WWWE MODULE 3

TREATMENT OF RAW WATER

TREATMENT OF WATER
Treatment of water can be done by any of the following methods:
a. Screening
b. Aeration
c. Coagulation
d. Flocculation
e. Sedimentation
f. Filtration
g. Disinfection
h. Softening of water
i. De-salination
j. De-fluoridation
k. fluoridation
SCREENING
• It is carried out to remove large floating particles such as debris, trees, animals, branches, bushes with
the help of screens
• Screens are two types:
i. coarse/bar screen (dia-:10-25mm,spacing-:20-100mm)
ii. fine screen (are in the form of wire mesh)
𝑘(𝑣 2 −𝑢2 )
Head loss in coarse screen=
2𝑔
Where v= outlet velocity
u= velocity over the screen (v>u) (area will decrease at the outlet)
k= constant that depend on material property
𝑘
= 0.0729 (𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
2𝑔
AERATION
• In this process water is broad in intimate contact with air so as it allow the absorption of 𝑂2
• It remove dissolve gases like C𝑂2 , 𝐻2 S from the water , dissolved organic matter from water,
dissolved minerals Fe, Mn. (dissolved solid)
• Generally adopted for the treatment of water has deficiency of O2 (ground water, water at bottom of
lakes)
• By aeration taste, colour, odour,PH 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
Aeration can be done by following methods

1) Spray nozzle method

2) tray tower method(max efficiency)
3) cascade aerator
4) diffused air method
SEDIMENTATION:
• it is the process of removal suspended coarser particles which tend to settle down when offered storage
or flow velocity reduced
• The entire theory of sedimentation based on specific gravity (G)
• For inorganic solid, G=2.6-2.9
• For organic solid, G=1-2 (solids are heavier than water)
• During sedimentation following are the factors which oppose the tendency of settlement:
i. Velocity of flow decreases , efficiency (η) increases (by regulating the size of the tank)
ii. viscosity decreases , η increases (by regulating the temperature)
iii. Size of particle (d):
(based on STOKES LAW)
Assumptions of stokes law:
• Particle is to be spherical
• Medium taking place is infinite
• Discrete settling takes place during settlement
• Flow should be laminar
 Settling velocity:
(𝐺−1)𝛾𝑤 𝑑 2 𝐺−1 𝑔𝑑 2
• 𝑉𝑠 = =
18𝜇 18𝛿
𝜇
Where 𝛿 = = kinematic viscosity
𝜌
𝜇 = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
above formula is applicable for laminar flow 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛾𝑤 = 𝑔 ∗ 𝜌
i) For laminar flow condition (d<0.1mm)
𝟑𝑻+𝟕𝟎
𝑽𝒔 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖(𝑮 − 𝟏)𝒅𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎
ii) 0.1<d<1mm, for transition flow
𝟑𝑻+𝟕𝟎
𝑽𝒔 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖 𝑮 − 𝟏 𝒅
𝟏𝟎𝟎
iii) d>1mm, for turbulent flow
𝑽𝒔 =1.8* 𝒈𝒅(𝑮 − 𝟏)
Sedimentation carried out in sedimentation tank which are of following types
1. Quiscent type/fixed type/fill & draw type
2. Continuous flow type (horizontal flow type and vertical flow type)
Quiscent type sedimentation tank
• In this type of tank the flow of water is completely stopped after 24hr during which the solid present in it
gets settled in the tank resulting in the formation of sludge which is further followed by the removal of
settled water from the tank for the next treatment
• Detention time period -:24hr
• Cleaning period:-6-12 hr
• Designed for max daily demand

Continuous flow type

It is the type of tank in which flow of water is insured to be continuous either in horizontal or vertical plane
in order to carry out sedimentation.
Rectangular tank with longitudinal flow:
Assumption :
 a particle is assumed to be settled in the tank if it reaches the bottom of the settling zone.
 concentration of particle of all the sizes is same at all points of the vertical section at the inlet end.
 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄0 )
Velocity of flow 𝑽𝒇 =
𝐵𝐻

