This book has been written and published to assist students enrolled in an approved JAA/EASA Private Pilot Licence

(PPL) course in preparation for the JAA/EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations. Nothing in the content of
this book Is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice relating to practlcai flying.

THESE MATERIALS ARE PROVIDED ·AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND. Students preparing for the JAN
EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not l9g8l'd this book as a substitute for the JAA/EASA PPL
(A) theoretical knowledge training syllabus pub1ished in the current edition of •JARIEASA FCL Flight Crew Licensing
(Aeroplanes)" (the Syllabus).
The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in a JAA/EASA PPL (A)
theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is entitled to enter himself/herself for, the
JAA/EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations without first being enrolled In a training school which has been
granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA/EASA PPL (A) training.

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 4 Sensors and Instruments

In contrast to the previously explained systems (and the sealed balloon), the pressure within the diaphragm capsule Is not
predetermined. It has a supply line that feeds the total pressure Into the capsule. Also, it is located in a casing that Is sup­
plied with the reference pressure for determining the differential pressure.

..,.5: Ope,aflngp,fnct,leota.,,,.,..,, �

This principle is used in aviation for the airspeed indicator. The differential pressure measured here is the dynamic pressure
that results from the oncoming airflow. The measured pressures are the total pressure and the static pressure, meaning - as
a reference - the ambient pressure of still air surrounding the aeroplane.
Also, the engine pressure ratio (EPA) is measured using diaphragm capsule sensors.

Bourdon Tube
Medium to high pressures can be determined with the so-called Bourdon tube.
This is a bronze tube with an oval shape, curved to form a three-quarter circle and sealed on one end. The pressure to be
measured is fed into the other end.
The operating principle Is the same as for a paper trumpet - found at children's parties - that uncoils when blown.
We already know pressure is defined as force per unit area:

F
p=­
A
This formula can be transposed to give force:

F=p*A
 Pressure Measurement 29

on October 10, 1997, an iced-up pitot probe caused the crash of Austral Lineas Aereas Flight 2553. The Indication error
led the pilot to believe his aeroplane was approaching stall. Setting of full thrust and deployment of flaps caused a struc­
tural failure.
To be able to face an occurring malfunction, a pilot has to know how to recognise it and how to react to It. The false indica­
tions from Individual instruments resulting from disturbanQ9S such as blockage or leakage of pressure lines are explained
in the corresponding chapters.

Alternate Static Source

The loss of static pressure lnfonnatlon has the most serious consequences as It affects all barometric flight Instruments.
If a failure is recognised In the primary system, the so-called alternate static source can be used as a substitute.
In small unpressurised aeroplanes the alternate static source can be obtained from Inside the cabin. It Is operated with a
iever, which is frequently located below the instrument panel In the pilot's foot well.
l!.--1

ffl""838: ,._,., opanftleal!Wnllfltmllc--

If no such alternate static source Is provided In an aeroplane, the static pressure lines can be connected to the cabin by
breaking the glass window of the vertical speed Indicator. However, the Information from the vertical speed indicator can­
not be used thereafter.
This would theoretically wor1( for any Instrument operating with static pressure; however, the vertical speed indicator Is the
one that can most easily be abandoned.
In any case, the aerodynamic suction (Venturi effect) causes the pressure within the cabin to be slightly lower than the out­
side static pressure. The resulting Indication differences of all baropietric instruments are explained In the corresponding
chapters.

Solid State Sensors

Besides the conventional pressure capsules, solid state sensors are becoming increasingly popular for barometric instru­
merrts. These sensors have already been explained in the chapter on pressure gauges.
The type of pressure sensor used does not affect the construction of the pitot/static system with Its measuring ports, nor
the false Indications resulting from blockages or leakages of a pressure line. During flight a pilot will not notice which kind
of pressure sensors are Installed In his aeroplane.
One advantage of solid state sensors is that their pressure Information Is relayed electrically. Therefore, the sensor does
not have to be Installed directly on the Instrument, which saves a large amount of ducting and, thus, weight - especially In
large aeroplanes.
 30 Measurement of Air Data Parameters

022 02 02 00
Temperature Measurement
The term outside air temperature (OAl) means the actual temperature of still air, as it is measured by a balloon and stated
In a weather report or forecast. It is sometimes also referred to as static air temperature (SAl).

