite Internet (Space Based Internet):
● SpaceBasedInternetoperatesbytransmittingandreceivingdatafromasmallsatellite
dish installed on Earth.
● It is very useful for providinginternetconnectivityintheremotestpartofthecountry
and at difficult terrains.
● Itcancontinuetoworkafteradisasteroranaturalcalamitylikeearthquake,avalanche,
tsunami, etc.
● This can be divided into two parts:
○ LEOSatelliteConstellation:Thousandsofsatellitesarerequiredforglobalcoverage
like Starlink has launched20,000 satellites to providespace based internet.
➢ Latency is a measurement of delay in a system. Network latency is the
amountoftimeittakesfordatatotravelfromonepointtoanotheracross
a network. Here, latency is low (20-30 milliseconds).
➢ Space pollution is high.
○ GEOSatelliteConstellation:Requiresfewernumberofsatellitestoglobalcoverage
(3 to 10 satellites). A long-distanceGEOsatellitecancoveralargerarea,almost
an entire country like India, with a single, wide beam.
➢ A network with high latency will have slower response times, while a
low-latency network will have faster response times. Here, latencyishigh
(600 milliseconds).
➢ Space pollution is low.
Note:
● Starlink:StarlinkisaprojectbySpaceX(USA),thecompanyfoundedbyElon
Musk, to provide high-speed internet access to anywhereontheplanetusinga
constellation of thousands ofsatellites.Starlinkaimstoofferbroadbandservice
thatisfaster,cheaper,andmorereliablethanexistingoptions,especiallyinrural
and remote areas where connectivity is limited or nonexistent.
● OneWeb (ESA, U
K, and European countries) collaborates to enhance satellite
broadband coverage.
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● In India,Reliance Jio (Air Fiber)partners withLuxembourg’sSESfor satellites.
● Tata collaborates with Canada’s Telesatfor satellitecommunication services.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 14: Mobile and Internet Technology
Mobile Technology:
● It consists of anyportable 2-way communicatingdevicewhich can be connected via
some communication signals.
Some Relevant Terms:
● SIM (Subscriber Identity Value): The SubscriberIdentityModuleisasmallcardinyour
cell phone that connects you to the network. Most SIM cards are provided by phone
companies, and contain some basic identifying information like serial numbers and
identifying codes. It consists of information like serial n
umber, service provider, some
stored data, location, and personal security key.
● eSIM: An embedded SIM, or eSIM, is a new, emerging format in which the SIM is
embedded directly into the device and is therefore notremovable.Althoughnotwidely
used,theadvantageofaneSIMisthatitallowsyoutochangephoneswithouttransferring
SIMcards;themobileoperatortransferstheaccountinformationremotely.Mobilestorage
is used to haveall the information related to simcard.
● IMEI No: International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) is a unique number that is
usedtoidentifyadeviceonamobilenetwork.Ithas15digitsandislikeyourphone’s
unique identity. When you use the internet or place a call through your cellular service
provider,thenthisnumberisusedtoverifytheidentityofyourdevice.Ifyouhaveadual
SIM phone, then you will have two IMEI numbers, one for each slot.
○ The Equipment Identity Register (EIR): It is a mobile database used for
tracking and managing handsets,even if theuser switchesservice providers.
● Generations of Mobile Network:
○ 1G(VoiceCalls):Launchedinthelate1970sinJapan,1Gwasthefirstgeneration
of mobile telecommunication technology that offered voice calls only. But it
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came with low sound quality, low coverage, and without any roaming support
(2-5 kbps).It used analog, telecommunication technology,and poor-quality voice.
○ 2G (Telephony Service): The 2G era spanned from 1990 to 2001. The analog
signals of 1G became completely digital in the second generation. Apart from
introducingtheCDMAandtheGSMconcepts,italloweduserstoroamandoffered
smalldataserviceslikeSMSandMMS(speedrangewas14-64kbps).Whilethe
focus was still onvoice calling, data support wasintroduced.
○ 3G (Age of Applications): The 3G era spanned from 2001 to 2010. It promised
four times faster data transmission with access to mobile Internet,
High-quality audio-video data, and high-speed browsing. Thisisthegeneration
that brought emails, navigational maps, video calling, webbrowsing,andmusicto
mobile phones. The speed wasaround 2Mbps.
○ LTE (Long-Term Evolution): Airtel launched the first LTE network service in
India in 2012.
➢ While2Gand3Gnetworksarecircuit-switched,4GorLTEnetworksutilize
PacketSwitching.Whenacallismadeovera2Gora3Gnetwork,acertain
amount of networkbandwidthisassignedtothatcallasapipeline,which
does not terminate till the call ends.
➢ While LTE is the next-generation data transmission protocol with higher
two-way bandwidth, it is capable of only transmitting data.
➢ It provides high-speed internet based on the new allocated frequency,
but voice calls will be used asearlier in 3G.
➢ Simultaneously,Voice calls and the Internet can notbe used.
○ VoLTE (Voice-Over LTE): It is a high-definition voice call, and high-speed
internet accesssimultaneously.
➢ OnaVoLTEnetwork,voicecallsarebrokenupintopacketsofinformation,
sentoverthefulldatapipeline,andthenreconstructedatthereceiver’s
end. The result is that voice information can be carried over a higher
bandwidth pipe, resulting in better call quality.
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➢ VoLTEisthewayinwhichavoicecallcanbeconvertedtodigitalpackets
andtransmittedovertheLTEnetwork.Ineffect,VoLTEisasubsetofthe
LTE technology.
○ 4G (Age of Internet Calling): High speed, high quality, high capacity voice and
data services – that’s the promise that 4G, the network most of u s use today,
brought with it around 2011 onwards.
➢ Compared to 3G, a phone on a 4G network got quicker response to its
requests(lowerlatency).Thisiswhatmadeourphonesmorelikehand-held
computing devices.
➢ It brought live streaming (OTT, streaming on demand), online payments
(UPI), live gaming, etc.
➢ The data rate was 200 Mbps to 1 Gbps.
○ 5G (IOT and Enterprises):This is the era of theInternetof Things (IOT).
➢ 5G will play an important role in thedevelopmentof IOT.
➢ Hailed as thenewfrontierofmobiletechnology,5Gpromiseslatency(the
delay users face as data makes a round trip) of just one millisecond
compared to50 milliseconds of a 4G network.
➢ It is nearly20 times faster than 4G.
➢ International Telecommunication Union (ITU) standardfor5G(IMT-2020
specifications, the name used in ITU for the standards of 5G)
i. Frequency Range> 20 GHz to 96 GHz.
ii. Data Rate:Up to 20 Gbps.
iii. Bandwidth:1000 times of 4G.
iv. Network Availability:99 percent of the time.
v. Global Coverage:100 percent
○ 6G Network: T
he Bharat 6G project has two phases: Phase 1 (2023–2025)and
Phase 2(2025–2030). It will utilizeterahertz frequency( this is Unutilised).
● Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM): It supports transmitting data and
voice calls, but not simultaneously.
○ Information was stored in aSIM card.
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○ It didn’t havebuilt-in encryption(not highly secure).
○ There was also worldwide roaming.
○ GSMservicesusedifferentfrequencies(850,900,1800,1900MHz),affectingvoice
quality. GSM is used mostly across Europe, Asia, and West Asia.
● CodeDivisionMultipleAccess(CDMA):Itdoesnotsupporttransmittingdataandvoice,
both at once.
○ Information was stored inmobile phones.
○ There was also abetter voice quality.
○ It ishighly encrypted and attached to a single phone(highly secure).
○ The communication was secured, and there wasno dataaccess.
○ Reliance Communications (formerly Reliance Infocomm) was an e arly adopter of
CDMA,withtheoperatorlaunchingcommercialservicesinMay2003.MostCDMA
deploymentswereonthe850MHzband,resultinginbettervoicequalityandfewer
call drops.
Internet Technology:
● Internet: The Internet is a global systemtointerconnectedcomputernetworksspread
all across the world.
○ Itisanetworkofnetworksthatconsistsofprivate,public,academic,businessand
government networks of local to global scope.
● Working of Internet: There are twomainconceptsthatarefundamentaltothewaythe
Internet functions:
○ Packets:These aresmall chunks of information.
➢ Let’s assume you wish to order six pizzas from Domino’s. The whole
company of Domino's is like WWW (World Wide Webs). Dominos have
different branches around the country.
● You would prefer to order from the nearest branch.Eachdomino's
branch would have a unique address. That could be deemed as a
URL (Uniform Resource Locator). The uniqueaddressinwhichyou
wish to order the pizza (your house) would be IP Address.
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● These six pizzas meant for each member of your family would be
sent in a particularorder.Nomatterwhenthesepizzasreachyour
house,theywillbeassembledandgiventoeachfamilymemberina
certain order. These six pizzas are like Packets of Information.
➢ In other words, a packet is a small segment of a larger message.Each
packet contains bothdata and information about thatdata.
➢ When data gets sent over the Internet, itisfirstbrokenupintosmaller
packets, which are then translated into bits. The packets get routed to
their destination by various networking devices such as routers and
switches. When the packets arrive at their destination, the receiving
devicereassemblesthepacketsinorderandcanthenuseordisplaythe
data.
○ Protocols:Thesearerulesandregulationsdesignedtotransmitpackets,ordata
from one network to another.
➢ A protocol is a standardized way of doing certain actions and formatting
data so that two or more devices are able to communicate with and
understand each other.
➢ Because all Internet-connected computers and other devices can
interpret and understand theseprotocols,theInternetworksnomatter
who or what connects to it.
● IP Address: An Internet Protocol (IP) address is the unique identifying number
assigned to every device connected to the Internet.
● Two Versions of IP Address:IP addresses have twodistinct versions or standards.
○ IPv4: The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) address is the older of the two,
whichhasspacefor4.3billionIPaddressesandisassignedtoallcomputers.An
IPv4addressuses32-bitbinarynumberstoformauniqueIPaddress.Ittakes
theformatoffoursetsofnumbers,eachofwhichrangesfrom0to255and
represents an eight-digit binary number, separated by a period point.
➢ Example: [Link]
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○ IPv6: The more recentInternetProtocolversion6(IPv6)hasspacefortrillions
of IP addresses, which accounts for the new breed of devices in addition to
computers. An IPv6addressuses128-bitbinarynumberstoformauniqueIP
address.
● URL(UniformResourceLocator):Itisawebaddressusedtoaccessresourcesonthe
internet.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 15: Internet Technology and Super
Computers
5G Network
It can be further divided into two:
● 5G SA (Standalone) Network
○ A completely new network built exclusively for5G.
○ Requires more technological investment since it
does not rely on previous 4G infrastructure.
○ More profitable in the long run because it is
optimised for 5G performance, including lower
latency and higher speeds
● 5G NSA (Non-Standalone) Network
○ Uses a common core network for both 4Gand5G,meaningitreliesonexisting
4G infrastructure.
○ Requires aseparate Radio Access Network (RAN)for5G.
○ Requiresless technological investmentsince it leveragesexisting 4G resources.
○ Less efficientwhenthenumberofusersincreases,asthesharedinfrastructure
may become congested.
Internet Technology
It is global system of interconnected computer networks. It spans across the world, allowing
communication and data exchange and is often called as"Network of Networks".
Working of the Internet
Generally, two main components uphold the functionality of the internet:
● Packets: Dataistransmittedthroughtheinternetviasmallsegments/chunkswhichare
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then translated into binary bits. These packets get routed to their endpoint through
different networkingdeviceslikerouters/switches.Later,thesepacketsarereassembledat
the receiver’s end. This wholeprocessofsending/receivingsmallbitsisknownasPacket
Switching
● Protocols: Workingontheinternetdependsoncomputersbeingabletocommunicate,for
whichtheyrequireastandardizedlanguageorprotocolsuiteknownasInternetProtocol
(IP). Itreceives and sends packets from network tonetwork.
● Other variations of communication methods:
○ Ethernet:If both systems are connected over the samenetwork.
○ IP:Packet exchanges occur over different networks.
○ TCP(TransmissionControlProtocol):Ensuresthatpacketsarrivesuccessfullyand
in the same order.
○ HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):Used for formattingdata over websites/apps.
● URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
○ A URL is an address used to access a website.
○ It is compared to a shopping mall (e.g., Saket Mall), where differentrestaurants
(Domino’s, Pizza Hut, KFC) are like different websites on the internet.
○ Each shop in the mall represents a different web page or service within a website,
IP Addresses
● A unique address assigned to each device connected to a network for communication
[Link] acts as an identifier of a device.
● Types of IP Addresses
○ IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
○ IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
Feature IPv4 IPv6
Deployed In 1981 1998
Address Size 32-bit numeric 128-bit alphanumeric
Format Numeric (e.g., [Link]) Alphanumeric (e.g.,
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3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf)
Number of
4.3 billion 10³⁸ addresses
Addresses
Configuration Manual (DHCP) Auto-configuration
Efficiency IPv4 shares 94% of the internet IPv6 is only 3-4% adopted
● Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4
○ Higher Payload Allowance.
○ More compatibility with mobile networks
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
● Technology that allows users tomake voice calls usinga broadband internet connection
instead of traditional phone lines.
● Examples:Skype, FaceTime, Viber, WhatsApp, etc.
Internet Telephony
● Refers toall types of telephony services(includingphone calls, fax, voicemails, video
calls) where data is sent digitally over the internetusing IP rather than traditional analog
landlines.
VPN (Virtual Private Network)
● Amechanism for creating a secure connectionbetweena computing device & a network
or between two networks using aninsecure communicationmediumsuch aspublic
internet.
● Used tobypass internet censorship.
● Providesonline privacy & anonymityby creating aprivate networkfrom a public internet
connection.
● CERT-IN Directive to VPN Providers:To prevent therelease of personal informationof
customers.
Internet Governance
ICANN (Internet Cooperation for Assigned Names and Numbers)
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● Anon-profitorganisation founded in1998 (USA-based).
● Administers domain names and Internet Protocol (IP) addressesglobally.
● Manages internet coordination of identifiers, butdoes not control content on the
internet.
● Althoughthere is no sole owner of the internet, itis mainly controlled by the USA
because of ICANN. For this reason many countries are demanding for neutral UN oversight
of internet governance to reduce U.S. control
UN Internet Governance Forum (UN-IGF)
● Multistakeholder platformthat brings together representativesfrom various groups to
discuss policy issues related to the internet.
● Formed in 2006andconvened annually.
IANA (Internet Assigned Names Authority)
● Part of ICANN that handles country codes, Internet numbers and protocols.
● Some countries raise concerns over U.S. control of internet resources.
India Internet Governance Forum (IIGF)
● First convened in 2021as an initiative associatedwith UN-IGF with a multi-stakeholder
approach.
● India is the largest ‘connected’ nation in the worldwith 800 million Indian users.
● India’s concerns:The dominance of China, Russia andUSA in internet governance.
● Strategies made by these countries would be forced upon other countries, affecting their
internet policies.
Evolution of Internet/ Web
Web 1.0 (Hypertext Web) (1996-2003)
● Read-only and Static:Websites were mostly staticand only
provided information.
● Theprimary purpose was to deliver content, like anonline
newspaper.
● Data was stored incentralised serverscontrolledby web
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admins.
● Millions of Users:The number of internet users wasgrowing but was limited.
● Example:Early websites like Yahoo, AOL, BritannicaOnline
Web 2.0 (Social Web) (2003-2017) - Still Continuing
● Read-Write and Interactive:Users could not only readbut also interact, create, and share
content.
● Social Networks: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter,YouTube emerged.
● Still Largely Centralised:Data was controlled bybig
companies (Google, Facebook, Amazon).
● Birth of Big Data:User-generated content which ledto the
rise of big data analytics.
● Billions of Users:Rapid growth of the internet, makingit
widely accessible.
● Example:Social media, blogs, cloud storage, and user-generated
platforms like Wikipedia
Web 3.0 (Semantic Web) (2017-Present & Future)
● Read/Write and Execute: The web is evolving to self-learning, AI-powered systems.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) plays a majorroleinautomationand
personalisation.
● Decentralised Data: Users have more control over their data
usingblockchain technology.
● Blockchain Technology: Ensures security, privacy, and
decentralisation.
● Metaverse World: Virtual world where people interact in a
three-dimensional space.
● Trillions of Users: The internet is expected to expand
exponentially.
● Examples:Decentralisedapps(DApps),AI-drivenassistants(Siri,Alexa),Metaverse,NFTs,
and Web3 apps.
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Big Data
● Refers to theenormous amount of complex data generateddailyfrom various sources
such as: social media (posts, videos, comments), online transactions (e-commerce,
banking), sensor data (IoT devices, smart cities), search engines (Google searches,
recommendations)
● Big Data is characterised by the3Vs:
○ Volume:Large amounts of data.
○ Velocity:The speed at which data is generated andprocessed.
○ Variety:Different types of data (structured, unstructured,semi-structured)
Data Fiduciary
● An entity thatmanages and controls large amountsof data.Typically multi-national
companies that handle user data on a massive scale.
● Examples:Google (Search engine and Ads data), Facebook(Meta) (Social media data),
Amazon (E-commerce & customer behavior), Apple and Microsoft (Cloud storage & user
activity data.
Internet of Things (IoT)
● The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a collective network of connected devices and
technology that can
communicate with each
other and the cloud
(internet-based storage
and processing) that they
are connected with.
● These devicescollect,
exchange and analyse
datato perform smart
functionswithout human intervention.
● IoT technology facilitatesautomation, efficiency,and real-time monitoring.
Application of IoT:
● Power Saving:Smart energy meters & IoT-enabled powergrids optimize electricity usage
and reduce wastage.Example:Smart geysers.
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● Automotive Technology:Connected cars use IoT for real-time tracking, self-driving
features, and predictive maintenance.Example: Tesla’sAutopilot,GPS-based fleet tracking
systems.
● Safety and Surveillance:IoT-based security cameras,motion detectors, and alarms improve
home and workplace security. Example: Smart CCTV systems, AI-based facial recognition
security.
● Health and Security:Wearable devices monitor healthparameters like heart rate, oxygen
levels, and sleep patterns.Example: Smartwatches(Apple Watch, Fitbit),remote patient
monitoring systems.
● Smart Agriculture:IoT is used in automated irrigation,soil monitoring and livestock
tracking. Example: Sensors in fields detect moisture levels and adjust irrigation accordingly.
● Smart Home:IoT-based smart home devices allow automation& remote control of
appliances.Example: Smart speakers (Alexa, GoogleHome),smart lighting and security
systems.
Hidden Internet
Surface Web (Visible Web / Indexed Web / Light Web) (~4%)
● This is the portion of the
internet that is publicly
accessible and searchable
through normal search engines
like Google, Bing, and Yahoo.
● It includes websites indexed by
search engines, meaning they
can be found through simple
searches. Examples: Google,
Wikipedia, Facebook, Instagram,
News websites, Blogs.
Deep Web (Invisible Web / Hidden Web) (~90%)
● The largest part of the internet, whichcannot beaccessed by normal search engines.
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These pages are either password-protected, private, or restricted.
● It may contain sensitive or private data.
● Examples: Banking portals (your online banking account), medical records, government
databases, corporate intranets, private forums, academic journals, streaming services
(Netflix, Disney+ accounts)
Dark Web (~6%)
● It is a subset of Deep web.
● It is a hidden part of the internet that requires special software, configurations or
authorisationto access.
● It isnot indexed by search engineslike Google orBing.
● It is the source of one of the largest criminal and terrorist activities of the world.
● The most common way to access the dark web is through TOR (The Onion Router)
developed byRoss William Ulbricht, which allows usersto browse anonymously.
Network
Network isadatasharingtelecommunicationnetworkwhichallowsexchangeofinformationfrom
one device to another via wired/wireless medium.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
● A very small network covering an individual's
personal space. Connects personal devices like
smartphones, smartwatches, and wireless
peripherals.
● Examples: Bluetooth connections (e.g., connecting
a p hone to a wireless headset), wired USB
connections (e.g., syncing devices through a
cable)
LAN (Local Area Network)
● A network that operates within a limited
physical area like a home, office, or school. It
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allows multiple devices to connect over asingle shared network.
● Examples:Wi-Fihotspotsinhomes,schools,andoffices,ethernet-connectedcomputersin
offices.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
● A network larger than a LAN but smaller
thanaWAN,coveringacityormetropolitan
area. It connects multiple LANs within a
cityor region for better communication.
● Examples: STD codes (e.g., 0522) used in
telecomnetworks,WiMax(Wirelessbroadband
technology for city-wide internet coverage)
WAN (Wide Area Network)
● Aglobal-scale networkthat connects multiple MANsand LANs overlarge geographical
areas.
● Used for international communication, internet services and satellite-based connectivity.