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄0 )
settling velocity 𝑽𝒔 =
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐼−𝑂
• Efficiency(η%) = ∗ 100
𝐼
For circular tank, volume of tank= 𝐃𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝐃 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓 ∗ 𝐡
DESIGN PARAMETERS
i) Overflow rate (OFR) :( velocity of concerned size of particle is termed as OFR/SOFR)
SOFR is inversely proportional to efficiency
range-: 12000-18000 l/m2/day for plain sedimentation
24000-30000 l/m2/day for coagulation added sedimentation
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
ii) Plan area=
𝑶𝑭𝑹
iii) Detention time (avg theoretical time taken by water to travel from inlet to outlet to remove concerned
sized particle)
= 4 to 8hr for plain sedimentation
= 2 to 4hr for coagulation added sedimentation
iv) Volume = LBH for rectangular tank
= 𝐷2 0.011𝐷 + 0.785 ∗ ℎ for circular tank
 η%=σ𝑛𝑖=1 %𝑪 ∗ %𝑹

A sedimentation tank designed to capture 0.01mm diameter particles with specific gravity 2.65. if
sedimentation tank is designed for an surface over flow rate 20m3/day/m2. find the efficiency of particle
removal. Take kinematic viscosity of water 0.01cm2/sec

2) Design a plain rectangular with surface loading rate(SLR) is 20m3/day/m2 and DT is 4hr.
Assume L:B =4:1
discharge 20MLD
𝒎𝟑
𝒎𝟐
3) Consider a PST in a WTP with SOR=40 . The dia of the particle which will have 80% removal
𝒅𝒂𝒚
efficiency in the tank is --- μm. (assume stokes law to be valid. γ= 1.10*10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)
4) A rectangular sedimentation basin is to handle 10MLD. A detention basic of W/L=1/3 is proposed
to trap all particles>0.04mm is size. Assuming a relative density of 2.65 for the particles and 20℃
as avg temp. if the depth of the tank is 3.5m. Compute basin dimension. Calculate the detention
time.
1) Solution:
𝐺−1 𝑔𝑑 2
Settling velocity 𝑉𝑠 = 18𝛿
9.81 (2.65−1)(0.01∗10−3 )^2
= 18∗0.01∗10^−4
−5
= 8.99*10 m/sec =7.769 m/day
𝑉
Efficiency =𝑉 𝑠 *100
𝑂
7.769
= 20 *100
= 38.85%
2) Solution:

Q= 20MLD
20∗106 𝑚3
=
103 𝑑𝑎𝑦
=20000 m3/day
𝑄
Surface area of sedimentation tank (L*B) =
𝑆𝐿𝑅
20000
=
20
=1000 m2
L=4B
4𝐵2 =1000 => B = 15.81m, L=63.24m
20000∗4
volume of tank =Q*DT= = 3333.33 𝑚3
24
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
depth of tank =
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
=3.33 m
Surfcae overflow rate of a settling basin is 5m3/m2/hr which is required to treat following water sample
particle type V(m/hr) Conc. (mg/l)
I 8 100
II 5 300
III 2 250
find the conc of particle settled in water sample

Solution:
100∗100
I =100mg/l
100
300∗100
II =300mg/l
100
250∗2∗100
III =100mg/l
5
total conc. of particle removed =100+300+100=500mg/l
Conc. in settled water= (100+300+250) – 500 = 150mg/l
500
η%= ∗ 100 =77%
650
COAGULATION ADDED SEDIMENTATION
• To remove very fine suspended particles and colloidal particles this method is used.
• Certain chemicals called COAGULANTS are mixed with water which form a gelatinous precipitate called floc
which attracts the fine suspended particles.
Commonly used coagulants are :
• Alum , 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 18𝐻2 𝑂 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒
• Copperas (hydrated ferrous sulphate), FeS𝑂4 . 7𝐻2 𝑂
• Chlorinated copperas (ferric sulphate)
• Sodium sulphate
It is carried out in 3stages:
1. Coagulation (fast mixing)
2. Flocculation (slow mixing)
3. sedimentation
Chemical reaction
𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 18𝐻2 𝑂+3Ca(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 Al 𝑂𝐻 3 (𝑝𝑝𝑡) +3CaS𝑂4 +6C𝑂2 + 18𝐻2 𝑂
1gm of alum reacts with 0.45gm of alkalinity to gives 0.234gm of Al 𝑶𝑯 𝟑