022 02 02 02
Design, Operation, Errors and Accuracy
In small aeroplanes the temperature is often measured using so-called bimetallic strips that are integrated into the cockpit
window.
The big advantage of these thermometers is their simple design and low manufacturing costs. However, due to their purely
mechanical operating principle they have a rather large instrument error - up to 10%.
Their positioning on the upper side of the aeroplane can also lead to errors. If the aeroplane is parked in the sun, the metal­
lic sensor heats up from exposure to direct sunlight and indicates a higher than actual outside temperature.
When flying through cold, moist air, ice will accumulate on the front areas of the sensor, as on all leading edges. The indi­
cated temperature is then no longer the current air temperature, but an average from this and the temperature of the layer
of ice in contact with the sensor.
Instrument errors that inescapably result during construction are added to this. These errors are compensated for by in­
strument calibration.

022 02 02 03
Indications
As no transmission of the sensed data is possible, the indication is directly on the instrument on the inner side of the win­
dow.

I� 39: 1/ldatlon of• blmeta/1/c 18mpentture ..,,.or on Ille coclrplt window

022 02 05 00
Altimeter
The barometric altimeter is the most simple, but nevertheless very important air data Instrument. It provides information
about the "real time" flight altitude of the aeroplane.
50 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass

022 03 02 00
Magnetic Compass

022 03 02 01
Design, Operation, Data Processing, Accuracy and Deviations

'Types of Magnetic Compasses

The simplest form of the compass used for navigational purposes in aeroplanes is the direct reading compass. However, it
is only installed as an emergency in most aeroplanes.
It consists of a float wherein two magnetic steel needles are mounted parallel to each other. They align in the north-south
direction of the earth's magnetic field. The compass rose is attached to the outside of the float. This installation is placed In
a casing that is rigidly flXed to the aeroplane and filled with a liquid. The liquid reduces friction in the bearings and dampens
undesired compass oscillations. To ensure that the liquid will not freeze, alcohol or mineral oil is used. This fact gave the
magnetic compass the nickname of whiskey compass.
To keep the steel needles aligned horizontally even during turns, the compass rose has a centre of gravity significantly
below its suspension. This, however, also induces errors, which will be explained later.
The cardinal directions are represented on the compass rose by their Initials: N = North, E = East; S = South; W = West..
Numbers are given every 30 °, with the last zero of the digit being omitted; for example, 12 stands for 120°. Between these
numbers a 5° subdivision is plotted by dashes.
A vertical on the sight glass, the so-called lubber line, indicates the current heading.

Image 59: Direct reading compaa In an awoplaM

 58 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass

022 03 02 02
Turning and Acceleration Em>rs

Acceleration Em,r
If an aeroplane is accelerated or decelerated, an error to its compass indication results, unless it Is on a direct northerly or
southerly heading.
This so-called acceleration error is caused by the weight that Is attached to the needle to compensate for Inclination. To
put It simply, we can say that the end of the needle to which the weight Is attached has a greater Inertia than the other end.
The weighted end of the needle therefore lags behind when the aeroplane accelerates, or it hurries ahead when the aircraft
decelerates.
The following figuA! explains the effects of flying In an easterfy heading. In unaccelerated level flight the compass indicates
exactly 090°.
If the aircraft is accelerated, the south pole of the needle lags behind as It was ballasted with cornpensatlonal weight. Thus,
the angle between the app&19nt north direction and the curA!nt heading becomes smaller and a smaller (more northerly)
heading is Indicated.
On the other hand the ballasted south pole of the magnetic needle hurries ahead during deceleration. The angle between
the apparent north direction and the heading increases and a greater (more southerly) heading is Indicated.

The opposite occurs in a westerly heading. Again, the south pole of the compass needle lags behind and the angle be­
tween the apparent north direction (measured clockwise) becomes greater. The greater Indicated course Is more northerly.
Deceleration, and therefore hunylng ahead of the south pole of the needle, causes a smaller angle between the north direc­
tion and the Indicated heading, and theA!foA! a more southerly indication when flying on a westerly heading.
In summary, it can be said that acceleration causes an apparent turn to the north, while a deceleration suggests a tum to
the south.

ANDS - Accelerate North, Decelerate South

60 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass

If the tum toward north Is initiated from a westerly heading (right turn), the aeroplane's right wing Is low and the compass
needle Is deflected to the right. When reaching north the Indication is then 330° rather than N. So, if coming from 270" the
tum again has to be terminated before reaching the target heading.
When turning south from a westerly heading in a left tum, meaning with the left wing low, the north pole of the compass
needle is again deflected to the left. However, as the north pole points toward the pilot this time f'backwards'1, this deflec­
tion to the left causes a clockwise tum of the compass rose. Instead of S, It then indicates 150", which Is after reaching the
target heading of 180° when coming from 270".
62 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass

BaNANAS- Before North ANd After South

The manoeuvring error is maximum on northerly and southerly headings, whHe on easterly and westerly headings it is equal
to zero. The following figure shows the extent of the discrepancy.