● Examples:Country codes in telephone networks (e.g.,+91 for India), WWW (World Wide
Web) which connects the entire internet, Starlink Project (SpaceX’s satellite internet
network providing global internet coverage).
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Science and Technology
Lecture 16: Cybersecurity and Supercomputers
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
● A Virtual Private Network (VPN)
is a technology that creates a
secure and encrypted connection
between a computing device and
the network, allowing users to
protect their privacy and bypass
internet restrictions.
● Without aVPN,thisdataisvisible
to the Internet Service Provider (ISP) and potentially hackers. The VPN encrypts the
data before itistransmitted.ThisencryptionpreventsISPsandthirdpartiesfromspying
on user activity.
● The encrypted data travels through a VPN server, where it isdecryptedbeforereaching
the final server (destination
website or service). This process
alsochangestheuser’sIPaddress,
making it appear as if they are
browsing from a different location.
● The final server sees the request
comingfromtheVPNserverinstead
of the original device, thus hiding the user's actual location and identity.
● Encryption:Encryption is the process of convertingreadable data (plaintext) into an
unreadable format (ciphertext) to protect it from unauthorised access.
● Decryption:Decryption is the process of convertingciphertext back into plaintext to
make it readable again.
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Cybersecurity
● In the digital world, computer security threats are very significant and must be removed in
order to save our data and sensitive information from being misused.
● Cybersecurity refers to the practice ofprotectingcomputers, networks, programs, and
datafrom unauthorized access, cyberattacks, or damage.
Different Types of Cyber Threats
Cyber Warfare
● Cyber warfare involvesstate-sponsored attacksonother nations.
● These attacks may target critical infrastructure, military systems and financial institutions.
● Examples include hacking, malware attacks and disruptionof communication systems.
Cyber Espionage
● Cyber espionage is the act of stealing confidential or
classified information from governments or organisations.
● Thiscaninvolvehackingintonetworks,surveillance,and
data leaks.
● Example: Edward Snowden, who leaked classified
information about government surveillance programs.
yber Terrorism
C
● Cyberterrorismreferstotheuseoftheinternettocarryoutviolentactsthatthreaten
or harm people or nations.
● Cyber terrorists may attack government databases, financial systems or communication
networks to cause disruption.
Cybercrime
● Cybercrime refers toany criminal activity carriedout using computers or the internet.
● This includes hacking, identity theft, online fraud, and scams.
● Example: Deepfake, which is an AI-generated fake media technique used to manipulate
videos and images for fraud, misinformation or blackmail.
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Types of Cyber Attacks
Malware:Malware,whichisshortforMaliciousSoftwareisprogramdesignedtoharmorexploit
computers, networks, or users. It can be in following types:
● Adware: The least dangerous and most lucrative
Malware. Adware displays ads on your computer.
● Spyware: Spyware is software that spies on you,
tracking your internet activities in order to send
advertising (Adware) back to your system.
● Virus: A virus is a contagious program or code that
a ttaches itself to another piece ofsoftware,andthen
reproducesitselfwhenthatsoftwareisrun.Mostoftenthisisspreadbysharingsoftware
or files between computers.
● Spam: SpammingisamethodoffloodingtheInternet
with copies of the same message. Most spams are
commercial advertisements which are sent as an
unwanted email to users. Spams are also known as
Electronic junk emails or junk newsgroup postings.
Thesespamemailsareveryannoyingasitkeepscomingeverydayandkeepsyourmailbox
full.
● Worm:A program that replicates itself and destroysdata and files on the computer. Worms
work to "eat" the system operating files and data files until the drive is empty.
● Trojan:A Trojan horse or Trojan is a type of malwarethat is often disguised as legitimate
software. Trojans are written with the purpose of discovering your financial information,
taking over your computer's system resources, and in larger systems creating a
"denial-of-service attack"which is making a machineor network resource unavailable to
those attempting to reach it.Example: Google, AOL,Yahooor your business network
becoming unavailable.
● Backdoors:Backdoors are much the same as Trojans or worms, except that theyopen a
"backdoor" on a computer,providing a network connection for hackers or other Malware to
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enter or for viruses or SPAM to be sent.
● Rootkit: This one is likened to the burglar hiding in the attic,waitingtotakefromyou
while you are not home. It is the hardest of all Malware to detect and therefore to
remove; many experts recommend completely wiping your hard drive and reinstalling
everythingfromscratch.Itisdesignedtopermittheotherinformation-gatheringMalware
in to get the identity information from your computer without you realising anything is
going on.
● Keyloggers: Records everything you type on yourPCinordertogleanyourlog-innames,
passwords,andothersensitiveinformation,andsenditontothesourceofthekeylogging
program. Manytimeskeyloggersareusedbycorporationsandparentstoacquirecomputer
usage information.
● Rogue security software: This one deceives or misleads users. It pretends to be a good
program to remove Malware infections, but all the while it is the Malware.Oftenitwill
turn off the real Anti-Virus software.
● Ransomware:Ifyouseethisscreenthatwarnsyouthat
youhavebeenlockedoutofyourcomputeruntilyoupay
for your cybercrimes. Your system is severely infected
with a form ofMalwarecalledRansomware.Evenifyou
pay to unlock the system, thesystemisunlocked,butyouarenotfreeofitlockingyou
out again.
● BrowserHijacker:Whenyourhomepagechangestoonethatlookslikethoseintheimages
insertednext,youmayhavebeeninfectedwithoneformoranotherofaBrowserHijacker.
This dangerous Malware will redirect your normal searchactivityandgiveyoutheresults
thedeveloperswantyoutosee.Itsintentionistomakemoneyoffyourwebsurfing.Using
this homepage and not removing the Malware lets the source developers capture your
surfing interests.
● Phishing: Phishing is a social engineering attack
whereattackersimpersonatetrustedsources(suchas
banks, emails, or websites) to deceive users into
providing confidentialinformation,suchas:usernames
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and passwords, bank details and credit card numbers, personal identifiable information
(PII).
○ Most of the attacks on financial institutions the past 3 years have not been
through brute force attacks on firewall appliances, it has been through acquiring
users' passwords, this technique is called "Phishing"
● DistributedDenialofService:Distributeddenialofservice(DDOS)attacksareasubclass
of denial of service (DoS) attacks. A DDoS attack involves multiple connected online
devices, collectively known as a botnet, which are used to overwhelm a target website
with fake traffic.
● Man in the middle: A MITM attack occurs when a
hacker positions themselves between a user (you)
andalegitimateservice(e.g.,abank).Theattacker
can intercept, modify, or steal sensitive data. This
is done without the user’s knowledge, making it
highly dangerous for online transactions, emails, and personal communications.
● Drive by download: Drive-by download attacks occur when vulnerable computers get
infectedbyjustvisitingawebsite.FindingsfromthelatestMicrosoftSecurityIntelligence
ReportandmanyofitspreviousvolumesrevealthatDrive-byExploitshavebecomethetop
web security threat to worry about.
● Malvertising: Malvertising is criminallycontrolledadvertswhichintentionallyinfectpeople
and businesses. These can be any adonanysite-oftenoneswhichyouuseaspartof
your everyday internet usage. It is a growing problem, as is evidenced by a recent US
Senate report, and the establishment of bodies like Trust In Ads.
Cybersecurity Architecture in India
● NationalCybersecurityPolicy,2013(India's1st)-MeitY:Outlinesaroadmaptocreatea
framework for a comprehensive, collaborative, and collective response to deal with cyber
security issues at all levels in the country.
● NationalCyberSecurityCoordinator(NCSC):UnderNationalSecurityCouncilSecretariat
(NSCS) – coordinates with different agencies at the national level.
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● CERT-In: Issues alerts and advisories regarding the latest cyber threats and counter
measures on a regular basis.
● NCIIPC (National CriticalInformationInfrastructureProtectionCentre):Createdunder
Section 70A oftheITAct,2000(Amended2008).Operatesasthenodalagencyforthe
protection and resilience ofCriticalInformationInfrastructure(CII)inPowerandEnergy,
Telecom, Transport, Banking and Finance, G
overnment Infrastructure, and Strategic and
Public Enterprises.
● Cyber Swachhta Kendra (Botnet Cleaning & Malware Analysis Centre): Launchedfor
the detection of malicious programs and provides free tools to remove them.
● Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) (Under Ministry of Home Affairs -
MHA): Deals with all types of cybercrimes inacomprehensiveanddcoordinatedmanner.
Set up under the newly created Cyber and Information Security (CIS) division of MHA.
● National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC) (Under MeitY and MHA): An operational
cybersecurityande-surveillanceagencyinIndia.Coordinatesintelligencegatheringactivities
of other agencies. Derives its powers from Section 69B of IT Act, 2000.
● Cyber Surakshit Bharat Initiative: Launched in 2018 to spread awareness about
cybercrime. Aims to build capacity for safety measures for Chief Information Security
Officers (CISOs) and frontline IT staff across all government offices.
Supercomputers
● A supercomputer is an advanced computing
system designed for parallel processing, where
thousandsofprocessorsareconnectedparallelto
each other and work together simultaneously to
solve complex problems. Supercomputers can
handle extremely large data in very short span.
● Processing ability of supercomputers isthousandsof times fasterthan regular computers.
● It requires large amounts of space and energy to operate.
● Processing ability or speed of supercomputers in measured in FLOPS (Floating Point
Operations Per Second).
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TeraFLOPS (TFLOPS) = 10¹² FLOPS
PetaFLOPS (PFLOPS) = 10¹⁵ FLOPS
ExaFLOPS (EFLOPS) = 10¹⁸ FLOPS
Top 500 supercomputers as of November 2024:
● 1st→ El Capitan (USA) – 2 ExaFLOPS (EFLOPS)
● 2nd→ Frontier (USA) – 1.35 EFLOPS
● 3rd→ Aurora (USA) - 1.012 EFLOPS
● 136th→ Airawat (India) - 8.5 PFLOPS
● 188th→Arka(India)-5.94PetaFLOPS(PFLOPS).InstalledatIndianInstituteofTropical
Meteorology, India
● 189th→ Arunika (India)- 5.94 PetaFLOPS (PFLOPS). Installed at National Centre for
Medium-Range Weather Forecasting, India.
Other Supercomputers of India
● PARAMSiddhi:DevelopedbytheCentreforDevelopmentofAdvancedComputing(CDAC),
India. One of India's fastest supercomputers, u sed for AI, weather modelling, and drug
discovery.
● Pratyush: Developed using Cray Supercomputers (USA) technology. Used for climate
modelling and weather forecasting.
● Mihir:Also used for meteorological simulations andatmospheric research.
Applications of Supercomputers
● Dual-Use Technology:Supercomputers serve bothwelfareandwarfarepurposes→
○ Welfare:Used in scientific research, medical advancements,and climate studies.
○ Warfare: Used for military simulations, defense strategies, and nuclear weapon
testing.
● Quantum Physics: Simulating quantum particles, quantum cryptography, and advanced
physics experiments.
● Nano-Technology: Helps in developing new nanomaterials and elements for medical,
industrial, and energy applications.
● GeologicalDataResearchandWeatherForecasting:Usedtopredictnaturaldisasterslike
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earthquakes, tsunamis, and hurricanes. Pratyush is an Indian supercomputerdedicatedto
meteorology and climate modelling.
● ClimateChangeResearch:Analysinglargeclimatedatasetstostudyglobalwarming,CO₂
emissions, and environmental impact.
● New Drug Discovery and Vaccine Development: Supercomputers help simulate molecular
interactions, leading to faster drug and vaccine development. Used in COVID-19 vaccine
research for analysing virus structures.
● Nuclear Reactor and Weapon Testing: Simulating n
uclear reactions without actual
detonation. Used in nuclear power plant designs for safety improvements.
● Development and Training of AI: Supercomputers train deep learning and AI modelsfor
complex tasks. Used in speech recognition, robotics, and automation.
● Extended Reality (XR): Supports Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)
development. Helps in medical simulations, gaming and architectural visualisation.
● Data Mining in Blockchain Technology: Supercomputers analyze big data in blockchain
networks, improving security and efficiency in cryptocurrency transactions.
● Financial Modeling: Used for stock market predictions, risk analysis, and economic
forecasting. Helps banks and financial institutions optimise investment strategies.
Development of Supercomputers
● Early Supercomputing (1960s): Seymour Cray, an American engineer, founded Cray
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Inc., a leading supercomputer company. Cray's supercomputers became dominant in the
USA's technological and defense sectors.
● 1974:Pokhran-I→Indiaconducteditsfirstnucleartest,leadingtointernationalsanctions,
including restrictions on advanced technology imports.
● 1980s: India wanted to buy a Cray Supercomputer from Seymour Cray, but the USA
denied the sale, fearing its use innuclear programs.
● 1988: India formed C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing,Pune)o
develop its own indigenous supercomputers.
● India'sFirstSupercomputer(1991):India’sfirstindigenoussupercomputer,PARAM8000
built byC-DAC.
● Present-Day: There are many organisations building their own supercomputer like ISRO,
IISc, BARC, DRDO, etc.
National Supercomputing Mission
● India’s National Supercomputing Mission (NSM), which was launched in 2015 with a
target of completion by 2022.
● Themissionaimstodevelopanddeploymorethan70high-capacitysupercomputersto
enhance India's position in the global supercomputing ecosystem.
● C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing) and IISc Bangalore are
leadingthemission.Atos(FrenchCompany)isprovidingtechnicalassistanceinbuilding
these supercomputers.
● All supercomputers under NSM are connected via a high-performance computing network
called GARUDA GRID. C-DAC operates the GRID, ensuring seamless access and
collaboration across d ifferent research institutions. Different organisations canconnectto
GARUDA GRID to utilise supercomputing resources. This initiative is known as National
Knowledge Network (NKN), aimedatenhancingresearchanddevelopment(R&D)across
India.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 17: Supercomputers
Cloud Computing
● Cloud computing refers to the use of hosted services such as data storage, servers,
databases, networking and software—all accessed via the internet rather than running
locally on yourownhardware.Dataisstoredonphysicalserverswhicharemaintainedby
cloud service providers.
● Examples of Cloud-Based Tools
○ Google Drive (with around 15 GB of free data storage).
○ Google Docs, Slides, Sheets (online productivity apps).
○ Canvaisanotherweb-basedtool(fordesignwork)thatstoresyourprojectsinthe
cloud.
● Services provided by cloud can be broadly classified into:
○ IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Provides virtualised computing resources over
the Internet. Users can rent virtual machines, storage and networking on a
pay-as-you-go basis.Examples:Amazon Web Services(AWS) EC2, IBM Cloud
○ PaaS(PlatformasaService):Offersaplatformthatincludesbothhardwareand
software tools for a pplication development. Users can build, deploy, and manage
applications without dealing with the underlying infrastructure.Examples:GitHub,
Google Playstore, Windows/Linux.
○ SaaS (SoftwareasaService):Deliverssoftwareapplicationsovertheinterneton
asubscriptionbasis.Userscanaccessthesoftwarethroughawebbrowserwithout
the need for installation or maintenance.Examples:Netflix, Udemy, Youtube, etc.
Cloud Hosting
● Atypeofwebhostingthatusesanetworkofinterconnectedserversinthecloudtohost
websites or applications. Unlike traditional hosting on a single server, cloud hosting
spreads resources and load across multiple servers, improving scalability and reliability.
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Edge Computing
● It refers to the processing, analysing and
transfer of data closer to the edge of a
network rather than sending alldatatoa
cloudserverforprocessing.Servers,storage
systemsanddataanalyticscapabilitiesare
located near the edge of the network.
Cloud Computing Edge Computing
Global coverage, as data centers are distributed Brings computation much closer to where data
around the world is generated (the “edge” of the network).
Response time is typically in minutes or Response time is typically in milliseconds
seconds (higher latency). (lower latency)
Requires a large amount of bandwidth to Significantly reduces bandwidth needed by
transfer data to distant data centers. processing data locally
Digital Signature
● A digital signature is
created using
public‐key
cryptography.
● The signer has a
private key (kept
secret) and a
corresponding public
key (shared openly).
Signing a document typically involves using the signer’s private keytogenerateaunique
“signature” for that document.
● In practice, the document is hashed and the hash is encrypted with the sender’s private
key.
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● The receiver uses the sender’s public key to decrypt the signature and compare it against
the document’s own hash. If they match, it confirms:
○ Authenticity: The document was signed by the holderof the matching private key.
○ Integrity:The document wasn’t altered after signing(because any small change
would alter the hash).
● Digital Signatures are used:
○ To ensure the original document is not changed when received.
○ To transmit data securely without compromising its original content.
Digital Certificates (DCs)/ DIgital Signature Certificates (DSC)
● Itcanbepresentedelectronicallytoproveonesidentity.Adigitalcertificate(DSC)isan
electroniccredentialthattiesyourpublickeytoyouridentity,muchlikeadigitalversion
of a government‐issued ID.
● It is used to access information or services on the internet or to sign a document digitally.
● They are issued by licensedCertifyingAuthorities(CAs)underlawssuchastheIndian
IT Act 2000 that validate your identity and issue digital certificates.
Artificial Intelligence
● AI is the simulation of human intelligence processes by
machines especially computer systems.
● AIsystemsaredesignedtoperceivetheirenvironment,reason
the contextandmakedecisionsandtakedecisionsbasedon
available data or algorithms.
Machine learning(ML)
● Machinelearningfocusesonalgorithmsthatcananalysedata,identifypatternsandmake
predictions on the pattern they find.
Example:Score and salary of students are given below with one unknown data:
● Kanchan: 10th = 90%, 12th = 88%, Grad = 75%, Salary = 12.6 LPA
● Pratham: 10th = 85%, 12th = 86%, Grad = 70%, Salary = 10.5 LPA
● Vikas: 10th = 75%, 12th = 80%, Grad = 80%, Salary = 11 LPA
● Muskan: 10th = 80%, 12th = 80%, Grad = 70%, Salary = 10.4 LPA
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● Keshav: 10th = 85%, 12th = 82%, Grad = 80%, Salary = ??
An ML model might take these exam scores as inputs (features) and learn how they
correlate to salary. The model learns from known data (Kanchan, Pratham, Vikas,
Muskan). Once trained, the model can predict Keshav’s likely salary based on his
percentages (85%, 82%, 80%).
Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
● It is a brain-inspired machine learning model.
● In an ANN, there are typically multiple
layers of “neurons” (or “nodes”).
Connections between these nodes have
weights that adjust during training to
learn patterns from data.
● During training, an ANN repeatedly
processes examples, compares outputs to
the desired results, and updates
connection weights to reduce errors over time.
● Large Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT, Gemini, DeepSeek, etc. are built on
neural‐network architectures.
● Note:Anorganoidisaminiaturised,simplifiedversionofanorgan(e.g.,thebrain)grown
in vitro from stem cells.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 18: Quantum Computer
Note: Sentient refers to the ability to have feelings or emotions like humans, or to have
consciousness. In the context of AI, it raises the question of whether machines orrobotscould
develop such traits.
Deep Learning
● It is a subset of machine learning that uses Artificial Neural Networks(ANN)tolearn
from the data in a way that is similar to how human brain learn.
● Deep learning models are capable
of learning from large and
complex sets of data→ pictures,
voices , videos, long books,
different languages, manuscopits,
etc. These models automatically
identify patterns in the data,
which allows them to make
predictions or decisions without human intervention.
Machinelearningtypicallyinvolvestraininga Deep learning systems use pixel-wise
modelwithlabeleddata(likephotos),where reading, meaning the system looks at
each photo is tagged (e.g., dog or cat). each individual pixel in an image and
extracts more intricate features, even
However,ifyoupresentanewphoto(saya
recognising more complex characteristics
photo of a dog), the system can only
of dogs and cats.
recognize it if it has seen similar images T his allows the system to recognisenew
(like[Link]or[Link]).Ifthenewphoto photoswithgreateraccuracy,evenifthe
is different from the examples it has been photodoesn'tmatchtheexactonesinits
trained on, it may not recognise it correctly. training set.
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Generative AI
● Generative AI refers to AI algorithms designed to create new content, such aspictures,
audio, songs, videos, code,
simulationsand more.
● It is achieved by training machine
learning models, often using neural
networks, with large sets of data.
● These models learn the underlying
patterns of the data and can then
generate newsyntheticdatabased
on these learned patterns. When prompted, these AI systems can create content that
matches the style or characteristics of the original data.
● Examples: OpenAI (known for models like GPT and DALL-E), Google Bard, DALL-E (a
model by OpenAI for generating images from text descriptions), Sora, Suno AI
● Note:ChatGPTisaspecificexampleofGenerativeAI.Itisalargelanguagemodel(LLM)
created by OpenAI. Chat GPT is based on a Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer
(Chat GPT) model. This model is trained on vast amounts of text data to generate
human-like responses in text-based conversations. It can be used to interact, answer
questions and assist in a variety of tasks, such as writing, problem-solving, and more.