By addition of alum:
 Alkalinity decreases, turbidity increases, permanent hardness increases, PH decreases
 If alkalinity is not present in water naturally it is induced artificially by adding lime or soda ash
 Alum works in PH range: 6.5-8.5
 Dose of alum depends upon on turbidity and colour of water and is determined by JAR TEST (10-30mg/l)
 Copperas (hydrated ferrous sulphate), FeS𝑂4 . 7𝐻2 𝑂
• FeS𝑶𝟒 . 𝟕𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 Fe 𝑶𝑯 𝟐 (𝒑𝒑𝒕) + CaS𝑶𝟒 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
 It is not used for treatment of coloured water
 It is generally used for treatment of sewage
 Its normal dose is same as that of alum (10-30mg/l), but it is cheaper than alum
 It works in pH range of ≥8.5 hence it is always used in conjucation with lime
To neutralise charge over suspended particle threshold energy is required to be provided i.e. induced by fast
mixing. In this process it can be done by any of following units.
i) Mixing basin:
ii) Mechanical mixer:
in this mixing is induced mechanical by vigorous agitation of coagulant into the water, intensity of which is
reported in terms of “ temporal mean velocity gradient”(G)
G is defined as the relative velocity between the particles located at particular distance from each other
𝑷
G= v= volume of tank
𝝁𝑽
Design parameter for coagulation tank
𝐻
• =1:1 -3:1
𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑎
• Detention time =30-60sec
• G>300 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏
• Power requirement= 1-3 watts
FLOCCULATION: (slow mixing)
It is a process of bringing neutralised particles and sticky ppt in contact with each other to form a bigger sized
particle termed as floc, formation opportunity of which is increased by slow mixing

Flocculation tank
Coagulation sedimentation
Design parameter for flocculation tank
H=3-3.5m
Detention time=10-30min , G=10-75 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏
A coagulation sedimentation plant clarifies 50MLD. The dosage of filter alum required is 16mg/l. if the
raw water is having an alkalinity equivalent to 5mg/l of CaC𝑶𝟑 , determine the quantities of filter
alum and quick lime (containing 87% of CaO) required per year for the plant. Given the molecular
weights as follows:- (Al=27, S=32, O=16, H=1, Ca=40, C=12)
• Q=50*106 l/day
Alum dosage=16 mg/l
16∗50∗106 ∗365
Total alum required per year= = 292*103 kg/year
106
1mg of alum requires 0.45mg of alkalinity as CaC𝑂3
16mg of alum requires= 16*0.45= 7.2mg/l of alkalinity as CaC𝑂3 per litre of water
Available alkalinity=5mg/l
Alkalinity to be added= 7.2-5= 2.2mg/l
Quick lime to be added to the water=2.2*0.56= 1.232 mg/l
Actual quick lime to be added=1.232/0.87= 1.416 mg/l
1.416∗50∗103 ∗365
Total quick lime required per year= =25842 kg/yr
106
A water treatment plant is required to process 28800m3/day of raw water (density 1000kg/m3, kinematic
viscosity 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐦𝟐/𝐬𝐞𝐜) the rapid mixing tank imparts a velocity gradient of 900 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 to blend 35mg/l of
alum with the flow for a detention time of 2min. Find the power input (w) required for rapid mixing.