2 0• o11ersteef
30 °

..
 Basic Principles of a Gyroscope 63

022 04 00 00
Gyroscopic Instruments

022 04 01 00
Basic Principles of a Gyroscope

022 04 01 01
Definitions and Design
A gyro (short for gyroscope) is a fast rotating object with its mass distributed evenly around the spin axis.
The properties of a gyroscope are proportional to its mass, the radius and rotational s peed. A gyroscope is all the more
stable the heavier it is, the further from the spin axis its mass is concentrated and the faster it rotates. However, as mass
and size are critical In an aeroplane, the gyroscopes have very high rotational speeds.

022 04 01 02
Basic Properties

Basics of Gyroscopic Forces

To generate the desired indications in an aeroplane two basic characteristics of a gyroscope are used - rigidity and preces­
sion.

Rigidity
A gyroscope tries to maintain the direction of its rotational axis in space. The resistance of a gyro against a change of its
axis orientation increases with increasing mass, radius and rotational speed.
A gyro does not resist a parallel shift of its axis within space, because that does not change its orientation in space.

•
64 Gyroscopic Instruments

Precession
A force acting vertically on an axis causes a turning moment. tf a disturbance force tries to alter the direction of a gyro spin
axis within space, the gyro evades this force in a direction vertical to its spin axis and vertical to the created turning mo­
ment. This evasion movement Is called precession.

.... 13: o,,,o.:,apic,,,..,...,,.

Gyro Degrees of Freedom

If the spin axis of a gyro is rigidly fixed It can only rotate about its axis. It is said to have no degrees of freedom.
Basic Principles of a Gyroscope 65

If, however, the spin axis is mounted in a frame that allows for the rotation of the axis, the gyro has one degree of freedom
of rotation (the axis can rotate in one plane). If the axis is turned, the gyro will precess, so it also has one degree of freedom
of precession. This is called a semi-gimbaled mounting. Such a gyro is used, for example, in a rate of tum indicator.

.,,. 75; SemH,lmbe#edlllr'O

If the frame is mounted within another frame that permits the rotation of the gyro axis in a second plane, the gyro has two
degrees of freedom of rotation, and therefore also two degrees of freedom of precession. Such a gimbaled gyro Is, for
example, used in the artificial horizon .

.,,. 1'8: 0/mbel«I tlY"O

 66 Gyroscopic Instruments

Note: Physically speaking, the rotation also of the gyro around Its spin axis Is one degree of freedom of rotation. Thus, any
kind of gyro has one additional degree of freedom of rotation. However, as this rotation around the spin axis does not de­
liver any exploitable Information In an aircraft, but only induces the rigidity and therefore precession, this degree of freedom
is not taken Into account.

022 04 01 03
Gyro Wander
Precession of a gyro without an obvious cause Is referred to as gyro wander. A distinction Is made between real wander
and apparent wander.

Real Wander
An undesired precession caused by a force acting on the gyro axis. This may, for example, be an Imbalance of the gyro
mass or friction In the bearings.

Apparent Wander
The gyro axis Is stable in space. However, the earth rotates around Its axis at approximately 15°/h. Therefore, a gyro seems
to move for an observer on the earth. Its movement Is differentiated between horizontal movement of the spin axis (drift)
and vertical movement (topple).

Drift
If the gyro spin axis is horizontal to the surface of the earth and vertical to the direction of earth's rotation, the axis of a gyro
placed at the equator is only shifted parallel and Its drift Is equal to zero.
In contrast, at the pole the apparent drift of a gyro with a horizontal spin axis Is 15°/h (360°/24h); namely, the value of the
earth's rotation rate.

� 77: Apt»rn cHtllttt. eq,morand at,,,.,,_

Generally, the app&l90t drift of a gyroscope with Its spin axis horizontal to the surface of the earth can be calculated as
follows:

Apparent drift .. 15•,'h x sin,

Where cp = geographic latitude

The directional gyroscope is subject to apparent drift.
 Basic Principles of a Gyroscope 67

Topple
A gyro that has a spin axis horizontal to the direction of the earth's rotation behaves differently.
At the pole It Is not affected as its spin axis always �Ins horizontal to the surface of the earth. The appanmt topple Is
equal to zero.
At the equator the gyro topples at 15°/h (360"/24 h), the earth's rotation rate. its spin axis Is horizontal to the surface of the
earth at one point of time and vertical at another.

A'TN1Qe 78: Apperr,nt topple at "'9 equn,rMd at "'9 po/II

Generally the apparent topple can be calculated as follows:

Apparent topple= 15°/h X cos IP

Where IP = geographic latitude

Apparent topple occurs with the artificial horizon.