Types of AI
Narrow AI (Also called Weak AI):
● Narrow AI refers to AI that is
designedtoperformaspecifictask
or set of tasks. It excels at
repetitive, narrow activities since
the data in them is pre-fed, but
cannot perform tasks outside of
its design. It can do the same
task repeatedly with high
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efficiency. It is afully automatic systemfor specificfunctions.
● Examples:
○ Washing machinesthat perform one function (washing clothes) repeatedly.
○ Virtual assistants like Alexa and Siri, which can respond to specific commands
but are not capable of independent thinking or broad learning.
Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) (Also called General AI)
● AGI refers to AI that can understand, learn and perform a wide variety of tasks, much like
a human being It canperform new tasksandlearnfromexperience. It is not limited to
specific functions but can generalise its abilities across different domains.
● This type of AI isstill in the developmental stageand is considered a long-term goal in
AI research.
● Example:ChatGPTis a step toward AGI because it canengage in various types of tasks
like answering questions, writing essays, and generating content.
Super AI (Also known as Artificial Superintelligence)
● This is still atheoreticalconcept and afuturistictechnology, with no current AI system
reaching this leve
● Super AI would surpass human intelligence in every aspect—creativity, decision-making,
problem-solving and even social interactions. It wouldperform tasks better than humans
in almost every field, including complex decision-making, innovation, and social intelligence.
Applications of Artificial Intelligence
● Healthcare: With thehelpofAI,faster,cheaper,andmoreaccuratediagnosisofdiseases
can be done. Example:
Oxford Hospital developed
an AI tool for thediagnosis
of heart disease and lung
cancer.
○ IBM AI system -
Watson: It can
analyze anddiagnose
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cancer.
● ManufacturingSector:ThisisoneofthebiggestbeneficiariesofAI.AI-enabledrobotscan
efficiently manage manufacturing processes. Example: US-based AI - "Invisible AI"
developed an AI platform for real-time monitoring of work in factories.
● Agriculture Sector: Real-time monitoring of soil quality and pest attacks. AI-powered
robots and drones can be used for precision farming. Example: Blue River Technology
(US-based) developed a "See & Spray AI system,"whichcanpreciselyrecogniseweeds
and spray herbicides on them.
● TransportationSector:Developmentofsmarttrafficmanagementsystems,driverlesscars,
etc.Example: Tesla, Motional (US):→Autonomous carswith LiDAR, RADAR, and cameras.
● Education: AI can potentially solve quality issues and personalise the experience of
students.Example: Personalised tests.
Challenges with AI:
● Data privacy and data security – AI systems require vast amounts of data, raising
concerns about unauthorised access, misuse and compliance with data protection laws.
● Deep fake – AI-generated fake videosandimagescanbeusedformisinformation,fraud
and manipulation, posing serious ethical and security threats.
● Lack of investment – The high costs associated with AI research, development and
deployment hinder its widespread adoption, especially in developing economies.
● Lack of human capital – There is a shortage of skilled AI professionals, includingdata
scientists, machine learning engineers, and AI ethicists, limiting growth and innovation.
● Lack of infrastructure – Many regions lack the necessary computational resources,
high-speed internet and digital infrastructure to support AI-driven applications.
○ Advancedcomputingsystems–AIrequirespowerfulcomputinghardware,suchas
GPUs and TPUs, which are expensive and not universally accessible.
○ Advanced cloud systems – Scalable AI models demand robust cloud computing
infrastructure, but concerns over cost, security, and data sovereignty hinder
adoption.
Blockchain Technology
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● Centralised data has central point which controls and stores the data. It has few
disadvantages:
○ Single point of failure: If the central point
fails, the entire system is compromised.
○ Service charges: Centralized entities, like
banks, charge fees for services.
○ Data privacy compromised: A single entity
controlsthedata,leadingtopotentialmisuse
and security risks.
● Hence decentralised data network was needed.
● Blockchain is a decentralised data management system that enables secure and
transparent transactions across a network. It has certain advantages:
○ Nosinglepointoffailure:Ifonenodegoesdown,theotherscontinuefunctioning,
making it more secure.
○ No service charge: Blockchain eliminates middlemen or third-party services that
typically charge a fee for transactions.
○ Security – Uses cryptographic encryption and consensus mechanisms to prevent
fraud and unauthorised access.
○ Transparency – All transactions are recorded on a public ledger, ensuring
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accountability and reducing corruption.
● Disadvantages of Blockchain technology:
○ High transaction times and network congestion can slow down processing speeds.
○ Privacy Concerns – Public blockchains store all transactions openly, potentially
compromising user confidentiality.
○ Verification by each member leads to delays
○ High power consumption, storage problem due to huge number of data.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 19: Blockchain Technology
Blockchain Technology
● Blockchain Technology is a
new type of network
infrastructure that creates
trust in network by
introducing distributed
verifiability and consensus.
● It acts as a shared database
distributed across vast P2P
(peer-to-peer) networks
with no singlepointoffailure
(decentralisation).
● No individual identity can owna blockchain network.
● Nosingleentitycaneditthedatastoredinitwithouttheconsensus(morethan50%)of
peers.
● New data is added to the blockchain only via the consensus between the network’s
various nodes. This is known asdistributed consensus.
● Blockchain record information on a chain that extends infinitely.
● New data is always added at theendafterconsensusandonceaddeditispermanent.
The older data also becomes immutable.
Working of Blockchain Technology
● Step 1:Transaction Request is Raised. It will besent to every node for authentication.
● Step2:Morethan50%ofnodeswillapproveafterlookingintothevalidityoftherequest.
This is an important step of theconsensus mechanism.
● Step 3: After verification, transaction (along will other transactions) would be added as
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block in the network.
● Step 4:Transaction is complete.
Key terms related to Blockchain Technology
● Node: Any user using his device to connect to thenetwork. There are two types of nodes:
○ Full Node: They have a complete set of the blockchain and can initiate and
approve transactions. Requires a lot of memory/space in your device.
○ PartialNode:Theyhavetheheaderofeveryblockchain.Theycanalsoinitiateand
approvetransactions,butwithcertain
restrictions.
● Ledger: It contains all the data regarding
every transaction. It will be distributed
amongallthenodessimilarly.Thisisalways
public. It possessproperty of Immutability
● Digital Wallet: It can store digitalcurrency.
It contains one public key and one private
key.
● Hash: Unique identity of a block inside a
blockchain network.
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● Proof of work: It is a consensus mechanism to prove that the miner has validated the
transactions and added new blocks to the blockchain.
● Proof of stake: It is also a consensus mechanism that will delegate the power of
validation to certain owner/ nodes in order to make the validation faster.
Types of Blockchain
● Public Blockchain:
○ Anyone is allowed to join and participate in consensus.
○ Fully decentralised, immutable
and secured ledger system.
○ Transactions are anonymous
but transparent to everyone.
○ Requires consensus of more
than 50% to add
transaction/block.
○ Example: Bitcoin, Ethereum,
etc.
● Private Blockchain:
○ A single authority will have control over the transaction approval in a network.
○ It will provide faster output and is power-efficient.
○ This network will not be open to everyone.
○ Example:Corda.
● Consortium Blockchain (Federated Blockchain):
○ Anyonecaninitiatethetransactionand jointhenetworkbutonlythechosenones
will have the power to approve the transaction.
○ Example:IBM Food Trust
Cryptocurrency
● It is digital currency based on a decentralised peer-to-peernetwork,basedonblockchain
technology.
● Example:Bitcoin, Ethereum, Dogecoin, etc.
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● Satoshi Nakamoto is said tohaveconceptualisedanaccountingsystemintheaftermath
of the 2008 financial crisis. He is said to be thefather of bitcoin.
Mining
● ItisaprocessofaddingablockofBitcoin/cryptocurrencyinto
the blockchain network. This requires solving complex
cryptographic puzzles.
● For solving these puzzles and adding blocks, miners will be
rewarded by adding bitcoins to their digital wallet.
Limitations of Blockchain:
● Not enough incentives for non-mining full nodes.
● Growth of ledger will make it difficult for non-mining full nodes.
● With the increasing popularity ofblockchain,itisverydifficultforinvestorstograspand
understand this technology.
● Educational curriculum requires significant upgrades to involve such technology into their
curriculum.
● Lack of experienced developers.
Advantages of Blockchain:
● No single point of failure.
● Neither middle server is required nor middle service provider is
required (example: Today’s Amazon, Flipkart).
● Blockchain is immutable.
● It is decentralised and hence open to all. (Do not require
subscriptions)
Disadvantages of Blockchain:
● Verification is requiredfor every transaction.
● Not everyone is capableof becoming a full node.
● Too much consumption of poweris needed.
● Storage problem: More data is produced when more network
transactions are carried out, requiring more storage space.
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Note:Blockchain based Applications
● e-Stamps Solution.
● Judiciary Application.
● IPS officers service level training record management.
● Forensic Application.
● Praamaanik - verification of mobile app authenticity.
● Consent Management Framework.
● loT Device Security Management.
● Cotton bale identification and tracking.
● Domicile Certificate Chain.
● Document Chain (Caste Certificate Chain, Property Chain, Education Certificate Chain).
● Tracking of Agriculture Produce.
● Inspection system for Child Care Institutions.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 20: Blockchain Technology and Quantum
Computer
Applications of Blockchain Technology
Financial and Banking Sector
● It can be a tool for De-Fi
(Decentralised Finance) by removing
centralized intermediaries.
● It can be used for faster and more
cost-effective cross-border
transactions.
● CBDCs (Central Bank Digital
Currencies)aredigitalcurrenciesissued
by central banks ofcountrieslikeIndia
and China. It can be based on
blockchain technology.
● Advantages: Reducing fraud, lowering
costs, and increasing transparency in
financial transactions
Supply chain and logistics sector
● Blockchain enables end-to-end tracking, which improvesthetransparencyandefficiency
of tracking goods. Examples include DBT (Direct Benefit Transfer), PDS (Public
Distribution System), and IBM Food Trust.
Governance and voting system
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● It can be used in blockchain-based voting systems that would create a secure,
transparent, and tamper-proof method of voting. Example: Voatz (US-based pilot voting
technology)
● It can be used in public record verification, such aseKYC(electronic Know Your Customer)
Cyber Security
● Blockchain Technology features decentralisation and encryption that can play a pivotal
role in enhancing cybersecurity.
Entertainment and Digital Rights
● NFTs (Non-Fungible Tokens) representing ownership of digital assets are intangible in
nature. Blockchain can ensure their authenticity and ownership.
Energy and Environment
● It can be a useful tool incarbon trading.
● It can be used in decentralised energy trading, like selling/buying of extra solar power
produced inside a community/place.Example: PowerLedger (Australia)
Quantum Computers
Digital Computers (Binary System) Quantum Computers
● It is based onelectrons. ● It is based on spintronics
● They use the flow of electrons ● They use spin (a fundamental property of
(current)to process data. electrons). The electron's spin can be in oneof
● These computers use the binary two states, represented as 0 or 1. Paired
system (0s and 1s- also known as electrons'spinstatescanbe00,01,10,11. These
bits) to represent and process pairs formqubits(quantum bits)
information. ● They are based onquantum code.
● Digital computers use transistors. ● Quantum dots are required to produce qubits.
Transistors are required for bits Quantum d ots/loops are nano-particles of
production. semiconductors placed at very low temperature.
Quantum Computing
● It is a rapidly emerging technology that harnesses the laws of Quantum Mechanics to
solve problems that are too complex for general digital computers.
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● It harnesses qubits to execute and solve
multidimensional quantum algorithms.
● Note: Qubits always exist in pairs in a
superimposed state.
Note:OnJune7,2024,theUnitedNationsGeneral
Assembly (UNGA) proclaimed 2025 as the
International Year of Quantum Science and
Technology (IYQ).
Principles of Quantum Mechanics:
Quantum Superposition:
● It isoneofthefoundationalprinciplesofquantummechanics.Itreferstoaphenomenon
wherequantumparticles(likequbits)canexistinmultiplestatesatonce,notjustasingle
state like in classical computing.
● A quantum particle can exist in multiple states simultaneously.
● Example: A qubit can be 0 and 1 at the same time
Quantum Entanglement
● It allows for the correlation between two quantum particles.
● When qubits become entangled, their state becomes interdependent, regardless of their
spatial separation.
● Manipulating one qubit of an entangled pair will instantly affect the state of the other
qubit.
Development of Quantum Computers
● In 2011, D-Wave, a company based in Canada, claimed to have built the first quantum
computer.Althoughthisclaimsparkeddebate,itwasoneoftheearliestmilestonesinthe
field.
● Morerecently,GoogleannouncedthatithadachievedQuantumSupremacy,whichmeans
that a quantum computer performed a task that would be practically impossible forany
classical computer to achieve in a reasonable time.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)
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● It is a secure communication technology that uses quantum physics to construct a
cryptographicprotocol.Theseprotocolsgeneratesecureentangledkeysusedforencryption
and decryption.
● QKD can easily break complex encryptions of normaldigitalcomputers.Hence,thereisa
fear of misuse of crucial data by country or organisationwhobuiltsfirstfullyfunctional
quantum computer.
Development of Quantum Computers in India
● In 2017, [Link] organised a national consultation at Harish ChandraResearchInstitute,
Prayagraj, to explore the possibility of quantum computers in India.
● In 2020-21, a budget of ₹7000 CrwasgiventoNMBTA(NationalMissiononQuantum
Computing & Applications) to establish India at3rdplaceatQuantumcomputingafter
USA and China.
● In 2023, the Government of India started NQM (National Quantum Mission) for
development of Quantum Computer and Technologies in India. With this mission, India
becomes7th countryin the world to have dedicated8.5 million.
● Under NGM, India will focus on achieving the following objectives in the time period of
2023-31:
○ Development of Quantum Computers
○ Development of Quantum Communication
○ Development of Quantum Sensors and Meteorology (for atomic-level precise
measurement)
○ DevelopmentofQuantumMaterialsandTechnology(Toboostothersectorslike
electronics)
Applications of Quantum Computers:
1. Quantum Communication
2. Quantum Encryption
3. Quantum Simulation
4. Quantum Meteorology
Photonic Computers
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● Use photons (light particles) for processing data unlike digital computers that use
electrons for processing data.
● Use optical transistors to control theflowofphotons,enablingthecomputationofbits
(0 or 1)
● Optical Computers will have the followingbenefitsover electronic computers:
○ Energy requirement will be very low because light (generated by LED & laser)
will have no internal resistance.
○ Itwillgiveextremelyhighprocessingabilityandfasterdatatransferasnothing
can travel faster than light (3x10^8 km/sec).
● The biggest barrier in the development of optical computing is light-based optical
transistors or optical processors.
● In 2016, NIT, USA developed the world's 1st opticaltransistor,whichcanbehelpfulfor
the development of optical computers and processors in the future.
DNA / Biological / Molecular / Organic Computers
● In molecular computing, DNA orotherbiologicalmoleculescanbeusedtostoredigital
data.DNAisconsideredthemostsuitablebecauseitcanholddigitaldataasasequence
of nitrogenous bases→ A=T, C=G
● To make the data secure, the DNA will be placed inside suitablecontainersastheycan
survive in adverse climates as well.
● AccordingtoareportpublishedinNatureMagazine,1gramofDNAcanhold15Petabits
of data.
● Scientists are exploringDNAaspermanentstoragedata,wheredigitaldatacanbestored
for thousands of years.Example: Bacillus Subtilis
Big Data
● It is enormous amount of data present in the internet which is generated by users,
companies, organisations through various activities on the internet.
● BigDataAnalysis:Itisafieldincomputersciencewhichdealswiththemanipulationand
systematic use of Big Data to extract information, analyse data, and put it to use for
various purposes.
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● Data Fiduciary: Big companies that playwithBig
Data Analysis.
Characteristics of Big Data: 6 Vs of Big
Data
1. Volume: Amount of data that is being produced.
2. Variety:Different types of data.
3. Velocity:How quickly it is being produced.
4. Veracity:Amount of data that can be trusted.
5. Value:Business value of data collected.
6. Variability:How data can be used in different ways
Regulatory Bodies and Legislations
● 1976 - National Informatics Centre (NIC)
○ Tech partner of the GovernmentofIndia,helpingtheIndianGovernmentembrace
Information Technology.
○ Helped disseminate e-governance to the masses.
● 1984 - Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT)
○ Autonomous body, Telecom Technology Development Centre for Government of
India.
○ Provided indigenously developed and state-of-the-art technology in telecom
solutions.
● 1988 - Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC)
○ Formed when the USA blocked the deal of a supercomputer being purchased by
Cray-SuperComp (USA).
○ India started C-DAC as a nodal agency to build supercomputers indigenously in
India.
● 1997 - Telecommunication Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI)
○ Under Telecommunication Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Act, 1997.
○ Regulates telecom services.
○ Creates and nurtures conditions for the growth of telecom in the country.
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● 2000 - Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000
○ Primary laws in India deal with cybercrime and electronic commerce (banking
transactions).
● 2004 - Computer Emergency Response Team - India (CERT-In)
○ National agency for cybersecurity in India.
○ Works under MEITY now.
○ The nodal agency for coordinating and responding to cybersecurity incidents.
● CERT-Fin (CERT Finance)
○ Reports to CERT-In for the financial sector.
● 2016 - Ministry of Communication & Information Technology
○ Department ofElectronicsandITconvertedintoafull-fledgedministry→Ministry
of Electronics and IT (MEITY).
○ Department of Telecommunications under Ministry of Communication.
■ Responsible for regulating the telecom sector.
■ Allocation of spectrum.
■ Allocating frequencies for mobile and radio communication.
● 2020 - Data Centre Policy
○ Make India a global data centre hub.
○ Promoting data localization (keeping data within the country).
● 2023 - Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023
○ Digital India Act, 2023.
○ Replaced IT Act, 2000 after 22 years.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 21: Extended Reality and Nuclear
Technology Basics
Regulatory Bodies and Legislation
● 1976 - National Informatics Centre (NIC)
○ Tech partner of the GovernmentofIndia,helpingtheIndianGovernmentembrace
Information Technology.
○ Helped disseminate e-governance to the masses.
○ It also operates the National Knowledge Network
● 1984 - Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT)
○ Autonomous body, Telecom Technology Development Centre for Government of
India.
○ Provided indigenously developed and state-of-the-art technology in telecom
solutions.
● 1988 - Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC)
○ Formed when the USA blocked the deal of a supercomputer b
eing purchased by
Cray-SuperComp (USA).
○ India started C-DAC as a nodal agency to build supercomputers indigenously in
India.
● 1997 - Telecommunication Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI)
○ Under Telecommunication Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Act, 1997.
○ Regulates telecom services.
○ Creates and nurtures conditions for the growth of telecom in the country.
● 2000 - Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000
○ Primary laws in India deal with cybercrime and electronic commerce (banking
transactions).
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● 2004 - Computer Emergency Response Team - India (CERT-In)
○ National agency for cybersecurity in India.
○ Works under MEITY now.
○ The nodal agency for coordinating and responding to cybersecurity incidents.
● CERT-Fin (CERT Finance)
○ Reports to CERT-In for the financial sector.
● 2016 - Ministry of Communication & Information Technology
○ Department ofElectronicsandITconvertedintoafull-fledgedministry→Ministry
of Electronics and IT (MEITY).
○ Department of Telecommunications established under Ministry of Communication.
■ Responsible for regulating the telecom sector.
■ Allocation of spectrum.
■ Allocating frequencies for mobile and radio communication.
● 2020 - Data Centre Policy
○ Make India a global data centre hub.
○ Promoting data localization (keeping data within the country).
● 2023 - Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023
○ Digital India Act, 2023.
○ Replaced IT Act, 2000 after 22 years.
Safe Harbour:
● It is provided underSection 79 of the InformationTechnology Act (IT Act 2000)
● Itshields intermediaries(such as websites and onlineplatforms) from legal liabilities. It
allows intermediaries to avoid liabilitiesfor contentthat has been digitally published by
any third party on their platform or website.
Biometric Recognition Technology
● These are automated technologies for
authenticating andverifyingaperson’s
identity with the help offingerprints,
iris scans, retina scans, and voice
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scans.
● These are unique biological traits of a person.
● Classification of Biometric Traits:
○ Physiological Characteristics→ These are
related to the physical traits of the body.
Examples: Fingerprints, palm veins, face
recognition, palm print, hand geometry.
○ Behavioral Characteristics→ These are
based on patterns or behaviors. Examples:
Typing rhythm, walking style, handwriting,
voice.
● Types of Biometric Authentication:
○ Fingerprint Scanners: Used to authenticate based onthe unique patterns in a
person’s fingerprint.