𝑃
• G= `
μ𝑉

P=𝐺 2 ∗ μ ∗ V
28800
Q= = 0.33𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐
24∗60∗60
Volume of water in tank= 0.33*120=40m3
P=9002 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 40
= 32400watts
FILTRATION
• For removal of very fine suspended particles, colloidal particles, bacteria, odour and taste by means
of filtering the water through bed of granular material i.e. filter media
• Types :
1) Gravity filter
i. slow sand filter
ii. rapid sand filter
2) Pressure filter
Mechanism of filtration:
 Mechanical straining (filter medium-: sand, anthracite, geotextile, activated carbon)
The particles of suspended matter that are of size larger than the size of the voids are arrested and
removed by the action of mechanical straining
 Sedimentation and adsorption:
The voids between the sand grains act as minute sedimentation tanks in which particles will settle
and adhere to the sides of sand grains. Also the colloidal particles held in the voids and on the
surfaces act as a gelatinous material and attracts the other fine particles.
Biological metabolism:

• The bacteria which are caught in the voids of the sand grains utilize organic impurities present in
water and convert them into harmless compounds by the complex biochemical reactions. The
harmless compounds so formed are deposited at the surface of the sand in the form of a layer which
contains a zoological jelly in which the biological activities are at their highest. This layer is called
the schmutzdecke (dirty skin). This layer further helps in absorbing and straining out the impurities.
• Electrolytic changes:
Some of the sand grains of filter are charged with electricity of some polarity. Hence, when particles of
suspended and dissolved matter having electricity of opposite polarity come into contact with such sand
grains, they neutralize each other and it results in changing the chemical characteristics of water.
Sl item Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter
no
1 Size of filter bed 100m2-2000m2 10m2-50m2
2 Filter media of sand Sand grains are finer Sand grains are slightly coarser
Thickness: 90-110cm Thickness: 60-75cm

3 Base material of gravel Size: 3-65mm Size: 2-50mm

Thickness: 30-75cm Thickness: 45-60cm
4 Coagulation Normally not required Essential
5 Under drainage system Provide only to receive filtered water Provided to receive filtered water and also
to supply water for back washing of filter
6 Rate of filtration 100-200 l/hr/m2 3000-6000 l/hr/m2
7 Method of cleaning Scrapping of top layer of 15-30mm thickness Agitation and back washing with or without
compressed air
8 Amount of wash water 0.2-0.6% of filtered water 2-5% of filtered water
9 Period of cleaning 1-3 month 1-3 day
10 efficiency Very efficient in removal of bacteria but less Less efficient in the removal of bacteria but
efficient in removal of color and turbidity more efficient in the removal of color and
turbidity
Operational problems in RSF:
1) Air binding: when efficiency of cleaning is very low the head loss increases and reach up to
vapour pressure, the air molecules starts rising up and occupy all the voids and air binding takes
place.
To avoid air binding :
 Do proper cleaning of filter when head loss become 2.5-3.5m or when negative head becomes 1.2m
 Avoid increase in temp
 Remove the algae from the source
 Pumping in air.
2) Mud ball formation: mud from atmosphere enters the medium and slowly they come together and
gets deposited in the sand. Now after time t they start entering gravel layer and disturbs the uniform
distribution of the gravel hence turbulence gets generated thus resulting disturbance in backwashing.
Due to turbulence the sand particles also go to wash water trough.
3) Cracking of filter:
Due to loading and unloading of filter fatigue generated and volume of solid shrink and void
increases this void increase is crack.
4)Bumping of filter bed:
Bumper after backwashing is called bumpers. The top surface is not perfectly horizontal.
2) PRESSURE FILTER:
These are the type of filters in which energy required by water to overcome the resistance of medium
is provided by application of pressure.
This filters are same as that of rapid sand filter with the difference that here treatment is carried out in
closed contained and it utilizes raw coagulation water . Flocculation is done inside the filter itself.
These are less efficient than RSF but offers higher ROF = (15000-16000) l/m2/hr
Dia of this filter=1.5-3 m
Depth=3.5-8 m
They are suitable for treatment of limited quantity of water i.e water in swimming pools or
industrial water
Pressure filter:
A city is going to install the rapid sand filter after the sedimentation tanks. Use the following data
design loading rate to the filter=200m3/m2/day
design flow rate=0.5m3/sec
surface area per filter box=50m2
find the number of filters that is required for the tank.
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
• Total surface area =
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
0.5
=
200/(24∗60∗60)
=216m2
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
No of filters =
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
=216/50 =4.32=5
Miscellaneous water treatment
• Water softening:
Removal of hardness from water is known as water softening
Removal of temporary hardness:
a) By boiling
b) By adding lime
Removal of permanent hardness:

1) Lime soda process:

Lime and sodium carbonate are used to remove permanent hardness
Advantages:
• Economical
• pH value increases and corrosion of the distribution system decreases
• The process is suitable for turbid and acidic waters for which zeolite process cannot be
used
• Less quantity of coagulant will be required for coagulation
• Removal of iron & manganese to some extent
• Better for excessively hard waters
Disadvantages:
 Large quantity of sludge is formed
 Recarbonation is required. By lime soda process water of zero hardness cannot be
produced
2. Zeolite process
• Zeolite is a complex compound of aluminium, silica and soda
• Convert multivalent cation to univalent cation
• Hard water is passed through a bed of ion exchange material or ion exchanger commonly known as zeolite
• Calcium and magnesium are removed from water as these are substituted by sodium by ion-exchange process
• By zeolite process the hardness of water is reduced almost to zero.
Advantages:
 Sludge is not formed & there is no problem of sludge removal
 Doesn’t require any skilled supervision
 It is possible to reduce hardness of water to zero
Disadvantages:
Cannot be adopted for highly turbid water
3. Demineralization process/ Deionization process
• Similar to zeolite process with the difference that in demineralization process the metallic ions viz. Ca, Mg etc.
are exchanged for hydrogen ions.
• The ion exchanger is prepared with carbonaceous material.
• The effluent obtained in the demineralization process is free from minerals and it has a quality almost equal to
that of distilled water used for industries
Removal of colour, odour, and taste:
a. Aeration (process in which water brought in intimate contact with atmospheric air to promote exchange of
gases between water and atmospheric air)
b. Treatment by activated carbon (it is used as granular or powder form)
c. Use of copper sulphate (control the growth of algae, bacteria and some types of aquatic weeds)
Fluoridation and de fluoridation
 The process of raising the fluoride content of water is known as fluoridation.
 Sodium fluoride (NaF), is usually adopted for fluoridation of public water supplies
 It is best to apply fluoride after other treatments , but at point where thorough mixing of fluoride with
water can take place before water leaves the treatment works.
De fluoridation :
 It is the process of reducing fluoride conc in water.
 Lime-soda process, activated carbon are used for dechlorination purpose
Desalinization or desalination:
It is the process of converting saline water to fresh water
Can be done by the following process:
1) Distillation: The most commonly used method for converting saline water to fresh water, saline water is
boiled or evaporated. The vapours are condensed which gives fresh water
2) Reverse osmosis: water is forced across a semi-permeable membrane by mechanical force
3) Electrolysis: salt ions are removed from saline water under the impetus of an electric current
4) Freezing: Temperature of saline water is gradually lowered until ice crystals are formed. These are free of
salt and can be separated. The ice crystals when melted gives fresh water
DISINFECTION