..
 68 Gyroscopic Instruments

Earth Transport Precession

Apparent wander also occurs due to relocation of a gyroscope. If, for example, the spin axis Is horizontal at the equator,
It will be vertical after a flight to the pole. The orienta\ie>n of the gyro spin axis has remained the same, but the reference
system - Earth - has changed. To an observer on the earth's surface, the gyro axis appears to have toppled by 90° .
The magnitude of apparent wander does not only depend on the latitude at which the aeroplane Is located, but also on its
ground speed (GS).

tn,. 19: 'Jlanlpo,t_,..on• flr,htll'onl Ille eqcmorm Ille,,_

022 04 02 00
Tum and Bank Indicator
In small powered aeroplanes, turns are normally flown as coordinated rate-one turns (also: standard-rate turns). During
such a standard-rate turn an aircraft requires 2 minutes for a full circle, meaning it turns by 3° per second. The bank at­
titude IS such that the apparent vertical is parallel to the aeroplane's vertical axis, so the pilot is accelerated In the same
direction as In level flight (the force acting down into the seat Is obviously greater).
Especially during flights without visual reference, the turn and bank indicators are used to fly standard-rate turns. There are
two separate Instruments: the tum indicator displaying the rate of tum and the bank Indicator giving the direction of the
apparent vertical.
 Turn and Bank Indicator 69

022 04 02 01
Design, Operation and Errors

Classic Turn and Bank Indicator

Turn Indicator
The tum indicator is a rate gyro (gyro with one degree of freedom of rotation and one of precession), which is tied by a
spring as described above. Its spin axis is horizontal and parallel to the aeroplane's lateral axis. The frame Is mounted
such that it can rotate about the aeroplane's longitudinal axis. Therefore, the gyro can sense rotation about the vertical axis
(yaw).

Image 80: 71m Indicator gyro

The tum indicator displays the rotational speed around the vertical axis (yaw), which is the rate of change of direction. It
can indicate the rotational speed even for very low angles of bank.
The indication of a conventional tum indicator Is a vertical needle. The Instrument is calibrated so that the needle hits the
left or right marking in a standard tum (3°/s). "

/mllfl98f: 7imlndl,;att;irona c«nbltted�

 72 Gyroscopic Instruments

If the bank angle Is too high the apparent vertical will point further downwards, meaning to the inside of the tum. The ball
will then also travel to the inside of the tum (downwards, following the gravitational pulO. Such a manoeuvre is referred to
as a slipping turn.

m,.115: Rll/hf unw/fti �ben/r

To achieve a coordinated tum while maintaining the current bank the rudder is used If the bail Is displaced. This alters the
radius of the tum and, therefore, the magnitude of the centrifugal force.
In a skidding tum (ball on the outside) the outer rudder pedal Is pushed. The tum radius becomes wider, the rate of turn
decreases and the bank angle that was previously insufficient Is now correct.
In a slipping turn (ball on the inside), on the other hand, the inner rudder pedal Is pushed. The tum radius becomes tighter,
the rate of turn increases and the fonnerfy excessive bank angle is then correct.
Remember:

Kick the ball.

caution: As the rate of tum is not 3°/s, the aeroplane Is no longer flying a standard-rate turn. To maintain the rate of tum the
bank angle has to be varied for coordination.
Obviously the bank angle will always be low for an aeroplane taxiing on the ground, so the ball will be displaced toward the
outside of the tum.

Tum Coordinator ..
In today's powered aeroplanes the so-called tum coordinator has all but won over the tum and bank indicators. Just like
Its predecessor, the tum coordinator can Indicate the rate of tum and the apparent vertical in a tum. The bank Indicator for
the apparent vertical ls Identical in both instruments.
Instead of the vertical needle of the tum indicator the tum coordinator features a horizontal aeroplane symbol. In level flight
the wings of the symbol point to the appropriate markings. In a tum with a rate of 3°/s the inner wing points to the marking
below the horizontal.
 Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon)

.,,. 116: '11,m cootdfnefW In /wet fight

In contrast to the tum and bank indicators, the gyroscope of a tum coordinator Is not parallel to the aeroplane's lateral
axis, but is incllned by 30°. Therefore, It does not only Indicate yaw but also roll. The roll rate is added to the yaw rate with
a certain factor.
Due to the additional roll indication the tum coordinator can announce the beginning of a tum much more sensitively than
the older tum and bank indicators as a tum Is first Initiated by a roll movement.
The turn coordinator Is not suitable for gliders and helicopters, so these have a classic tum and bank indicator.

022 04 03 00
Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon)
Without visual reference a pilot is unable to determine his spatial orientation. Hence, every aeroplane has an attitude In­
dicator as a replacement for the natural horizon, which Is used to determine aeroplane orientation during a visual flight.
Therefore, the attitude Indicator is also referred to as the artificial horizon.