○ Facial Recognition: Identifies or verifies individualsbased on their facial features.
○ Voice Recognition: Identifies a person by the uniquepatterns in their voice.
○ Eye Scanners: Includes bothIris ScanandRetina Scan,which are used to
authenticate based on the unique patterns of the eye
● Multi-Factor Authentication(MFA) can be used foradded security. MFA combines two or
more different types of authentication (for example, a password and a biometric scan) to
ensure more secure verification.
Additive Manufacturing Technology
● 3D Printing: This is a process where a 3-dimensional
object is created by printing it layer by layer using a
Computer-Aided Design (CAD).
● Applications of 3-D printing:
○ Bionics:Non-functional body parts like tooth,
bionic arm, cornea, etc. can be printed. In the
future, with technologies likeiPSC (induced pluripotentstem cells), there could
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be the possibility of printing functional organs.
○ Construction and Infrastructure:Example→Post officein Bangalorebuilt using
3D printing
○ Space Sector: 3D Printed Cryogenic Engine can be built.TheAgniliteengine by
Agnikul Cosmosis a 3D-printed cryogenic engine designedfor rockets. The engine
has no moving parts, leading to enhanced efficiency, reduced wear and tear, lower
production costs and shorter production time.
○ Industries:Used in automobile sector.
● 4-D Printing: 4D Printingreferstoatypeof
3D printing technology that incorporates an
additionaldimension—time.In4Dprinting,the
printed object is designed to change its
shape or properties overtimeinresponseto
external stimuli such as heat, light, moisture,
or other environmental factors.
Extended Reality (XR)
● XR refers to a broad range of technologies that blend the
physical and digital worlds. It includes Augmented Reality
(AR),Virtual Reality (VR), andMixed Reality (MR).
Augmented Reality (AR)
● ARinvolvestheinteractionoftherealenvironmentwithdigitalelements.Itenhancesthe
real world by adding virtual objects or
information on top of what we see.
○ Example→ A live view (for example,a
person or object) is captured using a
digital camera but the digital camera
overlays digital elements like graphics
(glasses, hat, etc.) or text.
● It is partially-synchronised system and non-immersive. There is no need of high end
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gadgets as it can be used simply by our smartphone camera.
Virtual Reality (VR)
● ItrequiresaVRheadset.Itcreatesacompletelyvirtualdigitalenvironment,disconnecting
users from the real world to immerse them in a fully digital space.
● It is a complete immersive experience.
● Applications:
○ 3D Gaming:Playing games in fully immersive
environments.
○ Training:Using VR for simulations and skills
training.
○ Virtual Tours:Exploring places remotely in a fully
immersive manner.
○ Historical Re-living:Experiencing historical eventsor places as though they were
happening in real time.
○ Online Education:Engaging students with virtual classroomsor real-world scenarios
in a virtual setting.
Mixed Reality (MR)
● Mixed Reality (MR) is a technology that blends elements from
bothVirtual Reality (VR)andAugmented Reality (AR).
● In MR, digital/ virtual objects are integrated and mapped over
the real-world environment. This allows users to interact with
both real and digital elements simultaneously.Example:Apple
vision pro.
● The user is connected to their physical environment through
cameras and sensorsplaced on VR headsets.
Liquid Crystal Display
● Early Cathode Ray Tubes screen functions by directing a beam of electrons onto a
phosphorescent screen, which glows upon impact toform an image.
● Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) screen: A TFT screen operates using liquid crystals that
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manipulate light to create an image. It was first flat screen.
● (LiquidCrystalDisplay)LCDTV:LCDsuseliquidcrystalssandwichedbetweentwoglass
panelstocreateimages.ItusedCFLtubesforbacklighting.EarlyLCDshadapoorviewing
angle, meaning the image quality would degrade when viewed from theside.Theseearly
screens did not produce true black, resulting in a grayish appearance in dark scenes.
● LED (Light Emitting Diodes) Screen: LED TVs use
light-emitting diodes to produce light. These diodes are smaller
and more energy-efficient than traditional backlight sources.
Despitetheadvancement,LEDTVsstillrequireabacklightsource
to illuminate the display.
● OLED(OrganicLED)screen:OLEDscreensuseorganicmaterials
to produce light directly without the need for a backlight. This
resultsinbetterpicturequalityandtrueblacklevelsbecauseeachpixelcanturnonoroff
independently. Perfect black could still not be achieved.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Science and Technology
Lecture 22: Defence Technology
Defence Technology
Types of weapon systems
● Conventional Weapon Systemsare those that cause limiteddamage, such as guns, bullets,
and bombs.
● Non-Conventional Weaponsincludebiological weapons,chemical weapons, andnuclear
weapons, which have far more devastating effects.They are also known asweapons of
mass destruction.
○ Chemical Weapons:These can kill or incapacitate people.Examples→ mustard gas
(blister agent), lewisite (blister agent), serine gas.
○ Biological weaponsinclude drug resistant pathogenswhich can kill large number of
people simultaneously.
● Biological Weapon Convention (BWC) - 1972:
○ Member countries cannot develop, share or use biological weapons.
○ India is a signatoryto this convention.
○ The entire world is free from biological weapons.
○ Biological weapons have never been used in any warfare, thus ensuring the survival
of human civilization.
● Chemical Weapon Convention (1993) → CWC:
○ According to this convention, member countriescan'tdevelop,shareoruseany
chemical weapon.
○ India is a signatoryto this convention.
○ India is free from any chemical weapon by enacting theChemical Weapon
Convention Act, 2000 in the parliament.
Nuclear Weapon
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● Nuclear Triad(ability to attack with nuclear weapon). India can attack from Land
(missiles like Agni (Nuclear warhead capable), Prithvi), from air (jet fighters like Rafale,
Sukhoi, Mirage), from water (by ships-Dhanush Missile, under water by submarines like
INS Arihant and K-15 series missile like Sagnika (2019))
Classification of Missiles
● On the basis of flight path:
○ Ballistic Missile: Follow a parabolic path
○ Cruise Missile: Stay within a controlled flight
path
● On the basis of launch mode:
○ Air
○ Water
○ Land
● On the basis of warhead:
○ Conventional Warhead: A typical explosive warhead
○ Strategic Warhead: Likely refers to nuclear or advanced strategic warheads
● On the basis of range:
○ Short Range: 300-1000 km
○ Medium Range: 1000-3500 km
○ Intermediate Range: 3500-5500 km
○ Intercontinental Range: >5500 km
Ballistic Missile Cruise Missile
● A ballistic missile follows a parabolic ● A self-propelled missile till end that can
path after launch and is typically acquire moving targets.
unguided. ● It is guided, highly precise, and typically
● It is used for long-range attacks and used forshort-rangestrikes.
has no control over itsflightpathafter ● It has comparatively lower warhead carrying
launch. capacity, though typically for more precise
● The missile has high warhead carrying targeting
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capacity for destructive payloads. ● Cruise missiles have difficulties being
● They are easily detected by radar and detected by radar and are harder to
can be easily destroyedbyairdefense intercept by air defense systems as
systems. compared to ballistic missiles.
Missile Programs of India: IGMDP (Integrated Guided Missile Development
Program)
● A visionary program ofDr. APJ Abdul Kalam (MissileMan of India).
● Started in 1983 and completed in 2008, the program aimed to build various ballistic
missiles for India.
● Missile Types Developed:
○ Prithvi:A short-range surface-to-surface missile.
○ Akash:A surface-to-air defense missile.
○ Trishul: A missile that is no longer in developmentafter 2008.
○ Nag: An anti-tank missile designed for targeting armouredvehicles.
○ Agni:A long-range surface-to-surface missile, primarilydeveloped for use against
China.
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Agni Missile
● Surface-to-surface ballistic missile (SSM).
● All solid-fueled and nuclear-capable.
● It is also known as long range ballistic missile (LRBM)
● Note: Agni III, V and Prime are capable of carrying multiple warheads.
● Variants:
Variant Range (km) Stages Diameter (m)
Agni I 700-1200 1 1
Agni II 2000-2500 2 1.1
Agni III Upto 3500 2 2
Agni IV Upto 3000 2 1.1
Agni V 5000-8000 3 2
Agni Prime 1000-2000 2 2
Mission Divyastra:
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● This mission successfully testedMIRV (Multiple Independently Targeted Re-entry
Vehicle)technology inAgni V.
● MIRV Technology: This allows a missile to carry multiplewarheads that can each target
different locations. This makes it much harder to track the ballistic missile (BM) and to
counteract with air defense systems. The missile can release several warheads, each
targeting a different location.
● India became the6th nationto successfully developand test MIRV technology. Earlier
only P5 nations-USA, Russia, UK, China, Francehadthis.
Prithvi Missile
● It is short range ballistic missile (SRBM)
● It is built to deter Pakistan.
● Liquid fuel is used in Prithvi missile.
● Variants:
○ Prithvi I:Short-range ballistic missile, designedprimarily for surface-to-surface use.
Its range is only 150 km
○ Prithvi II:Extended range to 250-350 km.
○ Prithvi III: Range up to 350 km and further enhancedfor naval and submarine
capabilities. It is discarded as surface to surface missile.
○ Naval Version: Thesea versionof Prithvi is alsointegrated→Dhanush, a naval
version of the missile. (sea to surface missile)
○ Submarine Version: Known asSaganika(SLBM - Submarine-LaunchedBallistic
Missile), this version is designed for submarine launches.
Sagarika
● Sagarika is a Submarine-Launched
Ballistic Missile (SLBM) developed
under theK-15 Series.
● It is India's 1st SLBMandrepresentsa
significant advancement in India's
defensecapabilities,particularlyinterms
of nuclear deterrence.
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● India became the 5th countryto develop and deployan SLBM.
● The missile was mounted on theINS Arihant, India'sfirst nuclear-powered submarine.
● The missile hasnuclear warhead capability. Its inclusioncompleted India’s nuclear
triad.
● TheSagarikamissile has a range of approximately600 km, making it capable of striking
targets from a submerged position.
Shaurya Missile
● Aland-basedversionoftheSagarikamissile
exists, known as theShaurya Missile.
● The Shaurya is a canister-launched
hypersonic tactical surface-to-surface
missile (SSM), also with nuclear
capabilities.
Prithvi’s Solid fuel version
● Prahar is Prithvi's solid fueled version with range 150 km (Short Range Ballistic Missile,
SRBM) and Mach 2 (approximately 2400 km/h).
● Variants:
○ Extended Version: The extended version of Prahar hasa range of 200 km and is
referred to asPranash.
○ Export Version:The export version is known asPragati.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Science and Technology
Lecture 23: Defence Technology (Part-02)
Note:Only Agni I, II and III were part of IGMP.
Akash Missile
● It is a two-stage surface-to-air missile with a
two-stage engine: the first stage usessolidfuel,andthe
second stage uses a ramjet engine with liquid fuel.
● The missile has a range of 30 km (interceptor range),
meaning it can intercept and destroy targets at this
distance.
● In case of failure or a missed target, the missile is equipped with a self-destruction
mechanism.
● It can reach altitudes of up to 18 km.
● The missile travels at a speed of2.5 Machmakingitsupersonic.
● Rajendra Radar is a key component of the Akash missile system, capable of tracking
multipletargets,performmultifunctionandcontrollingthemissilesystemwithitsphased
array fired control radar.
● Variants:
○ Akash NG:A new generation version with a range ofover 60 km.
○ Akash Prime: Another variant with improved features
Air Breathing Systems
● Turbofan or turbojet: This engine includes a fan atthefrontthatmovesairintothe
engine, and it has moving parts (such as compressors and turbines).Ithasmorefuel
consumption as well as low efficiency.
● Ramjet: A ramjet works by using the forward motion of the vehicle to compress
incomingair.Ithasnomovingparts.Thrustisgeneratedduetotherapidcombustionof
air and fuel, but it only works at high speeds at around 2.5 Mach.
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● Scramjet: Operates at speeds above Mach 5. Unlike a ramjet, a scramjet uses
supersonic combustion, meaning that the air remains at supersonicspeedsthroughthe
entire combustion process.
Pralay Missile
● PralayMissileisaquasi-ballisticmissile(amissilethatfollowsaballistictrajectorybut
can maneuver during mid-flight).
● It has a range of150-500 km.
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● It can carry conventional warheads weighing up to700 kg.
● It uses solid fuel SSM (Surface-to-Surface Missile).
● Themissile'smainobjectiveistodefeatenemyinterceptormissiles,makingiteffectivein
penetrating missile defense systems.
Cruise Missile
Brahmos Missile
● The missile is a joint development between DRDO
(Defense Research and Development Organisation,
India)andNPOM (Russia).
● The missile is named after two rivers: Brahmaputra
(India) andMoskva(Russia).
● It is one of the fastest cruise missile.
● Before M
TCR (Missile Technology Control Regime,
2016):
○ Rangewas300-350kmandspeedwasaround
2.8 Mach
● After MTCR (2016):
○ Range is 600-700 km and speed is around 7-8 Mach.
● Brahmos uses a fire-and-forget mechanism which means it doesn't require further
guidance once launched, making it harder for countermeasures to intercept.
● The missile can carry a payload of200-300 kg.
● Variants:
BrahMos I: BrahMos II: BrahMos NG (Next Generation):
● Range: 300-400 km ● Range: 600-700 ● 3 meters smaller than BrahMos I
● Payload: 200-300 km ● 50% lighter than the previous
kg ● Payload: 200-300 version
● Speed: 2.8 Mach kg ● Made up of composite materials,
● First Stage: Solid ● Speed: 7-8 Mach which make it lighter and
fuel ● First Stage: Solid stronger
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● Second Stage: fuel ● Primarily developed for export and
Ramjet engine ● Second Stage: can be used for airforce
Scramjet engine applications as well.
Nirbhay Missile
● The Nirbhay missile is a subsonic cruise
missile with a speed of 0.8 Mach.
● It is indigenously developed by India,
highlighting India's capabilities in missile
technology.
● The missile uses a2-stage design.
○ First stage: Uses solid fuel.
○ Second stage:Powered by a turbojet engine for continuedpropulsion.
● It has an impressive range of up to 1000 km, allowing it to target distant objectives.
● The missile can carry a payload of 200-300 kg.
Air-to-Air Missiles
Astra Missiles
● This is India's first air-to-air missile (AAM) andis
designed to engage targets in the air.
● The Astra missile is an all-weather BVR (Beyond
Visual Range) AAM, meaning it can engage targets
beyondthevisualrange,makingithighlyeffectivein
aerial combat.
● The missile has a range of 20-110 km,dependingonthelaunchaltitude(higheraltitude
increases range).
● The Astra Mark II is still under development and is expected to be fully operational by
026. It would be upgraded version with an extendedrange of140-160 km.
2
● Astra MK IIIis a further development of the Astramissile series, namedGandiv.
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Anti-tank Missile
Nag Missile
● The Nag Missile is an Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM),
designed to target and destroy tanks and other armoured
vehicles.
● It is indigenously developed by India and is an all-weather
missilewhich uses the"Fire & Forget"technology.
● The NAMICA is a vehicle-mounted carrier designed tolaunch
the Nag missiles, increasing its mobility and effectiveness on the battlefield.
● TheHelinamissileistheairborneversionoftheNagmissile,designedtobemountedon
helicopters, primarily for theIndian Army.
● Air force version of Nag missile is calledDhruvastra.
● MP-ATGM(Man-PortableATGM)isaman-portableversionoftheNagmissile,makingit
suitable for infantry use. It has a shorter range compared to other variants.
● SANT(Stand-offAnti-TankGuidedMissile)is4thgenerationversionoftheHelinaandis
capable ofstand-offengagement.
● Range of Different Versions:
○ Nag Missile: It has a range of3-7km,effectiveforengagingtargetsatmedium
ranges.
○ MP-ATGM: The man-portable version
has a shorter range,2-2.5 km.
○ Helina: The airborne version,designed
for helicopters, has a range of 7-8
km.
○ Dhruvastra: This is another version,
witharangesimilartoHelinaat7-8
km.
○ SANT: The stand-off version has the
longest range at15-20 km
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India's Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) System
Indian BMD Shield
● Prithvi Air Defence (PAD): It intercepts ballistic missiles using Pradyumna Ballistic
Missile Interceptor. It has effective range up to 600 km. Itiscapableofinterceptingat
speedsupto5Mach.Itcaninterceptmissilesataltitudesupto80km.Itisalsoknown
asPradyumn Ballistic Missile Interceptor.
● Advanced Air Defence ( AAD): It is secondary layer of defense, designed to intercept
incomingmissileswithrangeupto30km.Itcanengagemissilesflyingat4Machspeeds.
It is also known asAshwin Ballistic Missile Interceptor.
● The BMD system has 99% accuracy in intercepting incoming missiles.
S-400 (Imported from Russia)
● TheS-400isahighlyadvancedMobileSAM(Surface-to-AirMissile)systemi.eitcanbe
moved quickly and positioned strategically in different areas.
● It is anAdvanced Air Defence Systemwhich has beenimported from Russia.
● Itcanalsoperformanti-ballisticmissile(ABM)defense,withaneffectiverangeof60
kmagainst ballistic missile threats.
● ThenormalrangeoftheS-400is250-400kmwithspeedsupto14Mach,whichismore
than 17,000 km/h.
● 3 units of the S-400 are already stationed in India,
enhancing the country’s air defense capabilities.
THAAD (Terminal High Altitude Area Defense)
● It is high-tech missile defense system developed by USA.
● It is designed tointerceptanddestroyshort,medium,and
intermediate-range ballistic missiles during their terminal
phase of flight (hence the name "Terminal").
● It has rangeofgreaterthan200kmwithspeedreaching
up to 14 Mach.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Iron Dome
● Iron Dome is a missile defense system primarily designed for short-range rocket
interception developed byIsrael.
● It is intended to intercept mortars, shells, and short-range rockets at distances ranging
from 4 to 70 kilometres from the missile launcher.
Barak-8
● It is is an interceptor missile
system, designed for defense
against aerial threats.
● It is a jointly developed by India
and Israel.
he Barak-8 has an effective
● T
interception range ofup to 90 km.
● It is categorised as an LR-SAM
(Long Range Surface-to-Air
Missile)system,intendedtoprotectagainstvariousaerialthreatslikeaircraft,drones,and
helicopters.
Different Generations of Aircraft
st
● 1 Generation (Mid 1940s to Mid 1950s):
○ These aircraft weresubsonicand powered byturbojetengines.
○ Examples:Mig-15 (from Russia) was an example of thisgeneration.
nd
● 2 Generation (Mid 1950s to Early 1960s):
○ Introduction of radar systems, making these aircraft capableoftrackingtargets.
These were also supersonic and had delta-shaped wings for improved
maneuverability.
○ Examples:Mig-21, Sukhoi-7.
rd
● 3 Generation (Early 1960s to Mid 1970s):
○ These aircraft were multi-role and could perform a variety of tasks. They also
featuredair-guided missilesfor precision targeting.
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○ Examples: Mig-23, Mig-25, Phantom III.
th
● 4 Generation (Mid 1970s to Mid 1990s):
○ Introduction of fly-by-wire technology, auto-pilot and stealth capabilities (for
makingaircrafthardertodetect).Theseaircraftcouldoperateathigherspeedsand
were more versatile.
○ Examples: Mig-21, Mig-27.
th
● 4.5 Generation (Mid 1990s Onwards):
○ Advanced avionics and the ability to carry out multirole functions with better
control over various flight aspects.
○ Examples: Sukhoi-30, Rafale.
th
● 5 Generation (Mid 2000s Onwards):
○ These aircraft incorporate swing role capabilities (ability to change roles during
missions), stealth technology and thrust-vector controlled propulsion systems
for superior maneuverability. The aircraft are designed to be nearly invisible to
radar.
○ Examples: F-22 Raptor, F-35 Lightning II
IAF Combat Aircraft/ Fighter Aircraft
Imported Fighter Aircraft
Indigenously Built Aircraft
From France From Russia
● HAL Tejas LCA (Light Combat Aircraft)
● Rafale ● Sukhoi (Su-30)
○ Variants→ Mark IA and Mark II
● Jaguar ● MiG-21
● AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft) →
● Mirage ● MiG-29
future5th generationfighter aircraft
Rafale
● Itisoneofthemostadvancedmultirolefighteraircraft,developedbyDassaultAviation,a
French aerospace company.
● Indiahasimported36Rafalejets,enhancingitsaircombatcapabilities.TheIndianNavy
is also planning to import26 more Rafale jetsfornaval operations.
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● It is a 4.5th generation aircraft.
HAL Tejas LCA
● It is developed byHindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL).
● It is a single-engine multirole combat aircraft
designedtobelightweightandagileforvariouscombat
roles. It is 3rd generation aircraft.