• It Is the process of killing pathogenic bacteria

Methods :
i) Boiling of water:
• Most effective method of disinfection of water
• Cannot be used for huge quantities of public water supplies
• Cannot take care of the future possible contaminations
• Used only for domestic purposes in emergencies
ii) Treatment with excess limes:
 Effectively kills the bacteria but cannot safe guard the future pollution
 Enough lime is added to water to raise its PH value to 9.5 or more thereby most of the bacteria will
be killed
 Re carbonation is necessary. The process of removal excess lime before it is supplied to public is
known as re carbonation
iii) Ozone
• Ozone is more powerful disinfectant than chlorine
• Ozone is more costly than chlorine
• Cannot provide residual protection against recontamination
• Cannot be stored
• Used for disinfection of water on a small scale such as swimming pool water
iv)Iodine and bromine pills:
 Compared to chlorine, iodine provides longer lasting protection against pathogens and reduced offensive
tastes and odours
 Used for water supply for army troops, private plants, swimming pools
 Cannot be used for public water supply as it is costly
v) Ultra violet rays:
 Very costly technique and is an effective method for the disinfection of water
 No residual effect is available for the protection against recontamination
 Adopted for water supply installation of private building, institution, hospitals
 vi) Potassium permanganate
• For disinfecting well water supplies which are generally contaminated with lesser amounts of bacteria
• Can remove 100% organisms causing cholera
• It also oxidizes organic matter
vii)Silver/electro katadyn process:
Removes algae also and takes care of future pollution. It is costly
viii) Chlorination :
 Universally adopted for public water supplies because it is capable of providing residual disinfecting effects
for long periods. It satisfies all the requirements of an ideal disinfectant
 It takes care of any possible future contamination.
 Only disadvantage is it imparts bad taste
 The addition of chlorine does not produce any significant change in the PH
 Chlorination is not effective if the water is alkaline
 Action of chlorination
• When the chlorine is added to water the following reaction takes place:
𝐶𝑙2 (pH <5) + 𝐻2 𝑂 HOCL +𝐻+ + 𝐶𝐿−
This hydrolysis reaction is reversible
HOCL (pH=5-7) 𝐻 + +𝑂𝐶𝐿− (pH>8)
This reaction is also reversible
At PH=5-7 100% HOCL and no OCL
At PH >8 100% OCL and no HOCL
At PH =7-8 50% HOCL and 50% OCL
 Hypochlorous acid (HOCL) and hypo chlorite ions (𝑂𝐶𝐿− ) accomplish disinfection of water. Thus chlorine
reacts with water to produce hypo chlorous acid and hypo chlorite which together known as free available
chlorine
 HOCL is 80 to 100 times more powerful than OCL
 The free 𝐶𝑙2 reacts with compounds such as ammonia, proteins, and phenol that may generally be present in
water to form chloramines and chloro-derivaties which are called combined chlorine.
 Free chlorine is about 25 times more powerful than combined chlorine
 Residual chlorine= chlorine dosage- chlorine demand
chloramines

• 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐶𝑙2 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝐿+𝐻2 𝑂 (pH>7.5)

monochloramines
𝑁𝐻3 + 2𝐶𝑙2 NHC𝐿2 +𝐻2 𝑂 (pH=5-6.5)
dichloromines have disinfecting properties
𝑁𝐻3 + 3𝐶𝑙2 NC𝐿3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 (pH<4.4)
trichloramines have negligible disinfecting properties
Factors affecting bacterial efficiency of chlorine:
i) turbidity: decreases the efficiency of chlorine disinfectant
ii) Metallic compounds: Fe and Mn in water reduces the effectiveness of chlorine
iii) Ammonium: Compounds: reduces the efficiency
iv) PH of water: increased PH reduces the effectiveness of chlorine
v) Temp of water: at low temp, efficiency will be low
vi) Contact time: the killing of bacteria increases with increase of contact period
Various forms of chlorination

1. as bleaching powder/hypo chlorite: Ca(𝑶𝑪𝒍)𝟐

• contains about 30-35% of available chlorine
• can be used for large public water supplies
• The chlorination is known as hypo-chlorination
2. As chloramines
• Formed by the reaction between ammonia and chlorine
• Don’t cause bad taste and odour
• Weaker disinfectant compared to free chlorine
3. As chlorine gas /liquid chlorine
• Universally adopted (liquid chlorine) as disinfectant for public water supplies
• No sludge is formed in its application as may be formed by using hypo-chlorites or chloramines
4. As chlorine dioxide gas
• has an oxidizing capacity 2.5 times that of chlorine
• Due to its high cost of production, it is not economical
Chick’s law
• the rate of killing of organisms is proportional to the amount of organisms remaining in water at any time, t
• Increase in temp results in a more rapid kill
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁𝑂 ∗ 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
K= disinfectant rate constant
Types of chlorination:
Plain chlorination :
 only chlorine treatment and no other treatment
 Helps to remove bacteria and colour from water and is also controls the growth of algae.
 It is used in case of emergencies, when full fledged treatment cannot be given. Also adopted for clean water
Pre chlorination:
 Chlorine is added before raw water enters sedimentation tanks. It helps in reducing the quantity of coagulants
and to improve coagulation. It reduces taste and odour of water:
 Controls the growth of algae. It reduces the bacterial load on filters;
 It prevents putrefaction of sludge in settling tanks
Post chlorination:

• This is the standard form of chlorination in which chlorine is added to water as it leaves filters and before it enters
distribution system.
• The residual chlorine present in water is useful for its protection against contamination in the distribution system
• Residual= 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l
Double or multiple chlorination:
 It consists of pre-chlorination and post chlorination.
 Adopted when raw water is highly contaminated and contains large amount of bacterial life
Break point chlorination (free residual chlorination):
Break point chlorination gives an idea of chlorine to be added to water so as to ensure the desired amount of residual
chlorine
Super chlorination:
The application of chlorine to water beyond the stage of break point is known as super chlorination. It is most commonly
added at the end of filtration.
Adopted whenever there is breakout of water borne diseases
De-chlorination :
Process of removing excess chlorine by dechlorinating agents. This is to avoid chlorinous taste from water. Chemicals
used for de-chlorination are- sulphur dioxide, sodium thiosulphate, sodium bio sulphate, activated carbon, potassium
permanganate, ammonia

.
5) Demineralization:
• Salts are removed from water through the use of ion exchangers
6) Solar evaporation:
solar energy is utilizeed to convert saline water to fresh water

Q) Chlorine gas (8mg/l as C𝒍𝟐 ) was added to a drinking water sample. If the free chlorine residual
and pH was measured to be 2mg/l as C𝒍𝟐 and 7.5, respectively, what is the conc of residual 𝑶𝑪𝑳−
ions in the water? Assume that the chlorine gas added to the water is completely converted to
HOCl and 𝑶𝑪𝑳− . Atomic weight of Cl is 35.5
𝑯+ +𝑶𝑪𝑳− HOCL , k=𝟏𝟎𝟕.𝟓
[HOCL ]
Solution : =k
[𝐻 +][ 𝑂𝐶𝐿 −]
pH=7.5 => [𝐻 + ]= 10−7.5
[HOCL ]
−] = 107.5 *10−7.5 =1
[𝑂𝐶𝐿
[HOCL ]= [𝑂𝐶𝐿−]
Free residual chlorine= [HOCL ] + [𝑂𝐶𝐿−] =2mg/l
 2∗10−3 2∗10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Free chlorine residual= = = 2.817 ∗ 10−6
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙2 2∗35.5 𝑙
2.817 ∗ 10−6= [HOCL ] + [𝑂𝐶𝐿−]
−] 2.817∗10−6
[𝑂𝐶𝐿 = = 1.4084∗ 10−5 mole/l
2

Q) an effluent at a flow rate of 2670m3/day from a sewage treatment plant is to be disinfected. The laboratory data
of disinfection studies with a chlorine dosage of 15mg/l yield the model
𝑵𝒕 = 𝑵𝑶 ∗ 𝒆−𝟎.𝟏𝟒𝟓𝒕 where 𝑵𝒕 = no of micro organisms surviving at time t in min, and 𝑵𝑶 =no of micro organisms
present initially, t=[Link] the volume of disinfection unit in m3 required to achieve a 98% kill of micro organism.

Solution :
Q=2670 m3/day
let x be the no of micro organism present initially
98% kill of micro organism implies that at time t 2% of micro organism are still surviving
2𝑥
micro organism surviving at time t = 2% of x =
100
2𝑥
=x ∗ 𝑒 −0.145𝑡
100
t= 26.979 min=0.018736 day
volume = Q*t= 2670*0.018736= 50.0244 m3
A town having population of about 50000 is to be supplied water at the rate of 150lt per capita per day.
The disinfection of water is to be carried out with bleaching powder containing 30% active chlorine.
If the chlorine dose required for infection is 0.3ppm or 0.3mg/l, calculate the quantity of bleaching powder
per year.