022 04 03 01
Design, Operation, Errors and Accuracy

...
Mounting and Erection
The attitude indicator consists of a gimbaled gyro (mounted In two frames), so it has two degrees of freedom of rotation
and two degrees of freedom of precession. Its spin axis Is vertical to the surface of the earth. The gyro is electrically or
pneumatically driven.
A pneumatic gyro drive has the advantage of making the gyroscope Independent from the electrical system. As long as the
aeroplane engine Is running, a vacuum is created In the Instrument casing that drives the gyroscope. However, at higher al­
titudes the lower environmental pressure and subsequent decreased pressure difference affect the lower rotational speeds
of the gyroscope and, therefore, make It less stable, which can affect the indication.
 74 Gyroscopic Instruments

-
-
Image 17: � •ttllude lndfcator
I
To prevent apparent topple from the earth's rotation or relocation of the aeroplane, the attitude indicator has an erection
system that uses Earth's gravity to keep the gyro axis in the local vertical. However, the gravity erection also causes Indica­
tion errors, which will be discussed later.

Attitude Indicator Information

A gimbaled gyro maintains Its orientation within space independently of the aeroplane's movements. The aeroplane can be
said to tum around the gyroscope. The Instrument maintains reference to the horizon whlle the aeroplane pitches or banks.
The indication of the artlficlal horizon Is consistent with the picture a pllot would see if he looked out of the cockpit window
in good visibility. The representation of the environment Is plotted on a rotational and slide-able disk whose movements are
guided by infonnation from the rigid gyro via a gearing mechanism.
In level flight a white line runs horizontany through the display. It represents the true horizon line. Above that the sky is il­
lustrated by a blue colour and the ground below is coloured black or brown.
Horizontal lines in the "sky" and wground" that resemble a tape measure are used to indicate the aeroplane's piteh attitude;
radial lines around the "sky" indicate Its bank angle.
...
An aeroplane symbol is rigidly fixed to the instrument casing and a similar reference marking for bank angles Is placed In
front of the environment disk. In this way they Indicate the rolling and pitching movements of the aeroplane. In the figure
below the aeroplane has a bank attitude of 1 O" to the right and a 1 O" nose-down plteh.
The position of the aeroplane symbol can be varied using a rotary knob below the display so that the aeroplane symbol is
really located on the horizon line at O" of pitch, Independent of the pilot's fr'je level.
Another knob (labelled "pull to cage") allows for a fast erection of the artlflcial horizon after engine startup or during flight.
This Is for the event that the gimbals get stuck in a congruent position and do not permit an indication.
 Transmission: VHF. HF and SATCOM 79

022 10 00 00
Communication Systems

02210 01 00
Transmission: VHF, HF and SATCOM

022 10 01 01
Principle, Bandwidth, Operational Umftations, Use
Commoolcation between an aircraft and a ground station can be conducted In three different ways: very high frequency,
high frequency and satellite communication.

Very High Frequency (VHF)

The VHF frequency range extends from 30MHz to 300MHz. In aviation the frequency band between 108.0MHz and
117.95 MHz Is used for navigational purposes, and from 117 .975 MHz to 137 .0MHz is reserved for voice communication.
VHF waves are not reflected by the Ionosphere, which means that signals from different far apart stations operating on the
same frequency do not Interfere with one another. T hus, VHF communication provides v«y high quality signals and Is used
for voice communication whenever possible. it also has a high data transmission speed.
However, the range of VHF corrmunlcation is restricted. To be able to receive a VHF transmission no obstacles can be
located between the transmitter and receiver. In addition, VHF waves do not follow the curvature of the earth; hence, they
can only be received at higher altitudes at some distance from the transmitter.

�� VHFwai,epropfl(1ll#OII

The range of VHF communication can be calculated from the respective altitudes of the transmitter
. and receiver using the
��be�
-------
.J
Range[NM] = 1. 23 • (.Jstation Elevation[ft]+ Aircraft Altitude[ft] )
 80 Communication Systems

Satellite Communication (SATCOM)

So-called geostationary satellites are used for satellite communication. Such satellites are placed in an orbit above the
equator and move along their orbit at the angular speed of the earth, which is 360° in 24 hours (4.17·3 0/s). When viewed
from the earth the satellite appears to be standing at a' defined point over the equator.
A satellite communication transmission is first sent to a satellite by the transmitter, which then sends it back to the earth
without modification. Although satellite communication can also only travel in a straight line, on each segment it can be
conducted over larger distances than VHF communication. An obstacle between transmitter and receiver does not prevent
a connection from being established, as long as both have "visual contact" with the satellite.