● It was created to replace the aging MiG-21 fleet in
the Indian Air Force.
● Variants of HAL Tejas LCA:
○ Tejas MkIA is 4th generation
advanced variant of the Tejas
MkI, designed to replace the
MiG-29.
○ Tejas MkII is a twin-engine
version designed to be a
deck-based fighter (T
ejas Deck
BasedFighter-TDBF),intended
for aircraft carriers.
Other Aircrafts in the Indian Air Force (IAF):
● Transport Aircraft→ Example: C-130J is versatile transport aircraft used for moving
troops, supplies, and equipment.
● AerialRefueling→Example:IlyushinIl-76islargetransportaircraftthatalsoservesasan
aerial refueling platform, essential for extending the operational range of IAF aircraft.
● Airborne Warning & Control System (AWACS) → Example: Netra AEW-CS system
provides airborne surveillance and controland is used for early warning in air defense.
● Surveillance Aircraft→ Poseidon 81 is a surveillance aircraft designed for long-range
reconnaissance and surveillance operations.
● Helicopters:
○ Fighter Helicopters: Examples includetheChetakandRudra,whichareequipped
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for a range of tasks including attack and reconnaissance missions.
○ TransportHelicopter:TheChinookisaheavy-lifthelicopterusedfortransportand
troop movement.
Military drones of India
TAPAS-BH 201
● It was previously known asRustom.
● India's first indigenously built high-endurance UAV
(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle).
● It can reach an altitude of 25,000 feet.
● It has an endurance of 10-24hours,meaningitcan
stay in the air for long missions.
Nishant
● It is ashort-range UAVdeveloped forsurveillancepurposes.
● It has a range of up to 150 km with endurance of 4.5 hours.
● PanchiisawheeledvariantoftheNishant,designedformobilityandquickdeploymentin
various terrains.
Lakshya
● It is a reusable high-subsonic aerial target.
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● Thedronefliesataspeedof500km/h,makingitsuitablefortargetpracticeandtraining
purposes. It has range of 100km.
Dakshya
● TheDakshyais aland-based dronespecifically designedforbomb disposaloperations.
● It is used for handling hazardous situations such as bomb defusing, which helps reduce
human risk and ensures safety in potentially dangerous situations.
Ghatak
● It is aUCAV (Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle)developedbyDRDO.
● The Ghatak integrates stealth technology, allowing it to operate undetected in hostile
environments.
● It is considered a future technology of DRDO, representing the next step in India's
unmanned combat capabilities.
HAL CATS (Combat Air Teaming System)
● The HAL CATS system is a combat air teaming
system developed by HAL (Hindustan Aeronautics
Limited) in collaboration with DRDO and New Space
R&D Ltd.
● Thesystemconsistsofamannedfighteraircraftthat
servesasthemothership.Themothershipissupported
by a swarm of drones that can work together
autonomously or under guidance to provide effective training simulations and exercises.
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Submarines
● Submarines work based onArchimedes' Principle, which
involves the balance of buoyant force and the weight of
the submarine to allow it to submerge and surface.
Diesel-Electric Submarine [SSK]
● They are powered by a combination of diesel engines and electric motors.
● They are used for short-range operations.
● Examples:
○ Shishumar Class (4 submarines)
○ Sindhughosh Class (8 submarines)
○ Kalvari Class (6 submarines). They are also known as Scorpene class and are
French made: INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS Vela, INS Vagir, INS
Vagsheer
Nuclear-Powered Submarines
● They usenuclear reactors for propulsion, offeringsignificantly longer range and endurance
compared to conventional diesel-electric submarines.
● They are mainly used forstrategic attack/ deterrenceand long-term operational
deployment.
● They use Uranium based PWR (light water reactor).
● Types:
○ Nuclear-Powered Attack Submarines [SSN]: These are nuclear-powered
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submarines used for a variety of missions, including reconnaissance and
conventional warfare. Example: INS Chakra (leased from Russia, nuclear-powered
but not equipped with nuclear weapons).
○ Nuclear-Powered Ballistic Missile Submarines [SSBN]:These submarines are
equipped with ballistic missiles and are capable of nuclear strikes. Examples:INS
Arihant, INS Arighat, INS Aridhaman.
30-Year Modernisation Plan (Starting 2000)
● Project 75: Involved the development of theKalvariClass Submarines(Scorpene-class)
under Project 75, which forms the backbone of India’s diesel-electric submarine fleet.
● Project 75I: Future project involving the developmentofadditional submarines, which
are yet to come, as indicated in the image
Frigates
● Frigates are relativelysmaller ships compared todestroyers. They are designed for various
tasks, including patrolling, escort duties, and other support roles.
● Frigates are often used for tasks like evacuation and anti-submarine warfare.
● Examples of Frigates: Shivalik Class (Project 17), Nilgiri Class (Project 17A), Talwar Class,
Brahmaputra Class, Godavari Class
Destroyers
● Destroyers are larger than frigates and areused fordirect combat.They are heavily
armed, fast, and capable of engaging in both offensive and defensive operations, such as
air defense and anti-submarine warfare.
● Examples of Destroyers:Visakhapatnam Class (Project15B), Kolkata Class (Project 15A),
Delhi Class, Rajput Class
Aircraft Carriers
● Aircraft carriers are large ships designed to carry, deploy, and recover aircraft.
● INS Vikrant (1961-1997):
○ Acquired from England.
○ Played a major role during the 1971 Indo-Pak war.
○ It was decommissioned in 1997.
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● INS Viraat (1987-2016):
○ Acquired from England.
○ Served as a flagship of the Indian Navy until it was decommissioned in 2016.
● INS Vikramaditya (2013-Present):
○ Acquired from Russia (originally known asAdmiralGorshkov).
○ Currently in service with the Indian Navy, providing the ability to launch and
recover aircraft.
● INS Vikrant
○ INS VikrantisIndia's first indigenously built aircraftcarrier.
○ It is constructed byCochin Shipyard Ltd.locatedinKochi, Kerala.
○ Indiabecomes the5th countryin the world to haveanindigenously developed
aircraft carrier.
○ It weighs 40000 tonnes.
● INS Vishal-Future Project
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Science and Technology
Lecture 24: Nuclear Technology
Note:
● A Fractional Orbital Bombardment System
(FOBS) is a space-based weapon system that
delivers warheads to targets on Earth.
○ FOBS systems are capable of attacking
from any direction and can be more
difficult to defend against than traditional
ballistic missiles.
○ It is also known assemi-orbitalre-entry
ballistic missile system.
● United States is pursuing a missile defense
initiative referred to as the "Golden Dome" alike
Israel’s Iron dome.Thissystemaimstoprotectagainstmissilethreatsbyestablishing
an advanced defense infrastructure.
Nuclear Technology:
● An atom consists of protons (positively charged) and
neutrons (neutral) in the nucleus, surrounded byelectrons
(negatively charged) inorbit.
● Nucleons (protons and neutrons) are held together in the
nucleusbythestrongforce,whichisresponsibleforbinding
the nucleus.
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● Nuclear energyis the energy released from the nucleus (core) of an atom.
● Atoms are involved intwo types of reactions:
○ Nuclear reactions (involving changes in the nucleus/nucleons, like fission or
fusion) and
○ Chemical reactions(which involve electron transfersor exchanges).
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions
● Acid + Base → Salt + Water
2
● Eg- 1H
3
+ 1H
→42He +10 n + Energy
Eg-NaCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
● It is based onlaw of conservation of ● There is aloss of mass(represented
mass. asΔm), where the mass of the
products is slightly less than the mass
2
of the reactants.(E= Δm.c)
● No new atomis formed. ● Herenew atom is formed.
Types of Nuclear Rections:
● Nuclear Fission
● Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
Splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus into Combining two light atomic nuclei to form a
smaller nuclei. heavier nucleus.
Requires aradioactive element(e.g.,Uranium). Involves combining lighter elements like
hydrogen isotopes.
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Does not normally occurin nature. Naturally occursinside theSun's core.
Releases harmful radioactive radiation. Releasesno harmful radiationbut involves
extremely high temperatures.
Used inatomic bombsandnuclear power Used inhydrogen bombsand potentially in
plants. fusion reactors.
Energy released ismillion times greater than Energy released is approximately4-6 times
chemical reactionbut isless than fusion greater than nuclear fission.
reaction.
Example-Atomic bomb, nuclear power plants, Example-Hydrogen bomb, China's artificial
nuclear submarines (SSBN, SSN) sun: Experimental Advanced Superconducting
Tokamak (EAST).
Lower temperaturesrequired for reaction to Extremely high temperaturesrequired
occur. (around 1 million °C).
More nuclear wasteis released. Less nuclear wastereleased.
Fuel→ Thorium, Uranium, Plutonium Fuel→ Isotopes of Hydrogen (Deuterium,
Tritium)
Note:
PW Web/App:[Link]
● Nuclearenergyisknownasdouble-edgedswordasitischeapest,greenestandsafest
source of energy, but it is also responsible to worst kind of disasters known to
mankind like theHiroshima and Nagasaki bombings.
Nuclear Fuels:
Uranium:
● It is most common nuclear fuel found naturally in minerals
likepitchblende (also known as yellowstone).
● Thepurificationprocessinvolvesseparatingtheuraniumfrom
the natural ores. Uranium ore consists Uranium-234
(negligibleamount),Uranium-235(0.7%)andUranium-238
(99.3%).
● Natural uranium consists mostly of Uranium-238, which is
not fissile, while Uranium-235 is the fissile isotope responsible for sustaining nuclear
fission reactions.
● Tomakeitsuitablefornuclearreactions(likeinreactorsornuclearweapons),itundergoes
nuclear enrichment. Enrichment is the process of increasing the concentration of
Uranium-235 in uranium.
○ Centrifugal separation is commonly used in this process, where uranium is
separated based on the isotope's mass.
● Types of Enriched Uranium:
○ Low Enriched Uranium (LEU): This contains 3-5% Uranium-235 and is mainly
used fornuclear power plants.
○ Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU): This contains over 20% Uranium-235 and is
used inmaking nuclear weapons.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Note:
● Atomic Number→ Represents the
number of protons in an atom's
nucleus, defining the element.
● AtomicMass→Thetotalnumberof
protonsandneutronspresentinthe
nucleus of an atom is its atomic
mass.
● Isotope→ Whentwoatomicelementshavethesameatomicnumberbutdifferent
atomicmasses,theyarecalledisotopes.Isotopeswillsharethesamecolumninthe
periodic table.
Plutonium:
● Plutonium is aman-made radioactive material thatdoesn’t occur naturally in nature.
● It is produced from thetransmutation of Uranium-238after it captures a neutron,
formingUranium-239, which undergoes beta decay toformNeptunium-239(²³⁹Np), and
then further decays intoPlutonium-239(²³⁹Pu).
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● Plutonium-239 (²³⁹Pu)is afissile material, meaningit can undergo fission when struck by
a neutron,releasing energy.This makes it usefulasnuclear fuel.
● It is a weapon grade fuel which can be used in nuclear weapons due to its ability to
undergo a fast fission chain reaction.
● It can also be used as fuel in nuclear reactors, especially inthesecondstageofFast
Breeder Reactors (FBRs).
Thorium:
● Thorium is a naturally occurring element that is much
more (three times) abundant than uranium.
● It is extracted from the ore monazite and purified to
obtain Thorium-232 (²³²Th). Thorium after purification is
already 2-12% enriched, hence no further enrichment is
required.
● India has around 25% of thorium reserves of theworld
whereas it has only2% of uranium reserves.
● The radiation level of Thorium is much lower compared to Uranium, making it less
hazardous.
● The nuclear waste produced by Thorium-basedreactorsdecaysmoresafelyandquickly
compared to Uranium-based reactors. Thorium waste takes about 500 years to
naturally decay, whereas Uranium waste can take over 10,000 years.
● Thoriumcannot be used to develop atomic weapons,unlike Uranium or Plutonium.
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Fissile vs Fertile Material:
Fissile Material Fertile Material
● Fissile materials are materials that can ● Fertile materials are materials thatdo not
undergo fission reactions directly when undergo fission directlybut canproduce
bombarded with neutrons. fissile materialthrough nuclear reactions.
● Example: Uranium-235(²³⁵U), ● Example: Uranium-238(²³⁸U) and
Plutonium-239(²³⁹Pu), andUranium-233 Thorium-232(²³²Th).
(²³³U) ○ Uranium-238, when bombarded with
neutrons, undergoes a transformation
intoPlutonium-239 (²³⁹Pu),which is
fissile.
○ Thorium-232,upon neutron absorption,
transforms intoUranium-233 (²³³U),
which is fissile.
Chain Reaction:
● A chain reaction occurs when a nuclear fission reaction produces neutrons that cause
subsequent fission reactions in nearby fissile material, leading to a self-sustaining
process.
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● Example: When Uranium-235 (²³⁵U) undergoes fission, it splits into smaller nuclei (like
Barium(Ba)andKrypton(Kr)andreleasesenergy,alongwithneutrons.Theseneutrons
then further cause fission in other Uranium-235 atoms, continuing the process.
○ If no neutron absorbers are used, the chain reaction can become uncontrolled
chain reaction. This type of reaction is used inatomicbombs.
● Ifneutronabsorbers(likecontrolrods)areusedtoabsorbsomeoftheneutronsateach
stageofthechainreaction,thereactioncanbecontrolledchainreaction.Thiscontrolled
reactionisusedinnuclearpowerplants,wheretherateoffissionisregulatedtoproduce
a steady flow of energy.
Nuclear Reactors:
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Science and Technology
Lecture 25: Nuclear Technology (Part 02)
Nuclear Reactor
● Radioactive Shielding: The shielding protects workers and the environment from harmful
radioactive radiation. It consists of thick walls of about 30 feet made from concrete,
steel, and other materials designed to block radiation.
● Fuel Rods: It contains nuclear fuel (typically Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239). These
materials undergo fission when bombarded with neutrons, releasing energy in the form of
heat.
● Control Rods: They absorb extra neutrons to control chain reaction. Cadmium, Boron,
Haffnium can be used in control rods.
○ Uranium undergo fission when hit by a slow moving neutron. These neutrons are
called thermal neutrons.
● Moderator: It slows down the speed of fast neutrons. Slower neutrons are more likely to
cause further fission in the fuel rods, sustaining the nuclear chain reaction. Example:
Deuterium oxide (D₂O), also known as heavy water, normal water, berillium oxide,
graphite.
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○ Moderators are needed in uranium and thorium reactors, but they are not required
in plutonium reactors (fast breeder reactors).
● Coolant: It cools down the reactor by absorbing the heat generated by the fission process
and transfers it away from the reactor core. Example: heavy water or ordinary water.
○ The coolant absorbs the heat and is transferred to a steam generator where water
is turned into steam.
○ The steam from the reactor drives a turbine, which is connected to a generator.
As the turbine spins, the generator produces electrical energy.
○ After the steam passes through the turbine, it is cooled down and condensed back
into water in a cooling system (e.g., cooling towers).
Functions of Heavy Water
● To slow down the fast moving neutrons.
● It cools down the reactor.
● It provide kinetic energy to turbine to produce
electricity
Types of Nuclear Reactors in India
Thermal Reactors
● It requires a moderator to slow down neutrons.
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● The moderator is typically water or heavy water.
● Boiling Water Reactor (BWR):
○ Uses H₂O (water) as the moderator.
○ In this reactor, water is used both as moderator to slow down the neutrons and
acts as the coolant to remove the heat generated by the fission reaction.
○ There are 2 BWRs in India.
● Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR):
○ Also uses H₂O as the moderator.
○ This type of reactor is sourced from Russia. It is known as VVER, Water-cooled,
water-moderated energy reactor.
○ There are 2 PWR in India.
● Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR):
○ Uses Deuterium oxide (D₂O), also known as heavy water, as the moderator.
○ There are 18 PHWR in India.
● Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR):
○ An improved version of PHWR, using heavy water as a moderator and aiming for
more efficient nuclear power generation.
○ It is in developmental stage.
Fast Breeder Reactors
● It does not require a moderator.
● Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR):
○ There is one experimental reactor in India, currently under construction.
○ It is still under trial.
Nuclear Reactors in India
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India’s 3-stage Nuclear Power Program
● It is a vision of Homi J. Bhabha
Stage 1- Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR)
● Fuel Used: Uranium-235 (²³⁵U) and Uranium-238 (²³⁸U)
● Uranium-235 absorbs a neutron and undergoes fission, releasing barium,
krypton, and a large amount of energy that is later utilised for electricity
generation.
● Uranium-238 absorbs a neutron and turns into fissile
Plutonium-239 (²³⁹Pu) that can be used in later stages as fuel.
● Reactor used here is Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR).
Stage 2- Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)
● It does not require a moderator (because it uses fast-moving
neutrons).
● It is based on FBR (Fast Breeder Reactors).
238
● Fuel Used is U and the Plutonium-239 (²³⁹Pu) produced in Stage 1.
239
● Pu will be bombarded with neutrons. This will provide energy.
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238 238
● When some of the neutrons strike U transmutation happens and U is converted back
239
into Pu .
239 232 232 233
● Next, Pu and Th are used as fuel where Th is converted back into U .
○ Plutonium-239 produces/ breeds more fuel than it consumes, making it a fast
breeder reactor. This allows the system to continuously generate fuel for future
use.
● One of the byproduct is Uranium-233, which will be used in Stage 3.
Stage 3- Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
● It requires a moderator, which is heavy water.
● Thorium-232 (²³²Th) is used in this stage. Thorium-232 absorbs a neutron and transforms
into Uranium-233 (²³³U), which is fissile and can be used as fuel.
● Uranium-233 undergoes fission, producing energy and more neutrons, continuing the cycle.
● It is utilising Thorium as a fuel directly to produce electricity.
India’s 3 stage nuclear program works in closed fuel cycle where the byproducts from one stage
are used as fuel for the next stage. This system aims to increase the efficiency of fuel manyfold,
and produce lesser nuclear waste compared to traditional reactors.
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
● Note: In order to fulfil the commitments of green and clean energy transmission,
government of India is focussing on building multiple SMRs.
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● SMRs are advanced nuclear reactors which produce less than 300 MW of electricity and
cacn produce carbon-free electricity.
● SMRs are small in size and flexible in design and hence can be constructed anywhere.
Hence they can save cost and construction time. All systems and assembled products are
pre-assembled and then transported directly to the site where the reactor will be deployed.
This helps in reducing construction time and complexity.
Fusion Reactors/ Thermonuclear Reactor/ Tokamak
● Fusion occurs when two light atomic nuclei, such as Deuterium (²H) and Tritium (³H),
combine under extreme heat and pressure to form a heavier nucleus, Helium (⁴He), and
release a neutron (n). This reaction also releases a tremendous amount of energy.
○ Deuterium (²H) is derived from sea water.
○ Tritium (³H) is produced from the transmutation of lithium.
● The energy released can be used:
○ As a potential source of power generation for constructive use. Fusion reactors
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generate a tremendous amount of energy at relatively low costs compared to other
energy sources, with an efficiency of 4 KWh per unit
○ For destructive purposes, such as in the creation of hydrogen bombs (H-bombs)
making them a source of weapon-grade material.
● For the development of fusion reactors, tokamak was
produced under Plasma Research Institute in Gujarat
named Aditya Tokamak which is working since 1986.
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
(ITER)
● ITER is international mega-project to develop world’s
largest and energetically viable fusion reactor
based on tokamak technology.
● It is located in Cadarache, southern France.
● ITER will use 50 MW of input power to
produce 500 MW of output power.
● The project was started in 2007 by 7
founding members→ European Union (EU),
USA, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea and
India.
● The European Union (EU) holds the largest
share with 46% of the contribution. Other
countries contribute 9% each, with notable
involvement from the USA, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea, and India.
● Currently, 35 countries are involved in ITER, contributing to the project’s development and
success.
● After the success of this experiment, India will get its right for this technology to develop
in India and create its own fusion powered reactors.
Radioactive Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs)
● Plutonium-238 (²³⁸Pu) is used as the radioactive fuel in RTGs. Plutonium-238 undergoes
radioactive decay (natural decay), emitting a small amount of heat.
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● The heat produced by the radioactive decay is converted into electricity.
● RTGs function by utilising a thermoelectric effect: A hot body (generated by the decay)
creates a temperature gradient between the hot side and the cold body (the side that is
maintained at a lower temperature). This temperature difference drives the
thermoelectric generators, producing electricity.
● RTGs are designed to be small, compact, and lightweight, making them ideal for use in
deep space missions where large, bulky power systems are impractical and solar energy is
negligible/ unavailable. It can provide sustained energy for many years.
● In 2023, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) developed RTGs for its future
deep space missions.