Solution:
Total requirement of water=150*50000 l/d
chlorine dose required for disinfection=0.3mg/l
0.3∗7.5∗106 𝑘𝑔
quantity of chlorine required= = 2.25𝑘𝑔/𝑑
106 𝑑
Now the bleaching powder contains 30% of active chlorine. It means that 30kg of chlorine is available from
100kg of bleaching powder.
2.25∗100
Quantity of bleaching powder required= 𝑘𝑔/𝑑 = 7.5 kg/d
30
Requirement of bleaching powder per year=365*7.5 kg= 2737.5 kg =2750 kg
The quantity of chlorine used to treat 20000m3 of water per day is 8kg. The residual chlorine after
contact period of 10min is found to be 0.20mg/l. calculate the dosage in mg/l and chlorine demand of the
water.
Solution :
water treated per day=20000m3
= 20000*103 𝑙𝑖𝑡 = 20 ∗ 106 𝑙
Chlorine consumed per day=8kg= 8*106 𝑚𝑔
8∗106 𝑚𝑔
Chlorine used per lit of water= 6 = 0.40
20∗10 𝑙
The given chlorine dosage is therefore 0.40mg/l
now, residual chlorine left=0.20mg/l
Hence the actual chlorine dosage which has reacted in water i.e the chlorine demand of water is = 0.40-
0.20=0.20mg/l
Water distribution
• System of distribution:
Gravity system:
 Water is distributed by gravity only, to the consumers points. It is suitable for situations where the source of
water is located at a sufficiently higher level than town.
 This system is economical and reliable since no pumping is involved at any stage.
Direct pumping system:
 Treated water is directly pumped into the distribution pipes by means of high lift pumps without storing
anywhere
 Pumps should be capable of being operated at variable speeds to meet the maximum and minimum demand
and maintain sufficient residual pressures at various points of consumption.
 This system is not commonly preferred.
Combined system /dual system: (pumping with storage system or direct indirect system)
 In this system the treated water is pumped at constant rate into an elevated reservoir as well as directly into
distribution system
 Thus it is a combination of gravity system and direct pumping system.
 Most widely adopted system in water supply schemes
Layout of distribution system

• Dead end or tree system:

 A supply main starting from the service reservoir is laid along the main road. The submains are connected to
the main in both the directions along the other roads. Submains divide into several branch lines. Service
connections are taken from these branches to the individual houses
 Suitable for old towns and cities with irregular and unplanned development
• Grid iron system or reticulation or interlaced system:
 Mains, submains and branches are interconnected with each other. Main lines runs through the centre of the
area
 Suitable for well planned cities
• Circular or ring system:
 Main pipe is laid peripherally
 Laying of mains peripherally increases the pressure at farthest points
 Suitable for towns and cities having well planned roads
Radial system
• The area is divided into small distribution zones and in the center of each zone a distribution reservoir
is provided. Water from these reservoirs is supplied through radially laid distribution pipes running
towards the periphery of this zone
• Suitable for cities with radial roads
 Design of distribution system
• For head loss calculation, hazen Williams formula is more commonly used
• Head loss by hazen William formula:
𝟏𝟎.𝟔𝟖∗𝑳∗𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑪𝑯 𝟏.𝟖𝟓𝟐 ∗𝑫𝟒.𝟖𝟕
Where 𝐶𝐻 is roughness coefficient
Condition to be satisfied:
 The inflow into each junction must be equal to the flow out of the junction as per principle of continuity
 In each loop the loss of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal to the loss of head due to
flow in anticlockwise direction (i.e the algebraic sum of head loss in each closed loop must be zero)
Important methods for analysis of pipe network:
Equivalent pipe method:
For the purpose of analysis the entire network of pipes is considered to be split up into two portions such as
pipes in series and pipes in parallel
 Hardy-cross method
• it is a method of successive approximations which involves a trial and error process. Hardy cross method
may be carried out in the following two ways:
• Balancing heads by correcting assumed flows
• Balancing flows by correcting assumed heads