Image 93: SAn:ot.f 11>09ptlon

Just like VHF communication, SATCOM provides a high quality signal. Its data transmission speed, however, is even high­
er. Admittedly the waves are fractioned at the ionospheric layers, but this only causes problems when satellite navigation is
performed using a GPS. It hardly has an effect on communication.
A geostationary satellite can only be positioned in an orbit over the equator. The further away the transmitter or receiver
moves from the equator, the lower the satellite appears to be above the horizon. Although it is in a rather high orbit, it dis­
appears below the horizon line in polar areas. Satellite communication networkS do not cover the extreme polar regions.

High Frequency (HF}

The HF frequency band ranges from 3 MHz to 30 MHz. HF waves have a different way of propagation than the quasi­
optical propagation known so far. They follow the curvature of the earth and are referred to as ground waves. In contrast to
VHF, HF waves are reflected by the ionosphere and are then termed air waves. This reflection causes interference between
ground and air waves at some distance from the transmitter. This deteriorates the Intelligibility of voice communication.
Signal quality depends on, amongst others:
• time of day at the point of transmission and reception (twilight effect due to change of ionospheric height)
• time of the year
• solar activity and polar lights
However, compared to VHF communication, the existence of ground and air waves has the advantage that, given favour­
able atmospheric conditions, almost worldwide reception is possible with comparatively lov,, transmission power. At low
altitudes it Is also advantageous that no "line of sight" contact to the transmitter Is required for reception and they are
therefore not blocked by terrain features.
 Voice Communication 81

Owing to the lower quality and longer data transmission time, HF communication is only used wh81'8 neither VHF nor satel­
lite coverage exist; for instance, when flying along a polar route.

022 10 02 00
Voice Communication
The procedures and regulations in conjunction with voice communication are covered in detail in the book Air Law and
Communications. This is only meant to be a brief recapitulation.

022 10 02 01
Definitions, General, Application

Process of Voice Communication ...

Voice communication Is normally conducted in the form of two-way communication. In this mode all stations on a fre­
quency receive while one station is sending. A reply is only possible after the transmission.
Radio communication uses phraseology predefined by the ICAO. This enables communication without misunderstandings,
facilitates less than optimum connections and communication with people speaking a strong dialect.

� of Messages
Toe aeronautical mobile service allows different types of messages. They are sent and replied to in a descending order of
priority.
1. Emergency messages
2. Urgency messages
3. Bearing messages
4. Nr safety messages
5. Meteorological messages
6. Flight operations messages
 82 Communication Systems

7. Governmental telegraphs

Emergency Messages
This type of message concerns the aeroplane or its passengers. It is transmitted In the case of immediate danger where
prompt assistance is required. Examples of these messages would be the development of smoke in the cockpit or a heart
attack.

Urgency Messages
These messages are sent if no immediate danger exists for the own welfare, but for the safety of another aircraft, water­
craft, vehicle or person.

Bearing Messages
They serve to communicate bearings, for example a QOM.

Air Safety Messages

These make up the majority of messages sent in radio communication and include:
• Air traffic control messages such as take-off clearances
• Aircraft position reports
• Messages from pilots or aircraft owners of immediate importance to aircraft in flight

Meteorological Messages
Such messages include meteorological data; for example, current airport weather.

Flight Operations Messages

These concern:
• Changes to the operational flight plans of aeroplanes
• Aircraft maintenance
• Instructions to representatives of the aeroplane owner regarding changes to the requirements for passengers and
crew caused by inevitable deviations from operational flight plans
• Unscheduled landings
• Urgently needed aeroplane parts and material ...
• Operation and maintenance of facilities Important to the safety or regularity of aeroplane operations

Governmental Telegraphs
These are messages transmitted on behalf of heads of state or persons equivalent to those on board an aeroplane.
Flight operation messages and governmental telegraphs are transmitted via the frequencies of the flight information ser­
vice or other frequencies assigned by air traffic control in order not to interfere with the conduct of air traffic control. Special
OPS or handling frequencies are available for this to the general aviation and to airlines.

Radio Check
A cheek of the radio equipment or readability of messages can be conducted if necessary. The quality of reception is as­
sessed according to the following codes:
1 = Unreadable
2 = Readable now and then
3 = Readable, but with difficulty
Voice Communication 83

4 = Readable
5 = Perfectly readable

...
84 Proximity and Alerting Systems

022 12 00 00
Proximity and Alerting Systems
Modern aeroplanes have several alerting systems tha� inform the pilot of deviations from the normal operating conditions.