● Many developed countries, like the USA, have already been using RTGs in their space
missions. For example, the Cassini Mission to Saturn, conducted by NASA, utilised an RTG
for power generation.
Note: RTGs do not use nuclear fission (splitting atoms), but instead rely on the natural
radioactive decay of Plutonium-238 to produce heat.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 26: Intellectual Property
Note: Why only neutrons are bombarded?
● They are neutral.
● Only neutrons can penetrate till the nucleus passing the electron cloud.
● It makes the chain reaction sustainable.
Nuclear Technology Development in India
Post-Independence India Requirements
● For country's energy needs → Nuclear
Technology was needed
● Economic development
● Deterrent against any threat → Nuclear
weapons were needed
● India also supports the theory of global
disarmament.
● This is known as "A paradox in India's
Nuclear Policy".
Phases of Nuclear Technology development in India
Phase 1- Developing Peaceful Nuclear Program (1947-74)
● Nuclear beginnings and early cold war
● Atomic Energy Commissionin 1948 (headed by H.J. Bhabha).
● Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)in 1954 (headedby Pt. J.L. Nehru). It is directly
under Prime Minister’s Office (PMO).
● Rise in the funding of Nuclear Science.
● India's early Nuclear Policy:
○ Peaceful use of Nuclear Energy.
○ Universal Nuclear Disarmament.
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○ Nuclear Weapon-Free World
■ Reduce Risk of Nuclear conflict
■ Protect South Asia from external influence
■ Enhancing India’a security
● But India also had awareness that Nuclear weapons could be used for defence and
deterrence.
Peaceful Advancement of Nuclear Technology:
● From 1955: India started establishing nuclear cooperation with Canada, USA, UK, and
France.
● Apsara:India's 1st light-water reactor was createdin 1956 (1st in Asia).
● India became a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957.
● Cirus(heavy-water reactor) was created in 1960.
● In 1963, India signed PTBT (Partial Test Ban Treaty), which banned Space and
Underwater Nuclear Tests.
Change in thought- 1960s event
● India's planned for nuclear weapons due to following reasons:
○ Sino-India warwith China in 1962.
○ China's Nuclear Testat LopNor on 16 Oct 1964.
○ USA and USSR failed to provide Nuclear Support and Guarantee to India against
China.
○ In 1966, then PM Lal Bahadur Shastri gave 6 months' time to new nuclear
scientists to make Nuclear weapons.
○ But before its completion, in 1965, India-Pakistan war started. This reinforced
strongly the necessity of developing Nuclear weapons.
● India came to know that the world is on its increasing trends of having nuclear weapon.
● By 1965,five major powersacquired nuclear weapons:
○ USA - 1945
○ USSR - 1949
○ UK - 1952
○ France - 1960
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○ China - 1964
● India still demanded for Universal Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1965
● 1stJuly1968:NuclearNon-ProliferationTreaty(NPT)wasopenforsigning.NPTaimedto
split the world into two groups:
○ Nuclear Weapon States (NWS): Those that tested nuclear weapons before 1967
could keep their nuclear weapons.
○ Non-Nuclear WeaponStates(NNWS):Thosethatcouldnottestnuclearweapons
until 1967 and could neither acquire nor develop nuclear weapons.
Events of 1970s:
● By 1970s, India’s civil society was divided into 2 groups:
○ The Hawks:Those in favor of nuclear weapons.
○ The Doves:Those against nuclear weapons.
● 1971: Indo-Pak war (East Pakistan/Bangladesh Liberation War) happened. Afterthis,the
Hawksgatheredmoregeneralsupportfornuclearweapons.Also,duringthiswar,USAtilted
towards Pakistan. USA-China relations were improving under Nixon-Mao regime. This
created USA- Pakistan- China front against India.
Phase 2: Developing Nuclear Weapons
● Pokhran1:India’sfirstnucleartestunderPMIndiraGandhi.On18May1974,Indiacarried
outthistestunderthecodename"SmilingBuddha".Indiatookherfirstnucleartestat
Pokhran, Rajasthan.The world exclaimed,"Lord Buddhahas smiled!".
○ India described this test asPeaceful Nuclear Explosion(PNE)
● Consequences of the Test:
○ India used US and Canadian-based reactors to produce fissile material.
○ USA and Canada removed all the nuclear test assistance with India.
○ Also this led to the creation of the London Suppliers Group,laterknownasNSG
(Nuclear Suppliers Group), which prohibited NNWS to import material or
technology from NWS.
○ As a result, India was prevented from gaining any nuclear material from other
nations.
India’s Support for Disarmament:
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● India remained committed to nuclear disarmament.
● India supported plans for nuclear weapons conventions like:
○ Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), in 1972.
○ Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1993.
○ India is signatory to both of thesse treaties.
● However, against India’s will, in 1996, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) was
implemented,whichIndiadidnotsignasitdiscriminatedbetweenNWSandNNWS,while
approving the nuclear weapons of P5 nations.
End of Cold War and India’s Condition:
● With the decline of the USSR, India lost political and nuclear support.
● India still faced nuclear sanctions from the rest of the world as India was out of NSG.
● The world was dominated by the USA.
● USA-EU-Japan and USA-China front was building against India.
● China was advancing technologically and even Pakistan had developed nuclear
infrastructure.
Pokhran II - India's Second Nuclear Test
● Against this backdrop, on 11 May (3 tests) and 13 May (2 tests) 1998, India tested 5
nuclear devices underPM Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
● The test was code namedOperation Shaktiand others.
● Pakistan also carried out its nuclear tests at Chaghai Hills in Baluchistan on 28 May
1998 and 30 May 1998.
Phase 3: India as Emerging Nuclear Power (1998-2008)
● India’sNuclearDoctrine(January2003)→madepublicon4Jan2003.India’sNational
Security Advisor released State’s draft Nuclear Doctrine on 17th August 1999.
○ Credible Minimum Deterrent
○ No First Use (NFU)
○ Retaliatory attack to inflict Unacceptable damage
○ Authorised by civilian political leadership
○ No nuclear attack on non-nuclear states
○ Retaliating with nuclear weapons in the case of biological/chemical weapon attack.
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○ Strict Control on export of nuclear material
○ Commitment to the goal of a nuclear weapons-free world
● NuclearCommandAuthority:On4Jan2003,theCabinetCommitteeonSecurity(CCS)
constituted NCA with
● Political Council:Headed by the Prime Minister.
● Executive Council: Headed by the National Security Advisor (NSA) and advises
Prime Minister.
● Strategic Forces Command:Headed by the Commander-in-Chief.
Indo-US Nuclear Cooperation:
● With the Pokhran 2 test, India had proven its significance in the South Asian region.
● The USA accepted this significance, followed by improved relations between the two powers.
● US-India Civil Nuclear Cooperationwas announced inJuly 2005.
● UnderIAEA safeguards, India agreed toseparate itscivil and military nuclear facilities.
● This agreement gave Indiade facto Nuclear Recognition.
● In Aug 2007, both governments signed the123 Agreement.
● In Aug 2008, IAEA approved the safeguards agreement with India and a waiver to
import nuclear material from any nation.
● InSeptember2008,NSGgrantedIndiaawaivertoimportnuclearmaterialandtechnology
from any nation.
● On2ndOct2008,theUSalsoendedsanctionsonnucleartradethatdatedfromthe1974
Nuclear Test.
Phase 4: India as Established Nuclear Power (2009-2020)
● Recent Developments and Current Status:
○ India was recently accepted as the member of 3/4 major export control regimes.
Major Export Control Regimes (MECR):
Multilateral export control regimes arevoluntaryandnon-bindingagreements.Theyarecreated
by major supplier countries which seek to cooperate in their effort to prevent and regulate→
1. Non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and delivery systems
2. Transfer of certain dual-use technology and advanced weapons
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3. It is independent of the United Nations
India is a member of 3 groups except NSG.
● Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): An international body aimed at ensuring nuclear
non-proliferation by controlling the export of nuclear and nuclear-related materials,
equipment and technology.
○ India’s bid for membership is consistentlyblockedbyChina.Thisisduetothe
fact that India is a non-signatory of the NPT (Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty)
● MissileTechnologyControlRegime(MTCR): Topreventtheproliferationofmissile
and UAV (unmanned a erial technology) capable of carrying greater than 500kg of
payload for more than 300 km.
○ India joined as the35th memberin2016.
● Wassenaar Arrangement: It is created in order topromotetransparencyandgreater
responsibility in transfer of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technology.
○ India became the42nd memberin2017.
● Australia Group: This is an informal group that seeks to ensure that exports donot
contribute to the development ofchemicalorbiologicalweapon.Itmaintainsauniform
list of 54 compounds that can be used in the manufacture of chemical weapons.
○ India became the43rd memberin2018.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
● Intellectual Property Rights refer to the legal rights or claims a personholdsovertheir
intellectualproperty,whichistheproductofhumancreativityandskills.IPRensuresthat
the creator of intellectual works is granted exclusive rights to their creations.
● Examples:
○ Poetry, Music, Logos, Songs, Videos
○ Dance Steps, Bottle Designs
○ New Machines/ Innovations
Historical Evolution of Intellectual Property
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● Paris Convention (1883): It was the first international convention designed to help
creatorsprotecttheirintellectualworksglobally,establishingaframeworkforinternational
collaborationin intellectual property.
● BerneConvention(1887):Itwasfortheprotectionofartisticandliteraryworks.Itgave
rights to creators to receive payments internationally for their use.
● FormationoftheBIRPI(1893):TheBureauofInternationalReformsoftheProtectionof
Intellectual Property (BIRPI) was formed by merging thesecretariatsofParisandBerne
Convention.ItlatertransformedintoWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganisation(WIPO)in
1970. WIPO is an intergovernmental organisation with 193 member countries.
● In 1974, WIPO became a specialised agency under the UN. It deals withtheissuesof
intellectual property globally.
● 1984: Madrid Protocol simplified the process of registering trademarks in multiple
jurisdiction. It has 120 member countries. India joined it in 2015.
● Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement was
established to set global standards for the protection and enforcement of intellectual
property rights.
● TheDepartmentforPromotionofIndustryandInternalTrade(DPIIT)handlesmatters
related to Protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) in India.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Science and Technology
Lecture 27: Intellectual Property Rights (Part-02)
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
● Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the legal rights granted to an individual or
organisationsforthecreativeorinnovativeideas.Theselegalprotectionsallowthecreators
tocontroltheuseoftheirworkandpreventothersfromusingorreproducingthemwithout
permission.
Regulation of IPR in India
● 1856 - British Patent Law: The journey of IPR regulation in India began under British
colonial rulewiththeintroductionoftheBritishPatentLaw,whichgaveexclusiverights
to inventors for14 years.
● 1911 - Indian Patent and Design Act was introduced to govern patents and designs in
India, marking the first Indian-specific legislation related to intellectual property rights.
● 1949-Dr.BakshiCommitteewasformedtoreviewtheexistingIPRlawsandrecommend
improvements for India’s patent regime.
● Indian Copyrights Act, 1957passed.
● 1957 - Rajgopala Ayyangar Committee established to study and recommendchangesto
India’s patent and copyright laws.
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● 1970-IndianPatentActpassedtoregulatepatentsinIndia,withafocusonmakingthe
patent system more accessible and protective for local innovations.
● 1995 - India joined WTO and became a signatory to TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights)
● 1999- Geographical Indication Act, Indian TrademarkAct were passed.
● 2000 - Design Actintroduced to regulate and protectthe design of products in India.
● The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act (PPV&FR Act), enacted in 2001
● 2016- National IPR Policy
National IPR Policy 2016
● It was a vision document for future IPR with motto"Creative India, Innovative India".
● Aim:ThepolicyaimstoencompassandbringallIPRunderasingleplatform,makingthe
management and implementation of IPR more streamlined and efficient.
● DPIIT (Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade) under Ministry of
Commerce and Industry was established. Functions of DPIIT:
○ DPIITactsasanodaldepartmenttoguide,coordinate,andoverseeallthefuture
development and implementation of IPR.
○ To incorporate and adapt the best global practices in IPR to align with
international standards.
● CIPAM (Cell for IPR Promotion and Management) is a professional body established
under theDPIITtopromoteandmanageIPRinIndia.Itissinglepointofreferencefor
the implementation of the objectives of IPR policies.
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Need for Intellectual Property Rights
● For the legal protection and safeguard of human inventions in the form of creativity in
different new fields.
● Driving force for economic, social and cultural well-being of people:
Protection of IPR → Enhanced economic growth → New jobs and opportunities.
● Helpsinmaintainingabalancebetweenthedemand/necessityandthecreativitytofulfill
that demand by providing the recognition and motivation to invest
● Protects creations from unauthorized use.
● Provides incentives and rewards to creators.
● Fosters innovation.
● Encourages investment in R&D.
● Encourages technology transfer and collaborations.
● Encourages public disclosure and information sharing.
● Supports international cooperation and standards
KAPILA (for IPR Literacy & Creating Patent Awareness)
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● It is a government initiative for IPR literacy and creating patent awareness.
● Kalam Program for Intellectual Property Literacy & Awareness Campaign.
● Objective:
○ To create awareness regarding IPR in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs).
○ To enable IP protection of inventions originating from faculty and students of HEIs.
○ To develop credit courses & training programs for IPR.
Functions of WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation)
● Helps developing countries modernise IPR laws and strengthen enforcement mechanisms.
● Facilitates negotiations and discussions on IPR issues as a global IPR policy forum.
Madrid Protocol
● International treaty that allows a convenient and efficient way for trademark owners to file
one application to register their trademark in multiple countries.
● Administered by the International Bureau of WIPO.
● India became the 90th member in 2013
Functions of WTO (World Trade Organisation)
● Set minimum standards for IPR protection:Enforcescommon rules for patents,
copyrights, trademarks, GIs, etc., for all WTO members.
● Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM):In case one ormore countries violate TRIPS
provisions.
● Balancing IPR with Public Interest:Includes flexibilitiesfor public health, e.g., compulsory
licensing under the Doha Declaration (2001)
Function of TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights)
● Links IP protection with trade rules, making IP enforcement a condition for market access.
● Requires members to enforce IP rights domestically.
● Encourages developed countries to transfer technologies to LDCs (Least Developed
Countries)
Indian Patent Act, 2005
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● Under this Act, patents are granted to those inventions which fulfill the following criteria:
○ It should be novel.
○ It should be non-obvious.
○ It should be capable of industrial production.
● Introduced Product Patent Regimefor food, drugs,microorganisms and chemicals.
● It does not allow Evergreening of Patents: Section 3(d) of this act does not allow
patentstobegrantedonnewformsofexistingsubstancesunlessitdifferssignificantlyin
known properties or efficacy.
○ Example: J&J company made a medicine for MDR-TB (Multidrug-Resistant
Tuberculosis)calledBedaquiline.J&Jsoughttoextenditspatentthroughsecondary
patents,delayinggenericproduction.SCofIndiarejectedthepleaandconsideredit
under emergency of patent.
● Patent is provided for a term of20 yearsfrom thedate of patent.
● Introduction of aprovisionforenablingtograntcompulsorylicensingforpublichealth
crisis.
○ Compulsory licenses, authorized bytheControllerGeneral,allowathirdpartyto
manufacture or use patented products or processes without thepermissionofthe
patent owner in emergency or public health crisis.
○ This is officially recognised underTRIPS.
○ Differenceofopinions:Developingcountriessupportcompulsorylicensing(CL)for
affordability, while developed countries oppose it, citing harm to R&D and
discouraging new invention.
Geographical Indication of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
● It is asui generis legislationwhich seeks to providefor the registration and protection of
geographical indications relating to goods in India.
● Duration of protectionis for 10 years, but can berenewed indefinitely.
● Example:
○ Koraput – Kala Jeera Rice
○ Jhabua (MP) – Kadaknath Black Chicken
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○ M.P. – Chamba Rumal
○ Alleppey (Kerala) – Green Cardamom
● GI Rights enable those who have rights to use the indication to prevent its use by a third
party.
● This Act is administered byCGPTM (Controller Generalof Patent, Design & Trademark)
● GI is granted to a community or a group or any organisation that represents the
interests of the product. (Generally it is not granted to an individual)
● Product can be agricultural (eg- Bhandara Chinoor rice), natural or manufactured (eg
channapatna toys)
Protection of Plant Varieties & Farmer Rights Act (PPVFRA), 2001
● It is a sui-generis legislation enacted in 2001
● ItistheonlyIPRlegislationintheworldwhichnotonlyprotectsbreeder'srightbutalso
protectsfarmer's right.
● Rights under PPVFR Act:
○ Breeder's Right: Exclusive right to produce, sell, market, export/import/distribute
the protected variety.
○ Researcher's Right: A researcher can use any oftheregisteredvarietyunderthe
act for conducting experiments/research.
○ Farmer'sRight:Afarmerwhohasevolvedanewvarietyisentitledtoregistration
and protection in a similar way as a breeder’s variety.
■ A farmer can save, use, sow, resow, exchange, share or sell his farm
produce, including seed variety protected under the PPVFR Act, 2001.
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■ However, a farmer shall not be entitled to sell branded seeds protected
under this act.
■ There is also a provision for compensation to the farmer for
non-performance of his variety as promised.
To be read:
● Delhi High Court Copyright Judgement (DU Photocopy Case)
● Red Bull plea on trademark rejected
● PepsiCo’s patent issue→ PPV&FR Act
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Science and Technology
Lecture 28: Intellectual Property Rights (Part 03)
Geographical Indication of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999:
● The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 is a sui
generis legislation aimed at the registrationandprotectionofGeographicalIndications(GI)
related to goods in India.
● Duration of Protection: 10 years, but it can be renewedindefinitely.
● Examples:
○ Koraput Kala Jeera Rice(Odisha)
○ Kadaknath Murga(Jhabua, Madhya Pradesh)
○ Chamba Rumal(Himachal Pradesh)
○ Alleppey Green Cardamom(Kerala)
● Geographical Indication (GI) Rightenablesthosewhohavetherighttousetheindicationto
prevent its use by a third party whose product does not conform to the applicable standards.
Various types of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR):
● Copyright: Copyright is a legal term used to describe the rights that creatorshaveover
their literary and artistic works. It protects original creative works across various categories.
○ Literary Works: Song lyrics, poems, books, novels,pamphlets, computer codes, software,
etc.
○ Artistic Works: Paintings, sketches, architecture,maps, drawings, movies, etc.
○ Dramatic Works: Dance performances, screenplays, musical compositions, sound
recordings, etc.
● It grants the creator the exclusive right toproduce,reproduce,distribute,display,modify,
and adapt their work.
● Rights Include:
○ Right to copy
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○ Right to publicly display or perform
● Registration:
○ Copyright protection is automatic upon creation.
○ However, formal registration providesenhanced protection.
● Duration of Protection:
○ Generally, for thelifetime of the author plus 50 yearsafter their death.
● Patent:Apatentisanexclusiverightorprotectiongrantedforaninvention.Theinventor
canmake,use,andselltheirinvention.Itcoversprocesses,products,andmethodsthat
arenovel, non-obvious, and industrially applicable.
○ Registration: Requires filing an application and undergoing a patentability
assessment.
○ Duration of Protection: Generally valid for 20 yearsfrom the date of filing.
○ Examples of Patentable Inventions:
■ Technological processes
■ Chemical compositions
■ New machines
■ Medical procedures
● Trademark: A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goodsorservicesofone
enterprise from those of other enterprises. Trademarks date back to ancient timeswhen
artisans used to put their signature or "mark" on their products. IT protectsdistinctive
designs, signs, logos, symbols, and names used to identify a particular brand or product.
○ Conventional Trademark: Words, logos, colour combination, label, packaging, sign,
symbols, slogans, etc.
○ Non-Conventional Trademark:Dynamic marks, sound marks,Smell, taste, etc.
■ Example: The country’s trademarks office granted on 18 August 2008, its and
India’sfirst“s oundmark"toCalifornia-basedInternetfirmYahooInc.’sthree-note
Yahoo yodel.
○ Trademarks are registered underTrademark Act, 1999.
○ Trademarks are indefinitely given to an organisation as long as it is being used and
defined.
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○ Trademarks require registration for protection.
™vs®
Thetrademarksymbol(™)isusedforunregisteredorpendingtrademarks,whiletheregistered
trademark symbol (®) is used specifically for marks that have been officially registered.
● Geographical Indication (GI): GI Tags are a sign used on products that have a specific
geographical origin.
○ GI Tags are registered under Geographical Indication of Goods (Registration and
Protection) Act, 1999.
○ Initially granted for10 yearsbut can berenewedindefinitely.
● Plant Varieties:TheyareregisteredunderProtectionofPlantVarietyandFarmersRights
Act, 2001.
○ Scope: Coversseed varieties, hybrid fruits, and vegetables.