022 12 02 00
Flight Warning System

022 12 02 01
Design, Operation, Indications and Alarms

General
Alarms in aeroplanes are given in different ways.
• Optical alarms are given by llghts, colour-coded to different stages of importance, or by warning flags in instru­
ments.
• Aural alarms occur in the form of warning tones dedicated to certain failures or events, but also as spoken warn­
ings from the cockpit loudspeakers.

Battery Condition

Design
The instrument panel of many small aircrafts has an ammeter that indicates current flow from the alternator to the battery
or from the battery to the electrical system.

"
86 Proximity and Alerting Systems

Gear Warning
Most aeroplanes with retractable landing gear have a warning to alert the pilot of unusual configurations. This helps to
prevent a landing with retracted or incorrectly extended gear.

Design
The design of such a system has already been explained in the chapter on position transmmers. Position sensors on the
landing gear notice a safely locked state In the extended or retracted position.

Alarm
If the power is reduced below a defined value or the flaps are extended to a given position without the landing gear being
safely locked down, a special warning signal Is sounded that Is only used for this situation.

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022 12 03 00
Stall Warning

If the aeroplane Is approaching a stall, the pilot is infonned by the stall warning •

...
 90 Proximity and Alerting Systems

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Electric stall warning devices on small aeroplanes are supplied with 28 V DC.

022 12 08 00
"
Radio Altimeter
A radio altimeter is used to determine the vertical distance of the lowest part of the aeroplane (meaning the main gear) from
the ground. In contrast to a barometric altimeter set to QFE, It always Indicates the aeroplane's true height and is therefore
used for precision approaches from CAT II upwards.

022 12 08 01
Design, Operation, Errors and Accuracy, Indications

Design
The radio altimeter consists of a transmitter/receiver unit and separate transmission and reception antennas. Its height
Information Is directly displayed In the cockpit and processed In the background by different aeroplane systems If Installed.
 92 Proximity and Alerting Systems

Accuracy and Indication Range

Using this technique a time Interval of 0.1 nanosecond can be measured, which corresponds to a distance of three centi­
metres.
The radio altimeter indicates the aeroplane's height from 2,500ft to zero feet above ground.

Error and Correction

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a
cation of r dio height these times have to be taken into account. As the cable length is known and Invariable, the time is
a
constant and can simply be subtracted from the measured running tlme of the signal before It is converted Into a distance.

Radio Height Indication

In an aeroplane with conventlonal Instrumentation the radio altimeter has Its own Indicator from zero feet to 2,500ft. At
heights greater than 2,500ft the pointer disappears from view. To Improve readability at low altitudes, the scal e Increase is
below 500ft.
T he radio altimeter has a rotary knob to move a marking on the Indication to the decision height for a category II or Ill a p­
proach. When passing through this height a yellow lamp Illuminates.
94 Integrated Instruments and Electronic Displays

022 13 00 00
Integrated Instruments and Electronic Displays

022 13 01 00
Indication Devices

022 13 01 01
Design and Limitations

Cathode Ray Tubes

The first electronic display units used in aircraft were so-called cathode ray tubes (CRTs).
They consist of an evacuated glass tube that contains three electron sources, one each for the three primary colours of
blue, green and red. Each of these electron sources continuously emit a ray of electrons that hit the Inner side of the screen
and stimulate Its assigned phosphor there. The electron ray is electromagnetically directed and hits all picture elements
("pixels") in sequence. A mask prevents electrons from hitting the wrong phosphor. Depending on the magnitude to which
each phosphor is stimulated, the desired colours are created by mixing of the primary colours.
The total picture Is constructed row after row by guiding the electron ray over the Inside of the screen so that it stimulates
the phoSphors of the individual pixels one after the other.

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CRTs provide high resolution and excellent colour quality. However, they are heavy, have a high installation depth and
electric consumption, and emit a high amount of heat during operation. Addltlonally, an Image can become burned onto
the screen.
 Indication Devices 95

Liquid Crystal Displays

CRT screens are being increasingly replaced by so-called liquid crystal displays (LCD).
Such screens are composed of a number of segments, each of which includes a layer of liquid crystal. Those liquid crystals
have the property of influencing the polarisation directio111 of light when exposed to electrical voltage.
LCD monitors In aeroplanes consist of segments that are not permeable to fight and thus appeN black in the absence of
an electrical voltage, which is referred to as the "normally black mode". The construction of such a cell Is illustrated below.
The liquid crystal within the cell is located between two glass slabs that each have a transparent electrode layer applied to
their inner sides. This Is, for example, materialised using Indium stannous oxide.
The molecules within the liquid crystal align in a predetermined direction, namely the direction in which the polyimide coat­
ing of the electrode has been brushed, the so-called preferred direction. The coatings of both electrodes have preferred
directions twisted against each other by 90". The orientation of the molecules within the crystal therefore also slowly
changes by 90" over Its thickness.
A lighting unit on the ,.underside" of the screen creates coloured light, which Is linearly polarised by a polarisation filter.
The polarisation direction of the light follows the crystal structure within the liquid aystal, meaning it is turned by 90".
A second polarisation filter behind the crystal Is oriented parallel to the first, which means It again only lets light with this
polarisation direction pass. It Is not permeable to the light whose polarisation direction has been changed by 90" within the
crystal, the segment appears black (normally black).
If an electrical voltage Is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules increasingly orient In the electromagnetic
field with increasing voltage; their twist Is more and more removed. Also, the polarisation direction of the light Is no longer
turned and It becomes able to pass the second polarisation filter. The segment appears colour&d and becomes brighter
with increasing voltage.