○ Eligibility: These products are eligible forregistration.
○ Exemption:Farmers are exemptedfrom any registrationfee.
○ Registration Duration:
■ Crop varieties:15 years
■ Trees & vines:18 years
● Industrial Designs: It protects the visual and
ornamental aspects of products, including their
shape, texture, color, and aesthetics,toprevent
unauthorized copying of their appearance.
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○ Examples: Unique furniture designs, shape of the Fanta bottle, jewelry, car
models, etc.
○ They are registered under the DesignsAct,2000.Industrialtagsareusuallygiven
for 10 years but can be extended for five further years.
○ Registration is required
Fig: One of the most famous shapes in the world is the iconic contour fluted lines of the
Coca‑Cola bottle.
● Semiconductors and Integrated Chips (IC) Layout:
This is registered under Semiconductor Integrated
Circuits Layout-Design Act, 2000
○ Theprotectionrightunderthisactisgivenfor
10 years.
○ Registration is required for protection.
○ It includes microprocessor, motherboard, PCB
(Printed circuit board), memory chips.
● Traditional Knowledge (TK)
○ Definition: Traditional Knowledge (TK) refers to
knowledge, know-how, skills, and practicesthat aredeveloped, sustained, and
passed downthrough generations within a community, forming an integral part of
theircultural and spiritual identity.
○ Legal Framework: As perSection 8(1)(j)of theConventionon Biological Diversity
(CBD), TK encompasses theawareness, inventions, andtraditionsof local and
indigenous cultures worldwide.
○ Reasons to Protect Traditional Knowledge (TK):
■ Cultural Preservation & Identity– Safeguards theunique heritage and traditions
of indigenous communities.
■ Economic Benefits– Enables commercialization of traditionalproducts, boosting
local economies.
■ Healthcare & Medicinal Value– Supports alternative medicine systems like
Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and Yoga.
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■ Promoting Sustainable Practices– Encourages eco-friendly old agricultural
techniques and resource management.
■ Diversity & Cultural Respect– Fosters appreciation and protection of indigenous
knowledge systems.
■ Global Recognition of Indian Culture– Strengthens India's cultural influence and
intellectual heritage.
■ Preventing Misappropriation & Biopiracy– Protects communities from
unauthorized exploitation of their knowledge.
○ India developed theTraditional Knowledge DigitalLibrary (TKDL)as acollaborative
projectinvolving:
■ CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research)
■ Ministry of AYUSH
■ Other relevant ministries
○ TKDL aims todocument and protect traditional knowledgefrom misappropriation and
biopiracy by providing adigitized databaseof indigenousmedicinal and traditional
practices.
Health:
● Health is a state ofcomplete physical, emotional,mental, and social well-being, not merely
the absence of disease.
● Balanced Diet:A diet that includes essential nutrientsin the right proportions to maintain
overall health.
● Nutrition:
○ Micro-Nutrients: Essential vitamins and minerals required in small amounts (e.g., vitamins,
minerals).
○ Macro-Nutrients:Oilseeds, eggs, meat, fish, Carbohydrates,fruits, vegetables.
Vitamins:
● Essential nutrients required fornormal cell function,growth, and development.
● Types of Vitamins
○ Fat-Soluble Vitamins(Stored in the body, requirefat for absorption)
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i. Vitamin A
ii. Vitamin D
iii. Vitamin E
iv. Vitamin K
○ Water-Soluble Vitamins(Not stored in the body, need regular intake)
i. B-Complex Vitamins:
i. B1 (Thiamine)
ii. B2 (Riboflavin)
iii. B3 (Niacin)
iv. B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
v. B6 (Pyridoxine)
vi. B7 (Biotin)
vii. B9 (Folate)
viii. B12 (Cobalamin)
■ Non-B-Complex Vitamins:
ii. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Note:Hypervitaminosis occurs when the storage levelsof vitamins are abnormally high.
Hypervitaminosis can lead to toxic symptoms and diverse health effects.
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Science and Technology
Lecture 29: Health Diseases & Vaccination
Biomolecules:
● Biomoleculesare biological agents that link the world of living organisms with the
non-living world, making life possible. These include enzymes, carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, vitamins, and other molecules essential for life. They are the key players in the
chemical reactions that sustain life.
● Biomolecules represent the harmonious and synchronized progression of chemical reactions
that ultimately give rise to life.
Carbohydrates:
● General Formula:Carbohydrates often follow the formulaCn(H₂O)n. However, not every
compound with this ratio is classified as a carbohydrate, and some carbohydrates have
different formulas.
● In biological terminology, carbohydrates are calledsaccharides.
● They are a nutritional category primarily associated with sugars and serve as the main
source of energy for living organisms, primarily derived from plants.
● Almost everything we consume contains glucose in different forms of saccharides.
Types of Carbohydrates:
1. Simple Sugars (Monosaccharides)
● These are the most basic units of carbohydrates.
● Examples:
○ Glucose
○ Fructose:Found in fruits, vegetables, and honey
○ Galactose:Found in milk sugar (lactose)
○ Dextrose
● Note:Honey is composed of approximately50% fructoseand44% glucose.
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2. Disaccharides:
● Composed of two monosaccharides.
● Examples:
○ Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose):Common table sugar (e.g.,sugarcane, sugar beet)
○ Lactose (Glucose + Galactose):Naturally found in milk
○ Maltose (Glucose + Glucose):Formed during the fermentation of beer
3. Complex Saccharides:
● Oligosaccharides:Composed of3 to 10 linked sugars(e.g., found in soybeans)
● Polysaccharides:Composed ofmore than 10 linked sugars, forming long chains of
monosaccharides that are chemically bonded.
○ Starch:Found in foods like potatoes, rice, and wheat
○ Cellulose:Found in plant cell walls, contributing to dietary fiber
Bonds Connecting Sugars:
● Alpha Linkage:Easily broken by enzymes in our digestive tract.
● Beta Linkage:Difficult for the body to break down.
● Preference:Saccharides withbeta linkagesare morepreferred due to their slower
digestion and controlled energy release, while alpha linkage saccharides are less preferred.
Glycemic Index (GI) of Carbohydrates:
The Glycemic Index (GI) measures how quickly a carbohydrate-containing food increases blood
sugar levels.
1. High Glycemic Index (GI) Foods
● Effect:Rapidly increases blood sugar levels.
● Reason:Contains α-linkages, which break down quickly into glucose.
● Examples:
○ Soda
○ White bread
○ Starch-rich foods
● Note:Excess consumption of these foods is often discouraged.
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2. Low Glycemic Index (GI) Foods
● Effect:Gradually increases blood sugar levels, providing sustained energy.
● Reason:Contains β-linkages, which are harder to digest, slowing sugar release into the
bloodstream.
● Examples:
○ Fruits (e.g., apples)
○ Vegetables
○ Whole grains
3. Foods with the Least Glycemic Index
● Examples:
○ Eggs
○ Meat
○ Other protein-rich foods
Insulin and Sugar Management:
● Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas, a small gland located behind the stomach.
It plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar (glucose) levels.
● After eating food, especially carbohydrates, our blood sugar levels rise. In response, insulin
is released to ensure that sugar is used or stored properly.
Process of Sugar Management in the Body:
● Food Consumption and Sugar Extraction:When we eat food, particularly foods rich in
carbohydrates (like rice, bread, or sweets), it gets digested into smaller components. During
digestion, glucose is extracted and released into the bloodstream.
○ Once it enters the bloodstream, it leads to a rise in blood sugar levels, which
provides energy for cells and tissues to function better.
● Blood Sugar and Insulin Release:As glucose enters the blood, the pancreas detects the
increase in blood sugar. In response, the pancreas releases insulin into the bloodstream.
● How Insulin Works:Insulin’s primary role is to help glucose enter the cells of the body,
where it can be used for energy.
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○ Think of insulin as a key that unlocks the doors of cells, allowing glucose to enter
and fuel cellular activities.
● Storage of Excess Glucose:If there is more glucosethan the body needs for energy,
insulin directs the liver to convert the excess glucose into a storage form calledglycogen.
This process is known asGlycogenesis.
○ The liver stores glycogen, which can be broken down back into glucose when the
body needs it, especially during fasting or physical activity. This process is called
Glycogenolysis.
Insulin Sensitivity (IS):
● Insulin Sensitivity (IS) refers to how efficiently the body responds to insulin. Higher insulin
sensitivity means the body is able to effectively use insulin to lower blood sugar levels.
● Decreasing Insulin Sensitivity :If a person regularly consumes large amounts of
carbohydrates, especially refined sugars or foods with a high glycemic index, their insulin
sensitivity decreases.
● As insulin sensitivity lowers, the body begins to resist the effects of insulin. This condition
is known asInsulin Resistance.
Symptoms and Conditions Linked to Insulin Resistance:
● Type II Diabetes: Chronic high blood sugar due to insulin resistance.
● High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): Often seen alongside insulin resistance.
● Cardiovascular Diseases: Increased risk of heart diseases and strokes.
Note:In a regular meal, about 45-65% of the total calories should come from carbohydrates for
balanced energy intake.
Fats:
● Fats add taste and texture to food, making it more enjoyable and easier to cook. They are
also a major source of energy for the body. Fats provide more energy per gram (9 calories
per gram) compared to carbohydrates (4 calories per gram).
● Fats play a vital role in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, including Vitamin A, Vitamin
D, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K. These vitamins require fat for absorption in the body,
meaning they dissolve in fat and are stored in fat tissues.
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● Fats usually exist in the form of triglycerides. A triglyceride consists of:
○ 1 molecule of glycerol
○ 3 molecular chains of fatty acids
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Saturated Fats:
● Saturated fats are a type of fatty acid. In saturated fats, each carbon atom in the fatty
acid chain is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. There aresingle bonds
between the carbon atoms in the chain.
● Since the chain is fully"saturated" with hydrogen atoms,no more hydrogen can be
added. This is why they are calledsaturated.
Characteristics:
● Saturated fats have astraight chain of carbon atoms, making them rigid and
non-flexible. This structure causes them to pack tightly together.
● Saturated fats aretypically solidat room temperature.
● Saturated fats often have abetter tastecompared to other types of fats.
Example:Vanaspati ghee is a common source of saturated fat.
Unsaturated Fats:
● Unsaturated fats contain one or more double or triple
bonds between the carbon atoms in their fatty acid
chain.
● The presence of double or triple bonds means these
fats are not saturated with hydrogen, as there is room
to add more hydrogen atoms by converting these bonds
into single bonds.
Characteristics:
● The presence of double or triple bonds causes the fatty
acid chain to have kinks, making the molecules flexible and less rigid than saturated fats.
● Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature.
Examples:Sunflower oil, Olive oil.
● Hydrogenation:Hydrogenation is a process that involves converting unsaturated fats into
saturated fats by adding hydrogen. Hydrogen is added to the double bonds in the
unsaturated fat molecules, converting them into single bonds, thus "saturating" the
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molecule with hydrogen.
● Partial Hydrogenation:Partial hydrogenation is aprocess where only some of the double
bonds are converted into single bonds. During partial hydrogenation, the fat does not
become fully saturated, which can lead to the formation of trans fats. Trans fats are
unhealthy fats that result from partial hydrogenation.
○ These days, the consumption of trans fats is on the rise, leading to the intake of
unhealthy fats. Trans fats are popularly used in pastries, burgers, pizzas,
mayonnaise, donuts, chips, and samosas.
Effects of Trans-Fats:
Trans fats, formed during partial hydrogenation, can have serious negative effects on health. They
can contribute to various cardiovascular diseases and related complications. Here are some key
effects:
● Ischemia:Ischemia refers to the restriction of oxygen-rich blood supply to tissues in the
body. As glucose oxidation provides energy, if ischemia occurs and oxygen-rich blood is
reduced, it will lead to lower energy levels and hinder the oxidation of glucose.
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● Infarction:Infarction is the death of tissue due to an inadequate blood supply. This can
occur when the arteries are blocked or narrowed by trans fat accumulation, preventing
proper blood flow and oxygen delivery to organs, potentially causing tissue damage or even
organ failure.
● Atherosclerosis: Atherosclerosis refers to the thickening and hardening of the arteries due
to the accumulation of trans fats and cholesterol. This results in narrower passages for
blood to flow, increasing the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and other heart-related
diseases.
Types of Unsaturated Fats:
Unsaturated fats are classified into two main categories based on their chemical structure:
1. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA):PUFAs containmore than one double bondin their
fatty acid chains. They are further categorized into two main types:
● Omega-3:An essential fatty acid that must be obtained from the diet since the body
cannot produce it.
➢ Sources:Fish (like salmon), walnuts, spinach.
➢ Importance:Omega-3 fatty acids are crucial for brainfunction, heart health, and
cell growth.
Note: DHA /Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3fatty acid that's essential for brain
development and function. It's also a key component of the retina, skin, and cerebral cortex.
● Omega-6:Another essential fatty acid that must alsobe obtained from food.
➢ Sources:Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds.
➢ Importance:Omega-6 fatty acids are essential for various bodily functions,
including growth and development.
2. Mono Unsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA):MUFA have one double bond in their fatty acid
chain.
➢ Sources:Olive oil, Avocados
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● Omega-9is a common type of MUFA, which has potential heart health benefits.
Lipids:
Lipids are a broad category of molecules that include fats, oils, and cholesterol. Lipids are insoluble
in water, meaning they do not dissolve in water.
Functions of Lipids:
● Cell Membranes:Cell membranes are primarily made up of lipids, specifically phospholipids,
which help make the membrane selectively permeable. This allows cells to control what
enters and exits.
● Nervous System Function:Lipids, particularly the myelin sheath, are essential for the
proper functioning of the nervous system.
Cholesterol:
Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in the blood. It is essential for the body, but too
much can lead to health problems.
● Cholesterol is involved in the production of bile in liver cells. Bile helps in the digestion and
absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins like Vitamin D.
● Cholesterol plays a role in converting fats into fatty acids, which are essential for energy
and other metabolic functions.
● Cholesterol is necessary for the production of Vitamin D in the body when exposed to
sunlight.
● Cholesterol is used to make steroid hormones, which include:
○ Testosterone(in males)
○ Estrogen(in females)
These hormones are essential for good reproductive health.
● Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Cholesterol:L
DL cholesterol is known as "bad"
cholesterol because it contributes to the buildup of fatty deposits in the arteries.
○ This leads to the narrowing of arteries, which restricts blood flow and increases the
risk of heart attacks.
○ Trans fats increase LDL cholesterol levels, further increasing the risk of heart
disease and heart attacks.
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● High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) Cholesterol:HDL cholesterol is known as "good"
cholesterol because it helps remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream by carrying it to
the liver, where it can be broken down or excreted.
Note:Increased trans fat and increased LDL cholesterollevels lead to decreased HDL
cholesterol, which raises the risk of heart attacks.
Vaccination:
Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity from
a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live, or killed state, or proteins
or toxins from the organism.
● Virus:Avirusismadeupofgeneticmaterialandisprotected/envelopedbyaproteinshell
calledacapsid.Aviruslooksforahost(livingcell)and,whenfound,cancompletelytake
over it. It is able to do this due to the genetic material inside it.
● GeneticMaterialofaVirus:AvirushaseitherDNAorRNAasitsgeneticmaterialandis
classified as a DNA virus or anRNAvirus,respectively.Thevastmajorityofviruseshave
RNA genomes.
Fig: Bacteriophage virus that consists of genetic material (DNA/RNA)
and protective layer that is made up of protein (capsid)
● Reverse Transcription: DNA is a biological molecule that contains the instructions an
organismneedstofunction,develop,andreproduce.Typicallyintheprocessoftranscription
DNAisconvertedintomRNA.Howeverinreversetranscription,avirusisabletogenerate
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complementary DNA (cDNA) from an RNA template, using enzymes called reverse
transcriptases.
○ How Virus Multiply: The virus's DNA instructs the host cell to copy its genetic
material (RNA) and directs the ribosomes toformthevirus'souterproteincover.
This genetic material and protein inside the cell will then help create more viruses.
Note:Thespikeproteinisalsocalledanantigen.Ourimmunesystemidentifiesanypathogenby
theantigen,nottheentirepathogen.Therefore,antigensactasagatewayforthepathogento
enter specific living cells.
● Vaccination: Vaccines contain weakened or inactive parts of a particular organism
(antigen/pathogen) that triggers an immune response (start manufacturing antibodies)
within the body.
○ Nowifthebodyencountersantigen,italreadyhasmemorycellsandknowshowto
deal with it.
○ In this T-helper cells are generated which act as a shield against subsequent
infection.
Fig: how a vaccine work
● Types of Vaccines:
○ Whole Virus Vaccines:
■ Live-Attenuated Vaccines:Weakened form of livingvirus.
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● However, vaccines like this may not be suitable for people with
compromised immune systems.
■ Inactivated Virus:Killed form of virus
● Thisisthewaythefluandpoliovaccinesaremade–andvaccines
can be manufactured on a reasonable scale.
○ Subunit Vaccines:Uses only a part of a virus thatcontains essential antigens.
○ It requires adjuvants, which trigger the strong immune system.
● Viral Vector Vaccine: In this method we use harmless virus vectors. We give genetic
instruction (genetic modification) of real viruses.
○ Let’s a ssume the harmlessadenoviruswastakenandwasmodifiedinsuchaway
that it produced the spike protein of coronavirus. For example: The modified
adenovirus (with corona spikes) will trigger an immune response without causing
disease.
○ Example, covishield.
● mRNA Vaccine: This vaccine is made up of nucleic acid (RNA) and uses our body
mechanism to build desired virus-like spike protein i.e. triggers our immune system to
respond.
○ There is no requirement for a virus sample. Just a digital file with its genetic
sequence is needed.
○ It requires lipid nanoparticles to act as a vector and transfer mRNA.
Covid Vaccines Whole Virus Protein Subunit mRNA Vaccine Viral Vector
Vaccines Vaccines Vaccine
Examples Covaxin Novavax Pfizer, Moderna, Covishield,
GEMCOVAC-OM Sputnik,
iNCOVACC
Live-Attenuated Viral subunit RNA code of Used a harmless
or used with SARS‑CoV‑2. viral vector
Inactivated form adjuvant (an (adenovirus).
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of coronavirus. ingredient used Produced viral
in vaccines that protein inside the Conventional
Conventional helps in body. storage
storage triggering the temperature.
temperature. immune Less time to
response). make.
Expensive and It also requires
regressive good investment.
method.
Requires extreme
cold temperature
(-50 to -15
degree)
Diseases
● According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) disease is an impairment of normal
functioning of anorganismwhichisusuallyassociatedwithsignsandsymptomsandcan
be caused by external factors (pathogens/antigens) or internal mechanisms.
● Pathologyis the study of diseases.
Classification of Diseases:
● Based on Duration:It can be either:
○ Acute: Diseases with rapid onset and/or a short course. These diseases start
suddenly as a reaction to an injury or something else.
■ Examples:breaking a bone, burn, strep throat, flu,etc.
○ Chronic: Long-lasting conditions thatusuallydevelopslowlyandpersistovertime.
They can be managed but not always cured.
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■ Examples: Diabetes (affects blood sugar regulations), Arthritis (joint
inflammation), hypertension (high blood pressure), chronic kidney disease
(damage to kidney)
● Based on Medium:
○ Airborne:Present in the air.
Examples:Flu, COVID-19.
○ Waterborne:Contaminated water.
○ Vector Borne:Spread by vectors such as insects oranimals.
○ Sexually Transmitted (Close Contact):Spread through sexual contact.
● Based on Outbreak:
○ Endemic:Diseasesthatareconstantlypresentinasmallpopulationorregionwith
relatively low spread.
➢ Example:Disease spread in one or two states.
○ Epidemic: Diseasesthatexperiencesuddenincreasesincases,spreadingthrougha
large population or area within a country.
➢ Example:Disease spread in the Deccan region.
○ Pandemic:Sudden increase in cases across countriesand continents.
➢ Example:The1918influenzapandemic(Spanishflu)killed25to50million
people, more than WorldWarI.Theswineflualsotriggeredapandemicin
2009.
Note:Thedifferencebetweenanepidemicandapandemicisn’tintheseverityofthedisease,but
the degree to which it has spread.
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Fig: Endemic vs Epidemic vs Pandemic
● Based on Causative Agent:
○ Communicable/Infectious: Diseases causedbyorganismslikevirus,bacteria,fungi,
protozoa, parasitic worms.Theycanspreadfrompersontopersonorfromanimals
to humans.
■ Examples:Influenza flu, tuberculosis, HIV Aids
■ Zoonotic Disease (Zoonosis): Zoonotic diseases are infections that are
spread between people andanimals.Theseinfectionsarecausedbygerms,
suchasviruses,bacteria,parasites,andfungi.Somecanbesevereandlife
threatening, such as rabies, and others may be milder.
○ Non-Communicable/Non-Infectious: Often result from factors like genetics,
lifestyle and environmental influences. Examples are heart diseases (could also
happen due to poor diet and inactivity), diabetes(bloodsugarregulation),cancer
(abnormal cell growth).
■ GeneticDisorder(ChromosomalDiseases):Inheritedfromourparentsand
are caused by changes in our DNA. Examples are cystic fibrosis that
affects the body's cells, its tissues, and theglandsthatmakemucusand
sweat, Huntington's disease that affects the nervous system, sickle cell
anemia that affects red blood cells, etc.
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■ Deficiency
● Based on Cause of Disease
○ Injury
■ Physical injury
■ Emotional stress like hypertension
■ Radiation(Peopleworkinginminesareaffectedbyradiationsuffershealth
consequences)
○ Toxicity
■ Endogenous (Internal)
■ Exogenous (External)
○ Deficiency
■ Deficiency of nutrients
■ Deficiency of sunlight, air, water
■ Deficiency of rest
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Types of Diseases:
● Autoimmune Diseases: The body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells and
tissues. These diseases can cause inflammation and damage in the body.
○ Example: Rheumatoid arthritis (affects joints, etc), lupus (affects various
organs),Type 1 diabetes(attacks insulin producingcells).
● Neurological Diseases: Disease impacts the nervous system, which controls our body’s
activities. They can cause various symptoms including cognitive and movement issues.
○ Example: Alzheimer’s (progressive memory loss), Parkinson’s (movement and
tremor problems),Epilepsy(seizures),migraines(severeheadaches).
● Endocrine Doctrine: They affect glands and hormones and can result in hormonal
imbalances and related health issues.
○ Diabeticmellitus(insulinandbloodsugarregulation),thyroiddisorders(affecting
metabolism), Addison's disease(adrenalglanddysfunction),Cushing’ssyndrome
(presence of excess cortisol hormone).
Fig: endocrine system consists of the tissues (mainly glands)
that create and release hormones
HaematologicalDisorders:Involvedbloodanditscomponentsrelateddisorders.Theycan
●
lead to problems with clotting, oxygen transportation and immune function.
○ Example: Anaemia (low red blood cells and oxygen transportation), leukaemia
(cancer of blood-forming cells), haemophilia (impaired blood clotting),
thrombocytopenia (low platelet count).
● Autoinflammatory Diseases: Causes recurrent episodes ofinflammationwithoutinfection.
Can result in symptoms like fever, pain and swelling.
PW Web/App:[Link]
○ Examples: Familial mediterranean fever (recurrent fever and abdominal pain),
periodic fever syndrome, Behcet's disease (mouth and genital ulcers)
● Rare Diseases: Uncommon conditions that affect only a small portion ofthepopulation.
They are challenging in terms of diagnosis and treatment. About 95 percent of rare
diseases have no approved treatment and less than1in10patientsreceiveddisease
specific treatment.Less than 5 percent of rare diseaseshave therapies to treat them.
○ Around6000-8000diseasesareclassifiedasrarediseases.80percentofthemhave
geneticorigin.Generally,diseaseswithprevalencefewerthan5in10,000peopleare
considered rare.
○ Examples: Huntington’s diseases (affects brain function), Duchenne Muscular
dystrophy (muscle degeneration), Alkaptonuria (metabolic disorder),
Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria (rapid ageing), Lysosomal storage disorder(causedby
lack of enzymes. LSDs damage b
ody cells and organs), Pompe disease (muscle
weakness), Muscular dystrophy, cystic fibrosis, haemophilia, spina bifida (occurs
when the spine and spinal cord don't form properly).
● Lifestyle-Related Diseases: Influenced by choices like diet, exercise and substance use.
They are often preventable with healthier habits.
○ Example:Obesity(excessbodyweight),smoking-relateddiseaseslikelungcancer,
alcohol-related disorders like liver damage.
Bacterial Diseases
Bacterial Causative Agent Mechanism of Symptoms Status of
Disease Spread Vaccine/Treatme
nt
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Respiratory Sore throat, DTap or Tdap
diphtheriae droplets and fever, difficulty in vaccine (same as
direct contact breathing tetanus and
whooping cough)
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Contact with Skin ulcers, fever, Biothrax vaccine
PW Web/App:[Link]
contaminated serve respiratory
animals or their breathing
products
Pneumonia Various bacteria Respiratory Cough, fever, Pneumococcal
(example, droplets and chest pain, conjugate vaccine
streptococcus contact difficulty in (PCV),
pneumoniae) breathing pneumococcal
polysaccharide
vaccine (PPSV)
Leprosy Mycobacterium Prolonged close Skin lesions, Mycobacterium
leprae contact with an nerve damage, indicus pranii
infected person numbness (MIP)
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Airborne Persistent cough, Bacille
tuberculosis (Respiratory weight loss, Calmette-Guerin
droplets) fever. (BCG) vaccine
(live attenuated).
BPal Treatment
(developed by TB
Alliance)
India has the highest burden of TB with two deaths occurring every three minutes from
tuberculosis (TB).
BCG was developed by two Frenchmen, Albert Calmette and Camille Guerin. It was first used in
humans in 1921. Completed 100 years in 2021.
Meningitis Various bacteria Respiratory Severe Meningococcal
(example, droplets and headaches, neck vaccine
neisseria contact stiffness, fever Haemophilus
PW Web/App:[Link]
meningitidis) influenzae Type
B (HiB) Vaccine.
Pneumococcal
Vaccine (used for
Pneumonia and
sepsis)
Cholera Vibrio cholera Contaminated Severe diarrhoea, Euvichol Plus:
water and food dehydration World’s first and
only oral cholera
vaccine (OCV).
Dukenal
Vaccine(Oral)
Tetanus Clostridium Contaminated Muscle stiffness, TDaP (same as
tetani wounds spasms, jaw lock diphtheria, and
pertussis) and Td
vaccine (can
prevent tetanus
and diphtheria)
Typhoid Fever Salmonella typhi Contaminated High fever, Typbar TCV (by
water and food abdominal pain, Bharat Biotech)
diarrhoea TYPHIBEV
(Biological E)
Vivotif
Lyme Disease Borrelia Tick bites Rash, fever, joint Vaccine is under
burgdorferi pain development
Whooping cough Bordetella Respiratory Severe coughing Tdap and Td
PW Web/App:[Link]
(pertussis) pertussis droplets fits, respiratory vaccines
distress
Syphilis Treponema Sexual contact, Sores, rashes, No preventive
pallidum congenital fever, organ vaccine yet
transmission damage
Viral Diseases
Viral Disease Causative Agent Mechanism of Symptoms Status of
Spread Vaccines/
Treatment
HIV Human Blood, sexual Weakened No specific
Immuno-deficienc contact, mother immune system vaccine.
y Virus (HIV) to child ART
(Antiretroviral
Therapy)
suppresses the
virus but does
not cure it.
In 2022, the International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trial Network
(IMPAACT)P1107reportedthefirstcaseofHIVcureinawomanlivingwithHIVsubmittedto
a dual stem cell transplant (i.e., an umbilical cord blood transplant combined with a
half-matched bone marrow transplant)fortreatmentofanacutemyelogenousleukaemia.The
study participant isawomanfromNewYork(USA)whostoppedantiretroviraltherapy(ART)
at37monthspost-transplantandhashadnoHIVdetectedfor14months.Thedualstemcell
therapy also led to remission from leukaemia that she developed in 2017.
Hepatitis B Hepatitis B Virus Blood, bodily Liver Hepatitis B
PW Web/App:[Link]
(more dangerous fluids, sexual inflammation, vaccine
than HIV) contact jaundice
Hepatitis A vaccine for Hepatitis A. However there isno vaccine for Hepatitis C, Hepatitis E
and Hepatitis G.
Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B could also be caused by contaminated food and water.
Hepatitis Dis an infection of the liver caused bythe hepatitis D virus (HDV).Only people
with hepatitis B can contract HDV.Hepatitis B vaccinationprovides protection against
hepatitis B and, therefore, against hepatitis D.
HPV Human Sexual contact, Genital warts, Quadrivalent
Papillomavirus skin to skin cervical cancer vaccine -
(HPV) contact Gardasil.
Bivalent Vaccine
- Cervarix
Rotavirus Rotavirus Faecal-Oral Severe diarrhoea, Rotavac
Diarrhoea transmission vomiting
Genetic Material of a Virus: A virus has either DNA or RNA.
DNA→ Adenovirus. It is double stranded. Example,Hepatitis B, Common cold virus
RNA → Retrovirus (will perform the task of reverse transcription). It is single stranded.
Example, Dengue, HIV, Corona, Chikungunya, Hepatitis (A,C,D,E,G)
Measles Measles Virus Airborne droplets, Fever, rash, Measles - Mumps
direct contact cough, runny - Rubella -
nose Varicella
(MMRV) Vaccine
Rabies Lyssavirus Animal bites, Fever, paralysis, MMRV Vaccine
mainly through aggression
saliva
PW Web/App:[Link]
Chikungunya Chikungunya Aedes mosquitos High fever, joint No specific
Virus (primarily aedes pain, muscle vaccine
aegypti and pain, rash
aedes albopictus)
Dengue Dengue Virus Aedes mosquitos High fever, joint Dengvaxia (Live-
(primarily aedes pain, muscle attenuated)
aegypti) pain, headaches tetravalent
vaccine
Polio Poliovirus Faecal-oral Muscle weakness, IPV
transmission, paralysis (Inactivated),
contaminated OPV (Oral)
water
Rubella Rubella virus Airborne droplets, Mild fever, rash, MMRV Vaccine
direct contact swollen glands
Chickenpox Varicella-Zoster Airborne droplets, Itchy blisters, Varicella vaccine
virus direct contact fever, tiredness
Japanese Japanese Mosquito bites Fever, headache, JENVAC
Encephalitis encephalitis virus (Culex mosquito) brain
inflammation
Zika Viral Fever Zika virus Mosquito bites Rash, fever, joint No specific
(aedes aegypti pain, vaccine
and aedes conjunctivitis
albopictus)
Yellow fever Yellow fever virus Mosquito bites Fever, jaundice, Yellow fever
(aedes aegypti bleeding vaccine
PW Web/App:[Link]
and aedes (live-attenuated)
albopictus)
MERS-CoV MERS CoV Human to human Fever, cough, No specific
(Middle East transmission, respiratory vaccine
Respiratory close contact distress
Syndrome)
SARS (Severe SARS Coronavirus Human to human Fever, respiratory No specific
Acute transmission, distress vaccine
Respiratory close contact
Syndrome)
Covid-19 or SARS Cov -2 Human to human Fever, respiratory Covishield,
SARS-Cov-2 (single stranded transmission, distress, loss of Covaxin, etc/
(Severe acute RNA Virus) close contact, smell or taste,
respiratory airborne congestion, runny
syndrome transmission nose,
coronavirus -2) gastrointestinal
symptoms like
nausea, vomiting
or diarrhoea
Monkeypox MPox Virus Viral Zoonotic Swollen lymph Smallpox vaccines
(primarily in Genus → Disease (animals nodes, fever, also provide
tropical Orthopoxvirus to human painful rashes, protection
rainforest areas Family → transmission). headaches, against
of central and Poxviridae In urban areas. nausea (flu-like monkeypox.
west Africa) Clustered in symptoms). No approved
social and sexual treatments but
networks. some antiviral
PW Web/App:[Link]
In males, drugs may be
especially those prescribed.
who identified
themselves as
gay, bisexual.
Transmission:
contact with
lesions, body
fluids, respiratory
droplets, etc
Ebola Virus Ebola Virus (host Animal to human Fever, fatigue, Ervebo
Disease (EVD) is fruit bats of transmission muscle, pain, (rVSV-ZEBOV)
pteropodidae (close contact headache, sore vaccine (against
family) with blood, throat, diarrhoea, zaire strain of
secretions, etc of internal and virus).
infected animals external bleeding. Diagnosis tests:
such as fruit ELISA and
bats, etc). PT_PCR
Human to human
transmission
(direct contact
with blood or
bodily fluids of
the infected
person)
Nipah virus (NiV) is also a zoonotic virus and can alsobetransmittedthroughcontaminated
food or directly between people. In infected people, it causes a range of illnesses from
asymptomatic (subclinical) infection to acute respiratory illness and fatal encephalitis. Fruit
PW Web/App:[Link]
bats are the natural hosts for Nipah virus. Outbreaks of the Nipah virus in pigs and other
domestic animals such as horses, goats, sheep, cats and dogs were first reported during the
initial Malaysian outbreak in 1999.
Parasitic Diseases:
Parasitic Causative Agent Mechanism of Symptoms Status of
Disease Spread Vaccine/
Treatment
Malaria Plasmodium Mosquito bites Fever, chills, RTS,S/AS01 is
Parasites (female anaemia, organ the World’s first
anopheles failure. malaria vaccine.
mosquitoes) The R21 vaccine
is the second
malaria vaccine
recommended by
WHO, following
the RTS,S/AS01
vaccine, which
received a WHO
recommendation
in 2021
Amebiasis Entamoeba Ingesting Diarrhoea, No preventive
histolytica contaminated abdominal pain, vaccine yet
food or water weight loss
Trypanosomiasis Trypanosoma Tsetse fly bites Fever, fatigue, Limited vaccine
(African parasites neurological for some strains
Sleeping symptoms
Sickness)
PW Web/App:[Link]
Kala Azar / Leishmania Sandfly bites Skin sores, fever, Multi-drug
Visceral parasites spleen/liver therapy
Leishmaniasis / enlargement treatment
Black Fever /
Dumdum Fever
Onchocerciasis Onechocerca Black fly bites Skin rashes, No preventive
(River volvulus vision vaccine yet
Blindness) impairment,
blindness
Taeniasis Taenia Ingesting Abdominal No preventive
(Tapeworm Tapeworms undercooked discomfort, vaccine yet
Infection) contained pork or digestive issues
beef
Fungal Diseases:
PW Web/App:[Link]
Sexually Transmitted Diseases:
PW Web/App:[Link]
PW Web/App:[Link]
Science and Technology
Lecture 30: Robotics
Robotics
● Robots are programmable machinesthatcanperformtasksautomaticallyorwithminimal
human intervention.
● Robotics is the field that involves designing, building, and programming robots. It combines:
○ Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Computer Science, Artificial
Intelligence
● A robot may or may not look like a human. A robot may or may not take up tasks similar
to human.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Application of Robotics
● Health and Medicine
● Robotic-Assisted Surgery:Surgical
robots assists surgeons perform precise
surgeries.
○ Example→Da Vinci Surgical
System
○ India’s 1st Indigenous Surgical
Robotinstalled at Rajiv Gandhi
Cancer Institute, Delhi by SSI Mantra.
● TelesurgeryandRemoteCare:Telesurgeryallowssurgeonstoperformoperationsremotely,
especiallyinareaswhereaccesstomedicalcareislimited.Itimproves“accesstocare”in
remote areas.
○ Example→telesurgery on wheels, MantraM
PW Web/App:[Link]
● Diagnostic Robots: These are robots equipped withAI.
○ PillBot:AdiagnosticrobotfromtheUSAintroduced
in India in 2025, which is used for medical
diagnosis. It is swallowable robotic capsule→
smallcapsule(130mmX30mm)thatisswallowed,
used for internal diagnostics.
● Nano Robotics for Drug Delivery: A
nanorobot designed to deliver drugs to
precise locations, useful in cancer
treatment.
○ Example→Bionauts
● Agriculture
● Robot Harvesting: Robots with advanced vision systems and
robotic arms to harvest crops (pick crops in precision), reducing
labour costs and reduce damage to farm produce
○ Example: Megara Robotics for coconut harvesting
● Autonomous Weeding: Robots using lasers, mechanical
tool, and targeted herbicide sprays to remove weeds,
minimising chemical use and environmental impact.
○ Example:Harvested Robotics (a startup from
India).
● Crop Monitoring and Scouting: Drones collect data on
crop health, soil conditions and growth patterns,helping
PW Web/App:[Link]
farmers monitor crop conditions.
○ Example: Precision Hawk (USA) and Mount
Drones (Telangana, AP)
● Soil Analysis and Phenotyping: Robots access soil
conditionsandplanttraitstoimprovebreedingandcrop
management practices.
● Defence: These include robots that could make decision,
suchastofireuponatargetwithoutanyhumancommands.Theycanreplacehumansoldiers
in dangerous missions. Example→ USA deployed thousands of robots in Iraq and Afghanistan
a. They can use unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), underwater vehicles for
reconnaissance and intelligence gathering.
● Manufacturing:BHEL (Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited) uses robots in its manufacturing
plants for precision welding, assembly, and inspection processes
● Disaster preparedness, response and relief:S
warm of Drones (IIT Madras)– These
autonomous drones are used for mapping, aerial surveys, and identifying safe routes during
natural disasters like floods and landslides.
● Space Sector:Vyomitra is India’s humanoid robot developed by ISRO (Indian Space Research
Organisation) for space missions
● Warehouse and cleaning:GreyOrange Robotics develops advanced robotic solutions for
warehouses. Their robots, such as the Butler System, are used in warehouses like Flipkart's
fulfillment centers to automate the sorting and storage of goods, improving efficiency and
reducing labor costs.
PW Web/App:[Link]
● Education: Robokidz is an initiative in India that uses educational robots to teach children
coding and robotics.
Advanced New World Robots
1. Humanoid Robots: These robots resembles or look like a human and having characteristics
like:
○ Opposable thumbs
○ Ability to walk upright (bipedal locomotion)
○ Facial expression
○ Speech capabilities
○ Social interaction
● Important Humanoid Robots Across the World: Sophia:
Built by the Hong Kong-based company Hanson
Robotics. Known for 62 facial expressions, ability to
maintain eye contact and engage in conversations on
predefined topics. She is the first robot to receive
citizenship (Saudi Arabia).Suitable for healthcare,
customer service, therapy and education.
○ Tesla Optimus (Gen 2): Known for its broad applicability, Optimus aims for
multiple uses in factories and homes.
○ ATLAS: Famous for unmatched agility and strength, especially for tasks requiring
mobility and balance.
○ AMECA: A robot designed for
social interactions, which
represents the future face of
robotics.
○ NVIDIA’s Isaac GROOT NJ: A
robot that can be used in
factories, homes and for
addressing labor shortages.
PW Web/App:[Link]
● Humanoid Robots built in India:
○ Mitra Robot: Used for hospitality management, workplace productivity, and is
capable of understanding and reacting to human emotions.
○ Shalu Robot: A multilingual, social, and educational robot made from waste
material. It can recognise people, understand
human emotions and behave accordingly. It is
developed by Dinesh Kunwar Patel, a computer
science teacher at Kendriya Vidyalaya in Mumbai.
● Bionic Man: In Robotics, the “Bionic man" concept
involves creating systems like bioniclimbsthatmimic
or enhance human functioning. It also includes full
features of functioning artificial heart, various
prosthetic limbs, retinal implants for vision, cochlear
implants for speech generation, etc.
Concerns and Challenges in Robotics
● Very high initial cost since customers expect visible
return, making it difficult for multiple investments
● Technical Challengeslike reliability and robustness, battery life andmaintenance cost
● Job Replacement Concerns: They can replace human in labour forces, b
ut may lack
creativity, decision-making skills, etc.
● Safety Problem: If robots were to gain sentience or advanced decision-making abilities,
there could be catastrophic outcomes, such as human annihilation. The accuracy of
systems like Da Vinci isstill questionable.
● Ethical and Social Concerns:
○ Privacy:Robotswithsensorscollectvastdata,raisingfearofsurveillanceinhomes
and workplaces.
○ Weaponisation: The ethical dilemma arises about who is responsible if a robot
malfunction leads to harm or death. For example, if a robot causes an accident,
who will be held accountable?
PW Web/App:[Link]
● Increased Social Gaps: Widens gap between the rich and the poor, with wealthier
individualsandcountriesbenefitingmorefromrobotictechnologywhileothersmaybeleft
behind.
● Regulatory and Legal ChallengesThere is a lack of universal standards for robotics,
making: it difficult to regulate and ensure consistency across industries and countries.
○ The public may have distrust regarding robots, especially in high-risk areas like
healthcare(e.g.,roboticsurgeries),wheretheconsequencesofamalfunctioncould
be severe.
● Economic Concerns: Automations vs Livelihood debate→ while robots can increase
efficiencyandloweroperationalcosts,therearesignificantconcernsabouthowautomation
will affect human livelihoods.
○ Job Displacement: According to the Oxford Economic Report (2024), it is
predicted that20 million jobscould be lost to automation and robots by2020.
PW Web/App:[Link]
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