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Like a CRT diSplay, an LCD colour display In an aeroplane also consists of a grid of picture elements ("pixels"). Every in­
divlclual pixel is composed of three LCD cells, the so-called subplxels, one each for the three basic colours of blue, green
and red. The colour perceived by the observer develops by mixing these three colours.

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The weight and Installation depth of an LCD monitor Is a lot more favourable than that of a CRT of the same size. Its electric
consumption is also lower.
 96 Integrated Instruments and Electronic Displays

Electronic Indication Systems

Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI}

The mechanical ADI as explained above Is reproduced on a colour screen in glass-cockpit aeroplanes and called electronic
attitude director indicator (EADO. Just like its mechanical predecessor, It consists of the artificial horizon with the eddltlonal
flight director Indications and the localizer and glide slope deviations, as well as the decision altitude.
Above the artificial horizon active modes, according to which the flight director indicates or the autopilot steers, are an­
nounced in green.
Below the display a Nreal" slip Indicator is often instaUed for turn coordination.

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Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) ....

The mechanical HSI is replaced by the colour electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI) on a screen in a glass cockpit
aeroplane. Like Its mechanical predecessor, It is comprised of a gyrocompass with a heading bug, as well as the course
selector and course deviation Indicator.
98

..
Keyword Index 99

Keyword Keyword
A Gyroscopic force 63
Absolute pressure 1 Gyroscopic instruments 63
Acceleration error 58, 76
H
Air density 24
Airspeed display 46 High frequency 80
Airspeed indication errors 45 Hysteresis error 35
Airspeed Indicator 42
Alternate static source 29
Altimeter 33 International Standard Atmosphere 31
Altimeter indication errors 34
Altimeter Indications 36 L
Altimeter standard setting 32 Latitude compensation 52
Aneroid capsule 2 Liquid crystal display 95
Artificial horizon 73
Attitude Indicator 73 M
Magnetic compass 50
B Manoeuvering error 75
Baffle plate method 14 Mechanical tachometer 19
Bank indicator 71 Mechanical torque measurement 17
Bellow capsule 2
Bimetallic strip 9 p
Bourdon tube 4 Pitot probe 26
PitoVstatic probe 28
C PitoVstatic system 28
Cathode ray tube 94 PltoVstatic system error 34
Communication systems 79 PitoVstatlc system failure 28
Pneumatic stall warning 87
D Precession 64
Density error 44 Pressure measurement 1, 24
Deviation 56
Q
Diaphragm capsule 3
Differential pressure 1 QFE 31
Direct reading compass 50 QNH 31
Directional gyroscope 76
Display of vertical speed 40 R
Drift 77 Radio altimeter 90
Dynamic pressure 24 Radio check 82
Remote indicating system 7
E Resistance thermometer 9
Earth transport precession 68 Rigidity 63
Earth's magnetic field 48
Electric stall warning 89 .. s
Electric tachOmeter 21 Satellite communication 80
Bectronlc attitude director indicator 96 Solid state sensor 6
Electronic horizontal situation Indicator 96 Stall warning 86
Electronic Indication systems 96 Static port 25
Electronic tachometer 22 Static pressure 24
Electronic torque measurement 18
T
F Temperature 7
Flap setting indication 15 Temperature error 34
Flight warning system 84 Temperature measurement 30
Fuel flow meters 13 Thermocouple 1O
Fuel gauge 11 Topple 67
Torque 16
G Total fuel used indication 14
Gear indication 16 True altitude 33
Gear warning 86 Turn and bank indicator 68
Glnibal error 78 Turn coordinator 72
Gyro degrees of freedom 64 Turn indicator 69
Gyro wander 66 Turning error 59
100 Keyword Index

Keyword Keyword
Types of messages 81

V
Variation 54
Venturi method 13
Vertical card type compass 51
Vertical speed Indicator 37
Very high frequency 79
Voice communication 81
VSI Indication errors 39